All books in the "Military Affairs" series. All books in the series "Military Affairs" Military Affairs in Rus'

Last big war between the Moscow State and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (1654-1667), which became the most stubborn and difficult in the entire history of their conflicts in the 16th-17th centuries, began with the “Sovereign's Campaign” to Smolensk. The main goal military operations at the initial stage of the war was the return of this strategically important city, lost by Russia during the Time of Troubles. The capture of Smolensk was facilitated by the decisive victory of the Russian army in the Battle of Shepelevichi on August 14 (24), 1654 over the Lithuanian army of Hetman J. Radziwill. The "Sovereign's Campaign" ended with the triumphant success of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich and his reformed army. The return of Smolensk made it possible not only to expand the state’s possessions, but to radically resolve the issue of strengthening the security of the entire western border Russia. A new book I.B. Babulina represents the most detailed and thorough description and analysis of not only the Battle of Shepelevichi, but also the entire campaign of 1654, which was victorious for Russia. The author has studied and taken into account the achievements of both domestic and foreign historiography, primarily Polish, which greatly contributed to the success of the study and a more objective view of the events of this war. In this work, the author draws on the most representative range of sources, many of which have not been published, and some have not yet been introduced into scientific circulation.

Chapala M. M. 2018

“The three company regiments should be established as completely regular ones...” To the history of the 9th Hussars Kyiv Regiment

The 9th Kiev Hussar General Field Marshal Prince Nikolai Repnin's regiment traced its ancestry to the Little Russian 1st Companion Hunting Regiment. For almost a hundred years of its existence, it was a mercenary army, located “at the side” of the hetman and supported by the military treasury. At the end of 1775, a decision was made to transfer the three company regiments that existed by that time in Little Russia to “regular service,” i.e. on their inclusion in the Russian Imperial Army. Based on the rich archival material stored in the Central State Historical Archive of Ukraine (Kiev), the book describes in detail the issues of the structure of hunting regiments, their salaries and other contents, and traces the succession of companionable colonels in 1715-1775 gg. The text analyzes in detail the reform itself, as well as the subsequent reorganization of the former company regiments into carabinieri regiments that followed in 1785, because analysis of these two events proves that the Kiev hussars existed continuously from 1706 to 1918. This work may be useful to future historiographers of the 2nd Life Dragoon Pskov, 6th Dragoon Glukhov and 17th Hussar Chernigov regiments, which, as and Kievites, in 1914 had the seniority of the Okhochekomon regiments.

Velikanov Vladimir 2018

Russian auxiliary corps in Polish-Saxon service in 1704-1707. and the Battle of Fraustadt

Military affairs, weapons, intelligence services

The book is dedicated to one of the most famous, but at the same time, little-studied pages of the Great Northern War 1700-1721 - the fate of the Russian auxiliary corps in the Polish-Saxon service in 1704-1707. and his participation in the unsuccessful battle of Fraustadt on February 13, 1706. The introduction of new archival materials into scientific circulation, as well as the use of foreign sources, made it possible to restore the size and composition of the corps, trace its military path, and also understand the fate of Russian soldiers and officers who fell into captivity near Fraustadt. The book is intended for everyone interested in the history of the Great Northern War of 1700-1721. And military history Fatherland.

Morokhin Alexey , Kuznetsov Andrey Andreevich 2017

Kuzma Minin. Man and hero in history and mythology

Story , Biographies and memoirs

The book reconstructs the most important events related to the activities of Kuzma Minin, one of the organizers of the Nizhny Novgorod militia of 1611-1612. Since the Time of Troubles in Russian history and culture, in public consciousness and historical science formed the image of the great Nizhny Novgorod, which absorbed many legends and myths generated by the most diverse currents of human thought and emotions. The authors faced the difficult task of separating the chaff of inventions and errors from the meager grains of reliable facts. Researchers have carefully collected and analyzed all the sources and reliable facts known to historical science today about the life and work of Kuzma Minin. The resulting historical portrait is inscribed in the panorama of the historical era of the Time of Troubles in the Nizhny Novgorod region and throughout Russia - in proportion to the scale of the feat of this Nizhny Novgorod townsman.

Lobin Alexander 2017

Defense of Opochka 1517 "Demon Village" against the army of Konstantin Ostrozhsky

Story , Military affairs, weapons, intelligence services

The book is devoted to the study of one of the little-known events of the Smolensk War of 1512-1522. - defense of Opochka against the army of Prince K.I. Ostrozhsky. The small fortress, contemptuously called a “pork trough” by the enemy, stopped the advance of the entire Polish-Lithuanian army. Due to large losses under the walls of the town, King Sigismund the Old called Opochka a “demon village.” The book is addressed to teachers, students of higher and secondary educational institutions and everyone interested in military history and the history of the Fatherland.

Volodikhin Dmitry Mikhailovich 2017

Prince Alexander Vladimirovich of Rostov, voivode of Ivan the Great

Military affairs, weapons, intelligence services , Biographies and memoirs

The voivodeship corps of the Moscow state of the 15th-17th centuries is one of the most unstudied topics in a wide range of different scientific directions dealing with the socio-political history of Russia at that time. There are no special works dedicated to even the greatest commanders. This book is dedicated to the service biography of Prince Alexander Vladimirovich of Rostov, one of the famous governors of the times of Ivan III and Vasily III, is designed to eliminate one of the blank spots on the map of knowledge on Russian military history.

Egorov Vitaly 2016

Holstein troops and the palace coup of 1762

Military affairs, weapons, intelligence services , Story , Jurisprudence

The coup of June 28, 1762, which brought Catherine II to power, is considered one of the landmark events in the history of Russia in the 18th century. They look at him, as a rule, from the “Catherine” side, and this view is often superficial and devoid of objectivity. Who would have thought that at the very time when the guard was rebelling in St. Petersburg, and in Oranienbaum Peter III was losing his last will to resist, ships with people, horses, and weapons were heading from Kiel to Kronstadt. The chronicle of events shows that the help was literally a day or two late... Grand Duke Peter Fedorovich had troops inherited from his father, Duke of Holstein Karl Friedrich. In the 1750s, Peter tried to increase their numbers, and new Holstein units were no longer formed in Holstein, but in Russia. The place of permanent residence of the "Russian" Holsteins became Oranienbaum - the favorite residence of the Grand Duke's court. In 1762, with Peter's rise to real power, the Holstein Corps began the process of transforming from a mini-army of the German duchy into a full-fledged unit of the armed forces Russian Empire. About the Holstein troops, their generals, officers, soldiers, and last period The service of the Holstein Corps in Russia is described in this essay.

Krugov A.I. , 2016

Armed forces of the Imamate of the North Caucasus mountaineers 1829-1859.

Military affairs, weapons, intelligence services , Story

The book describes the armed forces of the Imamate of the North Caucasus mountaineers (1829-1859). Based on a significant array of sources, the authors examine both the traditional and transformed military institutions of the Imamate, show how the troops were led, what the imam’s guard was, mercenary units, whether the imams achieved success in military reforms, the role of deserters and prisoners Russian army, what awards and symbols there were in the armies of the Imamate. The book is addressed to a wide readership: teachers and university students, as well as everyone interested in the military history of the Caucasus.

Kuts O. Yu. 2016

Azov siege of 1641

Story , Military affairs, weapons, intelligence services

In this work, based on a cross-comparison of the testimony of little-known archival sources, the course of the famous Azov siege of 1641 is meticulously recreated. The “Capture of Azov” of 1637, the situation in Azov until the arrival of Turkish-Tatar forces under this city with the aim of its siege are also examined in detail , shows the consequences of the largely fatal decision for the Don Cossacks to stay in Azov and defend this city from the “Busurmans”. The book is intended for everyone interested in the past of both Russia and the Don Cossacks.

Velikanov Vsevolod , Mekhnev S. L. 2016

Courland operation of 1705-1706 and the battle of Gemauerthof

Story , Military affairs, weapons, intelligence services

The book is dedicated to little-known pages of the Great Northern War of 1700-1721. in the Baltic states, associated with the struggle of Russia, Sweden and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth for control of the Duchy of Courland. The key episode of these events was the Courland operation of the Russian army in 1705-1706. Initially, its goal was to destroy the Swedish army of General A. Levengaupt and ensure the security of the right flank of the Russian army, which in the summer of 1705 passed through Lithuania to the Polish border. But the battle of Mur-muse or Gemauerthof on July 26, 1705 ended unsuccessfully for the troops of B.P. Sheremetev, and already in August Russian troops under the command of Tsar Peter I himself again invaded the territory of Courland. The so-called “Second Courland Campaign” ended with the complete conquest of the duchy and the establishment of a Russian administration in it. Unfortunately, Russian control over Courland did not last long, and already in April 1706, Russian troops left the duchy, only to return there again in the fall of 1709 after the Poltava victory. The book is intended for everyone interested in the history of the Great Northern War of 1700-1721. and the military history of the Fatherland.

Nikitin Dmitry , Nikitin N. I. 2016

Conquest of Siberia. Wars and campaigns of the late XVI - early XVIII centuries

Story , Military affairs, weapons, intelligence services , Biographies and memoirs

The book is dedicated to the history of the annexation of Siberian lands to Russia. Unlike most works published in the last century, this book focuses primarily on the military component - the inclusion of North Asia in the Russian state. The reader will see a gallery of images of outstanding military leaders and brave pioneers who, through hard military labor, pushed and defended the eastern borders of our Fatherland and earned the grateful memory of their descendants.

Vasiliev Alexander Alexandrovich 2016

Cavalry Charges of the Great War. Battle of Yaroslavitsa August 8 (21), 1914

Story , Military affairs, weapons, intelligence services

The Battle of Yaroslavitsa became the largest clash of equestrian masses during the Great (First World) War. On the fields of Eastern Galicia, shortly after the outbreak of hostilities, a battle took place between the 10th Russian and 4th Austrian cavalry divisions. Having won a tactical victory in this oncoming battle, brought to a real cavalry clash, capturing prisoners and trophies, the Russian cavalry was filled with a sense of superiority over the cavalry of the Austro-Hungarian army and retained it throughout the war. The book is detailed analysis events of the battle, description and characteristics of the opposing troops, data on their numbers, composition and command.

Zorin Alexander 2016

Battle of Sitka. An episode from the history of Russian America. 1802-1804

Story

Events of 1802-1804 were of decisive importance for the history of Russian colonies in North America. The Russian pioneers had to face decisive resistance from the warlike and well-armed Tlingit Indians, who stubbornly defended their trade and fishing interests. At the epicenter of this struggle were the strongholds of the Russian-American Company (RAC) in the very heart of the Tlingit country - on the island. Sitka (now Baranova Island). In addition to the Indians and RAC employees, the battle involved English and American maritime traders, as well as participants in the first Russian circumnavigation - the sailors of the ship "Neva" under the command of Yu.F. Lisyansky. In the summer of 1802, the combined forces of the Tlingit destroy the Russian fortress of St. Michael the Archangel, exterminate the Sitka fishing party, and block the path of further advancement of Russian colonization. In 1804, RAC forces under the leadership of A.A. Baranov struck back and regained control over Sitka and the adjacent waters of the Alexander Archipelago Straits. Later, through skillful diplomacy, the parties managed to smooth out mutual contradictions and develop rules for peaceful coexistence. Involving Russian and English written sources in the research in combination with oral Indian legends makes it possible to identify the causes of the conflict, restore the course of hostilities in as much detail as possible, and trace the fates of individual participants in these turbulent events.

Krugov A.I. , 2016

The Persian army in the wars with Russia. 1796 - 1828

Military affairs, weapons, intelligence services

The book provides a description of the armed forces of one of Russia's main geopolitical opponents in the Caucasus - Persia (Iran) at the end of the 18th - first third of the 19th centuries. Based on archival and published sources, the authors examine both the traditional military institutions of Iran (the Shah's guard, tribal cavalry, foot militia and camel artillery) and the initial stage of military reforms based on Western European models (the structure of the regular army - infantry, cavalry and artillery). Issues such as the size and leadership of the army, the provision of weapons, uniforms and food, quartering and tactics of the Persian troops are studied. Particular attention is paid to the role of deserters and prisoners of the Russian army as “teachers” in the new Persian army. The book is addressed to a wide readership: teachers and university students, as well as everyone interested in the military history of Russia and Iran.

Artamonov Vadim 2015

Danube campaign of Peter I. The Russian army was not defeated in 1711

Military affairs, weapons, intelligence services , Story

At the beginning of the 18th century. Ottoman Empire remained a great Eurasian-African power with enormous human and financial potential and a centralized army. The Russian plan for the war against the Turks included both offensive operations - in the direction of the Balkans, Crimea, the Kuban region - and defensive ones: in Poland, on the Right Bank of Ukraine, as well as near Azov and Taganrog. In 1711, Peter I planned to go to the Danube, which was the final goal of the campaign, and only at the site of the battle with the Turks on July 7-10 did historians call this campaign “Prut”. The strategic success of the Turks in 1711 still serves as the basis for Turkish historians to rank the Battle of the Prut among the “great Turkish victories.” However, the battle on the Prut River turned out to be stubborn and bloody, and the training and stamina of the Russian soldiers were not inferior to the victorious campaigns of 1708-1710. During the battles of July 8-10 Turkish troops suffered heavy losses, which is why it was after the Battle of Prut that they began to call Russian soldiers “devil-like.” The opposing sides broke off the battle when the Russian army not only was not defeated, but was determined to fight. However, the significant numerical superiority of the Ottoman army, and to an even greater extent the state of shock of the tsar, whose nerves had lost their nerve, led to the signing of the indefinite Treaty of Prut on difficult conditions for Russia. The steadfastness and heroism of Russian soldiers, officers and generals, who did not disgrace the Poltava glory of 1709, saved the country from larger territorial losses. Peter ordered to leave the “no man’s” place of the battle, as befits the undefeated, in ceremonial battle order.

Story

Warfare is present throughout the history of mankind, since it affected its fundamental interests. For the period from 3600 BC. e. Until 1980, approximately 1,455 wars occurred, including two world wars, during which more than 3.6 billion people were killed, starved, or died from epidemics. According to N.P. Mikhnevich’s calculations in the history of mankind for one year peaceful life All mankind experiences an average of 13 years of war. Conflicts in society (state) and among them arose at all stages of development human society and had a certain influence on its development.

Warfare begins to be cultivated in society, like all other human activities, aimed primarily at maintaining vital functions, such as the continuation of life, clan, freedom.

On composition, development and content military affairs in a given state (society), in a specific historical era, was influenced by many factors, primarily such as the social and political system of the state, the level of development industrial production, the level of development of science and education, cultural traditions of the population, the spiritual state of society in the state. In general, content, main directions of development and improvement military affairs in any state have common features that arise from the objective laws of world development. At the same time, they also have significant differences due to the geographical location of the state, its population, economic activity, the nature of external threats.

Warfare begins to play a significant role in the socio-political life of many ethnocultural formations according to various reasons: it was a struggle for living space, for territory; or warfare became a type of activity in which it was possible to increase the well-being of a particular cultural-historical community (at least some part of it), was a means of profit or a means of survival in extreme periods of the existence of an ethnos.

In Ancient Egypt, Greece, India, China, and then in Rome, the first theoretical work By military affairs, some provisions of which have not lost their significance to this day. Over time, the theory and practice of military affairs improved, new types and types of formations were created, weapons and military equipment were created and improved, and the strategy and tactics of their use were improved.

For studying military affairs in many states specialized educational institutions have been created (military academies, schools, institutes, etc.), it is also being studied or planned to be studied in some civilian educational institutions(see military department) of many states.

In Russia

In the state

Warfare in Russia is a term that broadly understood covers all issues of military theory and practice related to the construction, training and actions of the Armed Forces of the state in peacetime and war time, as well as preparing the population in case of war, and includes the following components:

• Military construction is a part of military affairs, which includes the theory and practice of construction (formation, reform), in accordance with external and internal conditions in the world and the country, the armed forces of the state, interconnected economic, socio-political, military and other activities to create and improve the military organization of the state.
• Military management is an integral part of government, in the field of training and management of the armed forces, troops (forces) in peacetime (war) and preparing the population in case of war, an integral part of military affairs.
  • Military training of the population
• Military law is a branch of law that, in a broad sense, covers all legal issues related to military affairs, a system established by the state legal norms, establishing the principles and forms of structure of the armed forces, regulating relations in the field of their construction, life, everyday life and activities and defining the duties, rights and responsibilities of military personnel, those liable for military service and other participants in societies, relations in the field of military affairs.
  • Documents (laws) of peacetime.
    • Military doctrine is a declaration on the policy of the state (country) in the field of military security. A system of official views and provisions of the leadership of the state (country), establishing the direction of the preparation and actions of the state, military development, in peace and war.
  • Wartime documents (laws).
• Military policy is an integral part of the general policy of classes, states, parties and other socio-political institutions, directly related to the creation of a military organization, the preparation and use of armed violence to achieve political goals.
• Military economy is the most important and developed area the economy of the state, which in a broad sense covers all economic issues of military affairs, ensuring the military (defense) potential of the state (country).
• The rear is an integral part of the armed forces of the state, ensuring the implementation of the assigned tasks of the Armed Forces;
• Military art is the theory and practice of preparing and waging war, military operations on land, sea, air and space. The theory of military art is part of military science. The art of war includes strategy, operational art and tactics, which are closely related to each other. The main provisions of the art of war are expressed in its principles, which are common to military actions of strategic, operational and tactical scales, since the paths are expressed in them practical application objective laws of war and armed forces. The state of military art depends on the level of development of production and means of armed struggle, the nature of the social system of the state. For the development of military art. are influenced by historical and national characteristics, geographical conditions and economics.
• Military science or the science of war is a field of science that is a system of knowledge about the preparation and conduct of war by states, coalitions of states or classes to achieve political goals, an integral part of military affairs.
  • Theory of military art
    • Military strategy (Theory of strategic art) is the science of conducting military operations (war) on a global scale, the field of military art. Covers issues of theory and practice of preparation for military operations (war), their planning and conduct.
    • Operational art (Theory of operational art) - the science of conducting military operations on the scale of theaters of military operations (TVD), an integral part of military art, occupies an intermediate position between military tactics and strategy. Studies methods of preparing and conducting joint and independent operations (combat operations) by large military formations - corps (group of corps), armies, front (group of armies), group of fronts.
    • Theory of tactics, Tactics (ancient Greek. τακτικός "pertaining to the formation of troops", from τάξις "formation and disposition") - a section of theory and an integral part of military art, including the theory of preparation and conduct of combat by formations (corps, division, brigade), units (ships) and subunits of various types of armed forces, branches of troops (forces) and special troops on land, air and sea; military theoretical discipline. Tactics covers the study, development and preparation of all types of combat operations: offensive, defensive, oncoming combat, tactical regroupings and so on.
    • Military engineering art (obsolete military engineering) is a part of military art, covering the theory and practice of preparing and conducting engineering support for armed warfare: design and construction of military facilities, communications, fortifications and bridges, providing troops with water, energy and aids, the use or neutralization of conventional explosives, including mines, in order to facilitate the advance of friendly forces or impede the advance of enemy troops, as well as other issues engineering support. In addition, the concept of military engineering includes the design and development of equipment necessary to perform the listed tasks, including means of camouflage and shelter.
    • Naval art is a part of military art, covering the theory and practice of preparing and conducting armed combat at sea. Naval art consists of the strategic use of the navy, operational art and naval tactics.
  • Management and theory of military development - is a system of scientific knowledge about the essence, patterns, principles, forms and methods of managing and building the armed forces, troops (forces) in military (combat) operations, as well as their life activities in peacetime.
    • Mobilization preparation.
    • Military history is the science of the origin, construction and actions of the armed forces (military formations) of states (peoples) of the world.
      • Domestic military history.
      • Foreign military history.
    • Military legislation (Military law).
    • Military statistics - identification, analysis and collection of statistical data on phenomena and processes of military affairs.
    • Military pedagogy is a branch of pedagogy that studies patterns in the upbringing, training and psychological preparation of military personnel.
  • Theory of military training and education.
    • Combat training.
• Theory of military economics and logistics (supply, support)
  • Defense production theory

Military affairs is simple and quite accessible to the common mind of a person. But fighting is difficult.

In the armed forces

Warfare- in a narrow sense, military affairs in the Armed Forces of the USSR and Russia means a system of knowledge, skills and abilities necessary for military personnel and those liable for military service to successfully fulfill their military duty. For various categories of military personnel, separate criteria are provided for knowledge, skills and abilities, depending on the type of armed forces, type of troops, unit, specialty (military specialty, military training)) and position occupied.

I vow to study conscientiously warfare, to protect military and national property in every possible way and to be devoted to your People, your Soviet Motherland and the Soviet Government until your last breath.

The main condition for a serviceman to fulfill his duties is his training under the Combat Training program.

To master the specialty "shooter" you must have at least a basic education general education(nine classes high school). Specialty training is carried out at the place of service in the troops (forces).

After training, the shooter must know:

Military personnel who have successfully completed warfare in their specialty, in an assigned position and performing their military duty conscientiously, can be marked (marked) with insignia (for example):

• Excellent Student of the Red Army / Excellent Student of the Navy
• Excellent in combat and political training.
  • Excellent Air Force Officer.
  • Excellent student of the Navy.

In other countries

In foreign countries this term absent, available (replaced) by the term military science (military research, military science) or military art, in Russia these terms have a separate meaning as presented above. The most significant foreign models of military affairs are presented below.

Prussian (German) model

Motivation and inner conviction are a decisive condition for success in military affairs.

In Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Hungary, South Africa and some South American countries military research(or military sciences; German Militärwissenschaften) - denotes everything that relates to the art of war, military sciences and the history of wars (military actions) (or: military history).

Military art studies the development of the laws of war, includes the study of the goals of war (military policy), using the means of war - the armed forces (military construction: organization, management, armament and equipment of troops, fortresses, fleets).

Military sciences include doctrines of the use of war, means of war ( armed forces), strategy (line of war (military operations) and tactics (execution of individual movements (marches) and battles of troops).

Military history studies the history of wars (military actions) and the conclusions from wars (military actions).

In addition to practical military sciences, other (auxiliary) sciences are used (fortification, weapons, etc.).

In addition to military sciences, it is envisaged to use part of other sciences, the knowledge of which is caused by military necessity(military geography, military geology, etc.).

Anglo-Saxon model

Areas of responsibility of the territorial unified commands of the US Armed Forces (December 2008).

In the USA, England, Australia, Canada, New Zealand and other English-speaking countries, military science is the process of translating a state's national defense policy to produce military power, using military scientists, including: theorists, researchers, scientists engaged in experiments, applied scientists, designers, engineers conducting tests, as well as military personnel responsible for creating prototype weapons. In doing so, military science seeks to interpret policy into such military skills that, by applying military concepts and military techniques, can be used in military technology, military weapons systems and other military matters to produce the required military capabilities of the state. Comprises:

see also

Notes

1. Warfare// Big Soviet encyclopedia/ A. M. Prokhorov. - 3rd edition. - Moscow: Great Soviet Encyclopedia, 1971. - T. 05. - P. 217. - 640 p.
2. Military affairs // Military encyclopedia / P. S. Grachev. - Moscow: Military Publishing House, 1994. - T. 2. - P. 149. - ISBN 5-203-00299-1.
3. Military affairs // Soviet military encyclopedia. - Moscow: Military Publishing House of the USSR Ministry of Defense, 1979. - T. 2. - P. 210.
4. Military Affairs // Military encyclopedic Dictionary. - Moscow: Military Publishing House of the Ministry of Defense of the USSR, 1986. - P. 139. - 863 p. - 150,000 copies.
5. Military affairs // Military encyclopedic dictionary / Ch. ed. A. P. Gorkin. - Moscow: Great Russian Encyclopedia, 2001. - T. 1. - P. 305. - 848 p. - 5,000 copies. - ISBN 5-85270-219-6.
6. Flavius ​​Vegetius Renatus, "Summary military affairs.»
7. “History of military art from ancient times to the 19th century.” St. Petersburg , 1885 and 1896
8. Website rubaltik.ru “Latvian students can start studying military science at universities.”
9. m), Article 71, Chapter 3, Section One, Constitution of Russia

Since ancient times, the lands of the Eastern Slavs were subject to raids by nomadic and semi-nomadic tribes - the Khazars, Pechenegs, and Polovtsians. The nomads mercilessly killed everyone who resisted, took young men and women captive, burned buildings, and took away everything of value. Later, German knights began to threaten military campaigns from the West. Therefore, in those days every adult man from the Slavic lands was a warrior. Reluctance to fight meant death or slavery. The ancient Slavs were brave people. To protect themselves from the enemy, they used a variety of bladed weapons.

The main weapon of a warrior from the princely squad was a sword. Not every hunter or farmer could own this weapon, since it cost a lot of money. Each sword was made individually and was a symbol military valor owner. The hilt of the sword was often richly decorated. Initially, it was almost exclusively an offensive weapon; the first swords were cutting swords; later they began to be used as piercing weapons.

Since time immemorial, the knife has been used as a household tool or for hunting. It later transformed into a real weapon. A commoner could not afford an expensive sword, but he could easily have a half-meter knife. IN in capable hands it was a dangerous weapon. They could be inflicted a mortal wound by hitting an unprotected place or a gap between armor.

The ax was also originally used for work. Later, combat versions of the ax appeared - minted axes, axes, and beard-shaped axes. Each of these types was used for specific purposes. The coin was suitable for piercing metal armor and was used by horsemen. The ax had a long handle and a large radius of action. The beard ax was good in close combat.

The spear was an indispensable weapon for both the foot warrior and the horseman. It made it possible to hit the enemy at long range. There were different types of spears, including light throwing ones. This is a fairly simple weapon; any blacksmith could make it. Therefore, spears were widely used by warriors and ordinary people to protect their lands.

The most important defensive weapon was undoubtedly the shield. Among the Eastern Slavs, they were most often round in shape, made of wood, and upholstered with iron. The shield withstood blows different types edged weapons. It is assumed that such weapons were borrowed from the ancient Scandinavians. Shield and sword - that was powerful combination defensive and offensive weapons.

Chain mail and a helmet were also used to protect the body. Chain mail was a lightweight alternative to heavy ones knight's armor. It covered the warrior’s torso and provided good protection from cutting blows. There were different types of helmets, but conical-shaped headdresses were most often used.

On the territory of our country, swords have appeared in the burials of the ancient Slavs since the end of the 9th century. The first scientifically recorded finds of them were made in the 70s of the 19th century, when archaeologists had already thoroughly studied the swords discovered in Scandinavia, mainly in Norway. Our swords turned out to be very similar to them both in the characteristic shape of the blade and the type of handle. It was no secret, however, that the Scandinavians were not the inventors of the heavy cutting sword: according to reviews of foreign scientists, the culture that gave birth to them was no more Scandinavian than Slavic. This type of sword was formed by the 8th century in Western and Central Europe: experts were able to trace the previous stages of its development.

Slavic-Goritsky wrestling - unique phenomenon in our life. She will show the path of a warrior in our lives. A warrior by spirit, not by profession. She will give you what you need. With her help, one will be able to go the way of the ancient Russian hero. Another will follow the path of sports. The third chooses the path of a professional partisan. The fourth will be attracted by the applied direction.

A warrior who masters the techniques and principles of Slavic-Goritsky wrestling is practically invincible.

There cannot be a separate “black” and a separate “white” Perun (just as there cannot be a separate “underwater” and a separate “surface” iceberg; in particular, “Black Perun” is a whole concept that personifies the secrets hidden in the depths of Navi). There is one Perun the Thunderer, who gives the masculine principle into existence. Perun, squeezing the neck of a snake with his right hand, and holding a horn with a gift with his right hand, is the image of Perun, the adviser to the head of the family in his family structure. Well, what head of the family, husband, father, youth, in the end, is not the defender of the family hearth, his homeland? But now we are more interested in another image of this god: Perun - holding lightning in his right hand, and a horn with smaga in his shuyts - as the leader of the army.

In the 6th century, significant changes occurred in the history of the structure of tribal associations associated with the transition from the tribal form of the community to the neighboring one. And these events allowed the separation of the military stratum to occur and its transformation into squads, which acquired significant power in the management of tribal principalities or unions of tribal principalities. The formation of this kind of principalities was, in turn, caused by the migration of Slavic tribes in the 5th - 6th centuries.

Military affairs in Rus'

Battle of the Kalka River

The process of feudal fragmentation from the middle of the 11th century of the Kyiv state and the resumption of new raids by nomads became the historical background against which Russian military art developed. These factors, along with the development of the feudal way of life in society and the improvement of military equipment, determined the nature of Russian military art and its features in Rus'.

As for the recruitment of troops, its composition was different, everything depended on the nature and goals of the war. In each case, the boyars took part in these wars with their troops and, of course, the prince’s personal squad, as well as volunteers - the so-called “hunters” from among the population of the cities. It should be said that these forces were often supplemented by urban militia and rarely by rural militia.

The squad and militia were assembled by the prince himself and the commanders - the thousandths - after making a specific decision, for example, about a campaign or an attack on the enemy. The collection process lasted approximately one week. And in large principalities, such as Vladimir-Suzdal or Novgorod, a little more than a week. For example: the army to confront the Mongols on the Kalka River in 1223 took more than one month to gather. There were no big changes in the organization of the squad: as before, it was divided into senior and junior. But some changes were caused by the ongoing internecine struggle. Each of the princes sought, as a counterbalance to the boyar opposition, to strengthen the junior squad through numbers. As part of the junior squad, over time, such a category of warriors as “merciful people” appeared. They received armor, including a horse, from the prince. Over time, the service acquired a hereditary character. It should be noted that from the middle of the 12th century, another category of warriors appeared in Ancient Rus' - “saddlers”. Most likely, these people belonged to the settlers who were dependent on the prince. They fought as part of the light cavalry. Residents of the steppe borderlands of Rus', who inhabited the fortresses of the southern borders, were part of the princely squad. But over time, especially with the aggravation of internecine contradictions, they became independent and combined ordinary life with guard duty.

In terms of organization, the army of Rus' at that time consisted of infantry and cavalry. The infantry consisted of militias from the poor part of the population. Over time, the role of this type of troops gradually underwent changes. Infantry could be used independently as landing troops or during siege, assault and defense of fortresses. But the importance of cavalry in the army of Ancient Rus' increased more and more. The cavalry was divided into heavy and light. It should be said that at that time only “armourers,” that is, heavy cavalry, were considered full-fledged warriors. They had full defensive and offensive weapons. A long pike and a sword served as their weapons.

Rooks

Clan groups of nomads (Torks, Berendeis, Kovuis), as well as warriors from the junior squad and militia, served in the light cavalry and formed its basis. It should be noted that the allocation of light cavalry in Rus' occurred earlier than in Western countries. This suggests that a great step forward has been made in the development of military art.

As for military navigation in Rus', it developed only in Novgorod. This can be confirmed by the campaign of the Novgorodians together with the Korelians in 1188 against the capital of Sweden, the city of Sigtuna. At the same time, in each principality of Ancient Rus' there was a flotilla of river (ship's army) warships - nasads.

Military technology did not lag behind the development. In the middle of the 12th century, throwing machines appeared, as well as hand crossbows (crossbows). They became widespread primarily in Western Russian lands.

The Russian army during this period was divided into regiments, they were formed at the expense of the militia major cities. The order of battle was regimental row. The regiments were divided into banners - detachments of large feudal lords, city militias. The banners, in turn, were divided into tactical units - “spears”. The number of copies was approximately 15–20 people. But the number of banners in the regiment, as well as copies in the banner, respectively, often changed. Signals in Russian army served in the infantry with the help of a tambourine, and in the cavalry - with a trumpet.

The issues of training and education of soldiers were of a traditional nature in Kievan Rus. The basis of military training was daily exercises in horse riding, fencing, archery, etc. There are known cases (from Western sources) of Russian soldiers participating in knightly tournaments at European courts. Animal hunting continued to play a major role in military training; it developed individual skills in handling weapons and riding, but was mainly psychological training.

Changes in social relations contributed to the formation of appropriate moral values warriors Unlike other countries, already in the 13th century in Rus', love for the homeland was closely connected with the honor and valor of a warrior brought up on the ideals of the Orthodox faith. Folk epic played a special role in the formation of the moral and psychological qualities of Russian soldiers. All this influenced the education of warriors and the development of military traditions.

Here is an example of the level of morality of Russian soldiers of that period: “ best men“The troops of Igor Novgorod-Seversky considered it a sin to abandon their “simple” fellow soldiers and break out of the encirclement themselves, so they preferred death or captivity to life obtained at the cost of betrayal.

Gabriel Tsobekhia

...Fist fights in Rus' represent such a characteristic and unique phenomenon and such interest in the development of our culture that everything that relates to the history of this folk entertainment, which has grown to enormous proportions and is widespread throughout Russia, involuntarily attracts attention.

Street fighting
...In all centuries and all peoples there has been a desire for sports. Only the forms of this sport were different, but each of these forms certainly contained a person’s desire to compete with his own kind in physical strength, dexterity, and endurance.

Chain mail, swords, arrows

A.N. Kirpichnikov. About the beginning of sword production in Rus'
In early medieval Europe, swords were regarded as necessary military and at the same time prestigious weapons. Scientists have long been trying to solve the mystery of where these swords were made. New searches related to finds on the territory of ancient Rus' are advancing the solution to this complex problem.

K.V. Bazilevich. From the history of sea campaigns in the 7th-12th centuries.
...IN defensive armor For the ancient Russian professional warrior, chain mail was of great importance - combat clothing in the form of a shirt made of small, tightly woven iron rings.

A.H. Kirpichnikov. Battle of the Neva in 1240 and its tactical features
Based on the description of the battle, Kirpichnikov tried to trace the tactics of the battle.

S. Demidenko. State of the Teutonic Order in the XIII-XV centuries
History of the Teutonic Order over several hundred years; internal political struggle, external clashes with Russia and Lithuania.

Kradin N.P. Russian wooden defensive architecture
The book is dedicated to defense structures (fortified winter huts, forts and log cities). It examines the remains of surviving fortifications - the towers of the Nikolo-Karelian Monastery Arkhangelsk region, Belsky, Yakutsky, Yuilsky, Ilimsky and Bratsk forts in Siberia. The book makes an attempt to recreate some 17th-century fortresses and their individual elements in graphic reconstructions.

Weapons and equipment of the 15th-16th centuries
A brief overview of cold steel, firearms, and hand-held firearms and armor in the 15-16th centuries.

Weapons and armor of Rus' X - XVI centuries.
A brief overview of ancient weapons and armor used in Rus'.

P.E. Sorokin. About some tactical methods of fighting on water in ancient Rus'
Article from the collection "Early Medieval Antiquities of Northern Rus' and Its Neighbors", ed. E.N. Nosova, St. Petersburg, RAS, 1999.

A.N. Kirpichnikov, A.F. Medvedev. Armament
Chapter from the book "Ancient Rus'. City. Castle. Village" M., 1985.

P.A. Rappoport. Ancient Russian fortresses
Publishing house "Science" Moscow - 1965.