The states that have signed this treaty, based on the proclaimed
their declarations of sovereignty and recognizing the right of nations to self-determination;
given the proximity historical destinies their peoples and expressing their will
live in friendship and harmony, developing equal mutually beneficial
cooperation;
taking care of their material well-being and spiritual development,
mutual enrichment of national cultures, ensuring common security;
wishing to create reliable guarantees of the rights and freedoms of citizens,
decided on a new basis to create a Union of Sovereign States and
have agreed on the following.
I. BASIC PRINCIPLES
First. Each republic party to the treaty is sovereign
by the state. Union of Sovereign States (USS) - confederal
Democratic state exercising power within the limits of authority,
with which the parties to the agreement voluntarily endow it.
Second. The states forming the Union reserve the right to
independent decision all issues of their development, guaranteeing equal
political rights and opportunities for socio-economic and cultural
progress to all peoples living on their territory. Parties to the agreement
will proceed from a combination of universal and national values,
resolutely oppose racism, chauvinism, nationalism, any attempts
restrictions on the rights of peoples.
Third. The states forming the Union consider the most important principle
priority of human rights in accordance with the Universal Declaration of Rights
person, other generally accepted norms international law. Everyone
citizens are guaranteed the opportunity to study and use native language,
unhindered access to information, freedom of religion, others
political, socio-economic, personal rights and freedoms.
Fourth. The states forming the Union see the most important condition
freedom and well-being of their peoples and every person in the formation
civil society. They will strive to satisfy needs
people based on free
choice of forms of ownership and methods of management, development
all-Union market, implementation of the principles of social justice and
security.
Fifth. The states forming the Union independently determine their
national-state and administrative-territorial structure,
system authorities and management. They recognize the common fundamental
principle of democracy based on popular representation and direct
the will of the peoples, strive to create a rule of law state, which
would serve as a guarantor against any tendencies towards totalitarianism and arbitrariness.
Sixth. The states forming the Union consider one of the most important tasks
preservation and development of national traditions, state support
education, healthcare, science and culture. They will assist
intensive exchange and mutual enrichment of humanistic spiritual values
and the achievements of the peoples of the Union and the whole world.
Seventh. The Union of Sovereign States acts in international
relations as a sovereign state, a subject of international law
Successor to the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. His main goals
in the international arena are lasting peace, disarmament, liquidation
nuclear and other weapons mass destruction, cooperation between states and
solidarity of peoples in the decision global problems humanity.
The states forming the Union are subjects of international law.
They have the right to establish direct diplomatic, consular
communications, trade and other relations with foreign countries, exchange
with them by authorized representations, conclude international agreements and
participate in activities international organizations without infringing on the interests
each of the states forming the Union and their common interests, without violating
international obligations of the Union.
II. STRUCTURE OF THE UNION
Article 1. Membership in the Union
Membership of states in the Union is voluntary.
The parties to this Treaty are the states directly
forming the Union.
The Union is open to the entry of other democratic states into it,
recognizing the Treaty. The admission of new states to the Union is carried out with
consent of all parties to this agreement.
The states forming the Union retain the right to freely withdraw from it
in the manner established by the parties to the agreement.
Article 2. Citizenship of the Union
A citizen of a state that is a member of the Union is at the same time
citizen of the Union of Sovereign States.
Citizens of the Union have equal rights, freedoms and responsibilities enshrined
laws and international treaties of the Union.
Article 3. Territory of the Union
The territory of the Union consists of the territories of all member states
agreement.
The Union guarantees the inviolability of the borders of the states that are members of it.
Article 4. Relations between the states forming the Union
Relations between the states forming the Union are regulated by this
agreement, as well as other agreements that do not contradict it and
agreements.
The states parties to the treaty build their relationships as part of
Union based on equality, respect for sovereignty, -: non-interference in
internal affairs, resolution of disputes by peaceful means, cooperation,
mutual assistance, conscientious fulfillment of obligations under this agreement
and inter-republican agreements.
The states forming the Union undertake: not to resort to
among themselves to force and the threat of force; do not encroach on territorial
each other's integrity; not to enter into agreements that contradict the goals of the Union
or directed against other states - parties to the treaty.
Article 5. Armed Forces of the Union
The Union of Sovereign States has unified Armed Forces" with
centralized control.
The goals, purpose and procedure for using the unified Armed Forces, and
also the competence of states -- parties to the agreement in the field of defense
governed by the agreement provided for in this agreement.
States parties to the treaty have the right to create republican
armed formations, the functions and numbers of which are determined
the specified agreement.
The use of the Armed Forces of the Union within the country is not allowed, for
excluding their participation in eliminating the consequences natural Disasters,
environmental disasters, as well as cases provided for by law
about a state of emergency.
Article 6. Areas of joint jurisdiction of the states parties to the treaty and
multilateral agreements
The states party to the treaty form a single political and
economic space and base their relations on those established in
this agreement principles and the benefits provided by it. Relationship with
states not members of the Union of Sovereign States are based on
generally accepted norms of international law.
In order to ensure the common interests of the states parties to the treaty
areas of joint jurisdiction are established and relevant agreements are concluded
multilateral treaties and agreements:
About the economic community;
On joint defense and collective security;
About coordination foreign policy;
On the coordination of general scientific and technical programs;
On the protection of human rights and national minorities;
On the coordination of general environmental programs;
In the field of energy, transport, communications and space;
On cooperation in the field of education and culture;
About the fight against crime.
Article 7. Powers of union (interstate) bodies
For implementation common tasks arising from the treaty and multilateral
agreements, the states forming the Union delegate to the union bodies
necessary powers.
The states forming the Union participate in the implementation of the powers of the union
bodies through their joint formation, as well as special
procedures for approval of decisions and their implementation.
Each party to the treaty may, by concluding an agreement with the Union
additionally delegate to him the exercise of certain of his powers, and
Union, with the consent of all participants, transfer to one or more of them
exercise of certain powers on their territory.
Article 8. Property
States parties to the treaty provide free development And
protection of all forms of property.
The states party to the treaty shall place at the disposal of the bodies of the Union
property necessary for the exercise of the powers assigned to them. This
the property is the joint property of the states forming the Union, and
used exclusively in their common interests, including accelerated development
lagging regions.
Use of land, its subsoil and other natural resources of states --
parties to the treaty to implement the powers of the union bodies is carried out
in accordance with the laws of these states.
Article 9. Budget of the Union
The procedure for financing the Union budget and control over its expenditure
partly established by a special agreement.
Article 10. Laws of the Union
The constitutional basis of the Union of Sovereign States is this
Treaty and Declaration of Human Rights and Freedoms.
The laws of the Union are adopted on issues within the jurisdiction of the Union, and in
within the limits of powers delegated to him by this Agreement. They are required for
execution on the territory of all states party to the treaty.
The state party to the treaty has the right to protest and suspend
application in its territory of the law of the Union if it violates this
The Union, represented by its highest authorities, has the right to protest and
suspend the law of the state party to the treaty if it
violates this agreement.
Disputes are resolved through conciliation procedures or referred to
The Supreme Court of the Union, which makes the final decision within
one month.
III. BODIES OF THE UNION
Article 11. Formation of bodies of the Union
Bodies of the Union of Sovereign States provided for by this
agreement, are formed on the basis of the free will of peoples and
full representation of the states forming the Union.
Organization, powers and order of activity of government bodies,
governance and justice are established relevant laws, Not
contrary to this agreement.
Article 12. Supreme Council of the Union
The legislative power of the Union is exercised by the Supreme Council of the Union,
consisting of two chambers: the Council of Republics and the Council of the Union.
The Council of Republics includes 20 deputies from each state,
forming the Union, delegated by its highest authority.
The RSFSR has 52 deputies in the Council of Republics. Other states --
parties to the treaty, which include republics and autonomous
education, additionally delegate one deputy to the Council of Republics
from each republic and autonomous entity. In order to ensure
sovereignty of states - parties to the treaty and their equality - with
The Council of the Union is elected by the population of the Union in electoral districts with
equal number of voters. At the same time, representation in
Council of the Union of all states party to the treaty.
The Chambers of the Supreme Council of the Union jointly accept new members into the Union
states, hear the President of the Union on the most important issues
internal and foreign policy of the Union, approve the Union budget and report on it
execution, declare war and make peace.
The Council of the Republics makes decisions on the organization and procedure of activities
bodies of the Union of Sovereign States, considers issues of relations between
republics, ratifies and denounces international treaties of the Union, gives
consent to the appointment of the Union government.
The Council of the Union considers issues of ensuring the rights and freedoms of citizens And
makes decisions on all issues within the competence of the Supreme Council for
with the exception of those that fall within the competence of the Council of Republics.
Laws adopted by the Council of the Union come into force after their approval
Council of Republics
Article 13. President of the Union
The President of the Union is the head of the confederal state.
The President of the Union acts as a guarantor of compliance with the Treaty on the Union
of the Sovereign States and laws of the Union, is the Commander-in-Chief
Armed Forces of the Union, represents the Union in relations with foreign countries
states, exercises control over the implementation of international
obligations of the Union.
The President of the Union is elected by the citizens of the Union in the manner established
By law, for a period of five years and no more than two consecutive terms.
Article 14. Vice-President of the Union
The Vice-President of the Union is elected together with the President of the Union.
The Vice-President of the Union carries out, under the authority of the President of the Union, its individual
Article 15. State Council of the Union
The State Council of the Union is created to coordinate the most important
issues of domestic and foreign policy affecting common interests
states - parties to the treaty.
The State Council consists of the President of the Union and senior officials
persons of the states party to the treaty. Work of the State Council
is headed by the President of the Union.
Decisions of the State Council are binding on everyone
organs executive power.
Article 16. Government of the Union
The Government of the Union is the executive body of the Union,
reports to the President of the Union, is responsible to Supreme Council
The Union Government is headed by the Prime Minister. Part
government includes the heads of government of the states party to the treaty,
Chairman of the Interstate Economic Committee (first deputy
Prime Minister), Deputy Prime Ministers and heads of departments,
provided for by agreements between the states parties to the treaty.
The Government of the Union is formed by the President of the Union in agreement with
Council of Republics of the Supreme Council of the Union.
Article 17. Supreme Court of the Union
The Supreme Court of the Union makes decisions on issues of compliance of laws
Union and laws of the states - parties to the treaty - this treaty and
Declaration of Human Rights and Freedoms;
considers civil and criminal cases interstate
character, including cases to protect the rights and freedoms of citizens; is the highest
judicial authority in relation to military courts. At the Supreme Court of the Union
a prosecutor's office is created to oversee the implementation of legislative
acts of the Union.
Formation order Supreme Court Union is determined by law.
Article 18. Supreme Arbitration Court of the Union
The Supreme Arbitration Court of the Union resolves economic disputes between
states party to the treaty, as well as disputes between enterprises,
under the jurisdiction of various states party to the treaty.
IV. FINAL PROVISIONS
Article 19. Language of interethnic communication in the Union
The parties to the agreement independently determine their official language
(languages). The language of interethnic communication in the Union of States - participants
agreements are recognized in the Russian language.
Article 20. Capital of the Union
The capital is the city of Moscow.
Article 21. State symbols of the Union
The Union has a state emblem, flag and anthem.
Article 22. Procedure for amending and supplementing the agreement
This agreement or certain provisions thereof may be revoked if
amended or supplemented only with the consent of all states forming the Union.
Article 23. Entry into force of the treaty
This agreement is approved by the highest government authorities
states forming the Union, and comes into force after its signature
authorized delegations.
For the states that signed it, from the same date it is considered lost
The Treaty on the Formation of the USSR of 1922 came into force.
Article 24. Liability under the Agreement
The Union and the states that form it bear mutual responsibility for
fulfillment of accepted obligations and compensation for damage caused by violations
actual agreement.
Article 25. Legal succession of the Union
The Union of Sovereign States is the legal successor to the Union of Soviet
Socialist Republics. Succession is carried out taking into account the provisions
Articles 6 and 23 of this agreement.
Plan:
- Introduction
- 1 Background
- 2 All-Union referendum on the preservation of the USSR
- 3 USG-Federation (Union of Soviet Sovereign Republics)
- 4 SSG-confederation Notes
Introduction
The countries of the Union of Sovereign States (USS) are indicated in red; red and orange - union republics of the USSR (USSR federations)
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Union of Sovereign States, SSG- failed renewed union of republics of the USSR.
1. Background
In December 1990, the issue of reorganizing the USSR was raised.
On December 3, the Supreme Soviet of the USSR supported the concept proposed by the President of the USSR M.S. Gorbachev project Union Treaty and submitted it for discussion at the IV Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR.
On December 24, 1990, deputies of the IV Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR, having held a roll-call vote, decided to consider it necessary to preserve the USSR as a renewed federation of equal sovereign republics, in which the rights and freedoms of people of any nationality will be fully ensured.
On the same day, on the initiative and insistent demand of the President of the USSR M.S. Gorbachev, the Congress adopted a resolution on the issue of holding an all-Union referendum on the preservation of the renewed Union as a federation of equal sovereign Soviet Socialist Republics. 1,677 deputies voted for the adoption of the resolution, 32 were against, and 66 abstained.
2. All-Union referendum on the preservation of the USSR
On March 17, 1991, a referendum was held in which the majority of citizens voted for the preservation and renewal of the USSR, including the population of six republics (Lithuania, Estonia, Latvia, Georgia, Moldova, Armenia), in which higher authorities the authorities refused to hold a referendum, since they had previously announced independence or a transition to independence according to the results of previously held referendums on independence.
Wikisource has full text Treaty on the Union of Sovereign States (published August 15, 1991)
Based on the concept of a referendum authorized by the central and republican authorities working group within the framework of the so-called of the Novo-Ogaryovo process in the spring-summer of 1991, a project was developed to conclude a new union - Union of Soviet Sovereign Republics (USSR, Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, Union of Sovereign States) as a soft, decentralized federation.
The draft agreement on the creation of the Union was initialed twice - on April 23 and June 17, 1991. Final edition "Treaty on the Union of Sovereign States" was published in the Pravda newspaper on August 15. On August 3, 1991, the same newspaper published a speech by USSR President Gorbachev on television, which noted that “the union treaty has been open for signing” since August 20, 1991. The new Treaty stated: “The states forming the Union have full political power, independently determine their nationality government system, system of authorities and management, they can delegate part of their powers to other states party to the Treaty...” Moreover, Section 2 of Article 23 of the new Treaty stated: “This Treaty... comes into force from the moment it is signed... by authorized delegations. For the states that signed it, from the same date the Treaty on the Formation of the USSR of 1922 is considered to have lost force.”
Nine of the fifteen union republics of the former USSR were to become members of the new union: as M. S. Gorbachev stated in a televised address on August 3, 1991, on August 20, Belarus, Kazakhstan, the RSFSR, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan were to sign a new union treaty, and in the fall by Armenia, Kyrgyzstan, Ukraine and Turkmenistan could join them.
But State Committee under a state of emergency, on August 18-21 he made an unsuccessful attempt to forcibly remove M. S. Gorbachev from the post of President of the USSR, disrupting the signing of the Union Treaty:
“...Taking advantage of the freedoms granted, trampling on the newly emerged shoots of democracy, extremist forces arose and set a course for liquidation Soviet Union, the collapse of the state and the seizure of power at any cost. The results of the national referendum on the unity of the Fatherland have been trampled.”
The contradictions between the central and republican authorities and national elites deepened, and all the union republics, one after another, declared independence.
4. SSG-confederation
Wikisource has the full text Treaty on the Union of Sovereign States (published November 27, 1991)
On September 5, 1991, the V Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR, having adopted the “Declaration of Human Rights and Freedoms”, announced transition period to form new system state relations, preparation and signing of the Treaty on the Union of Sovereign States.
In the fall of 1991, with the sanction of the central and republican authorities, the working group of the Novo-Ogaryovo process developed new project Agreements - on the creation Union of Sovereign States(CCG) as a confederation independent states(“confederal state”).
Preliminary consent to conclude an agreement on December 9, 1991 on the creation of the GCC with its capital in Minsk was given on November 14, 1991 by only seven republics (Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan). Two republics in which referendums on independence were held the day before (Armenia and Ukraine) refused to join the confederal union.
However, on December 8, 1991, the heads of three states (the Republic of Belarus, Russia and Ukraine) at a meeting in Belovezhskaya Pushcha, “noting that negotiations on the preparation of a new Union Treaty have reached a dead end, the objective process of the republics secession from the USSR and the formation of independent states has become a real fact,” they concluded the Belovezhskaya Agreement on the creation of the Commonwealth of Independent States - an intergovernmental and interparliamentary organization that does not have the status of a state . Other union republics later joined the CIS.
In December 1992, the Congress of People's Deputies Russian Federation addressed the parliaments of states - former republics USSR, and to Interparliamentary Assembly member states of the Commonwealth of Independent States, with a proposal to consider the issue of “creating a confederation or other form of rapprochement of the independent states of Europe and Asia - former republics of the USSR, whose peoples express a desire for unity,” but this proposal did not find support.
Multilateral agreement on the later proposed (in March 1994) project for the creation of a similar confederal union ( Eurasian Union) was also not achieved. Two states joined the Union of Russia and Belarus.
Notes
- According to the federal project - Union of Soviet Sovereign Republics (USSR)
- Resolution of the USSR Supreme Council of December 3, 1990 No. 1809-1 “On general concept of the new Union Treaty and the proposed procedure for its conclusion” // Vedomosti SND and the USSR Armed Forces. - 1990. - No. 50. - art. 1077.
- Resolution of the SND of the USSR of December 24, 1990 No. 1853-1 “On the preservation of the USSR as a renewed federation of equal sovereign republics” // Gazette of the SND and the USSR Supreme Court. - 1990. - No. 52. - art. 1158.
- 1 2 Lyubarev A. E. Elections in Moscow: twelve years of experience. 1989-2000 - lyubarev.narod.ru/elect/book/soderzh.html. - M.: Stolny Grad, 2001. - 412 p. - ISBN 5-89910-019-2.
- Resolution of the SND of the USSR of December 24, 1990 No. 1856-1 “On holding a referendum of the USSR on the issue of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics” // Gazette of the SND and the USSR Supreme Council. - 1990. - No. 52. - art. 1161.
- 1 2 3 4 5 Draft agreement on the USS-federation (Union of Soviet Sovereign Republics) (July 1991) - fomin-ivan.blogspot.com/2009/12/1991.html
- The Armed Forces, the Ministry of Internal Affairs, as well as some functions of the foreign policy department became the prerogative of the republican authorities.
- “A lot of things would have turned out differently...” // Red Star, August 16, 2003. - www.redstar.ru/2003/08/16_08/6_01.html
- Appeal to the Soviet people - new.hse.ru/sites/tp/isakov/1990-1996dn/15/1/From the Appeal to the Soviet people of the State Emergency Committee of the USSR.htm // Izvestia. - 1991. - August 20.
- “Declaration of Human Rights and Freedoms” was approved by the Resolution of the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR on September 5, 1991 No. 2393-1 // Gazette of the Council of People's Commissars and the USSR Armed Forces. - 1991. - No. 37. - art. 1083.
- Resolution of the SND of the USSR dated September 5, 1991 No. 2391-1 “On measures arising from the joint Statement of the President of the USSR and the senior leaders of the union republics and decisions of the extraordinary session of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR” // Gazette of the SND and the Supreme Soviet of the USSR. - 1991. - No. 37. - art. 1081
- Draft agreement on the USG-confederation (November 1991) - www.gorby.ru/userfiles/prilii.doc
- Draft Treaty on the Union of Sovereign States - soveticus5.narod.ru/gazety/pr911127.htm#u001 // Pravda. - 1991. - November 27.
- Statement by the heads of state of the Republic of Belarus, RSFSR, Ukraine December 8, 1991 - new.hse.ru/sites/tp/isakov/1990-1996dn/86/1/8 December 1991 - Statement by the heads of state of the Republic of Belarus, RSFSR, Ukraine.htm / / Vedomosti SND and VS RSFSR. - 1991. - No. 51. - Art. 1798.
- Appeal of the SND of the Russian Federation dated December 14, 1992 No. 4087-1 “To the parliaments of independent states - former republics of the USSR - ru.wikisource.org/wiki/Appeal_SND_RF_d_14.12.1992_№_4087-I” // Gazette of the SND and the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation. - 1992. - No. 51. - December 24. - art. 3022.
This abstract is based on an article from Russian Wikipedia. Synchronization completed 07/09/11 14:04:32
Similar abstracts:
In 1991, Gorbachev launched the Novo-Ogarevo process, as a result of which it was expected to develop and sign a new union treaty with the republics of the USSR. The agreement was to go down in history as "USG" - Union of Sovereign States.
During this process, the struggle between Gorbachev and Yeltsin acquired such a character that it became necessary to knock the chair out from under Yeltsin with the help of introducing the status of union republics for Tatarstan, Bashkiria - all republics of the RSFSR.
Then the RSFSR will weaken, Yeltsin will be “scared,” and Gorbachev will have the opportunity to build a new balance of relations with him.
The Novo-Ogarevsky process was even more dangerous than the one proposed by Yeltsin - EVERYTHING could be sprayed! There wouldn't even be a Russian Federation. And Yeltsin, it was clear then, having freed himself from the republics of the USSR, would grab power in the Russian Federation with his hands and feet and would not give it up to anyone. Somehow the springboard for a possible future recovery will remain. And if we let Gorbachev complete his work, the country will be completely, irreversibly, disintegrated, once and for all.
But it was not Gorbachev who came up with the SSG configuration, which he wanted to implement by signing the corresponding agreement on August 20, 1991. A similar model of transformation of the USSR existed for quite a long time.
After Stalin, none of the political, military, party-economic, elite, special service groups, members of the Politburo, etc. needed the Stalinist model of the Soviet Union and the world communist system at all. And there was a struggle to implement other models alternative to the current one. It began during his lifetime and unfolded after Stalin’s death.
The Leningraders (or “Russian Group”), who demanded the creation of a separate party, like all republics, for the RSFSR, demanded greater economic isolation. Naturally, they could not demand anything out of the ordinary then, but all this was the first steps towards the design of the model “Russia without chocks” - so as not to share power with non-Russians, not to adjust the ideology to them. Towards the design of Yeltsin's CIS model.
During his lifetime, Stalin kept a good balance between Russian, Caucasian, and Central Asian groups, which had a variety of claims against each other.
There was another model for redressing claims. L.P. Beria proposed a native one for the Union republics, National language, National 1st Secretary, the confederal entry of the republics into a common state - must exist on equal terms in Moscow. That is The national cadres were to receive full support bases in their republics and parity in Moscow - to gain enormous power.
Beria wanted a confederation, and his opponents wanted to separate the Caucasian “chocks”, the Asian ones, and at the same time some others and, remaining in a smaller territory, gain all power. Stalin balanced between these two groups. The groups survived Stalin, their struggle continued until Perestroika. Beria's group was greatly weakened in the 50s and slowly recovered under Brezhnev, who strengthened the KGB after Khrushchev's trampling. Andropov belonged to Beria’s group.
The existence of two groups can also be traced in the military-industrial complex. There were two military-industrial complexes in the USSR:
1. Branches of the military-industrial complex for the production of tanks, ships, missiles. This military-industrial complex has never been inferior to the West in the quality of its products. That's why I lived poorly. Dacha, Volga, order - that's all.
2. Branches of the military-industrial complex responsible for thin, complex electronics. Its workers rolled around like cheese in butter. They were actively in contact with foreign countries - with the help of their agents they mined in the West necessary technologies and brought them to the USSR. This means that the agents had to be paid; money was provided for this. Few people knew exactly how much they paid the agents, who demanded a lot. Naturally, a variety of frauds took place, as a result of which some Money, allocated for the theft of technology, ended up in the hands of these groups of the military-industrial complex.
The struggle was between the conditional Sverdlovsk (“Tankograd”) and Moscow, the center. The Russian group, that is, the Sverdlovsk people, realized that market reforms and privatization were coming, but they had not accumulated any capital. Then they, taking advantage of the opportunities of Perestroika, began to produce sports equipment. All the raw materials contained in the warehouses were turned into titanium dumbbells, barbells and weights made from rare valuable alloys. In this form, everything was sold abroad to those who then melted it down. A gigantic amount of metal thus left the USSR, being converted into the capital of the Russian group. There were other schemes as well.
Both groups, having obtained money, already put forward their own models of privatization, and economists, and political groups. The Russian group relied first on Ryzhkov (who became Prime Minister of the USSR under President Gorbachev), then on Yeltsin. That is, in Sverdlovsk. Yeltsin was less pro-Soviet, but everyone already wanted a market, closer cooperation with the West, joining Europe... They won’t take the entire USSR into Europe, but if all non-Russian republics are separated from the RSFSR, that’s a different matter. Another option is the “SSG” of Beria-Andropov-Gorbachev, which was called “entering Europe in parts”, independent countries.
Yeltsin's struggle with Gorbachev was the struggle of the Russian group with the Beria group. This was not only a struggle between two powerful politicians for power in the country, two much more powerful entities clashed, their struggle can be traced both during Perestroika and in the Post-Perestroika processes.
State Emergency Committee - a general battle.
Three groups within the State Emergency Committee process, three models, each of which implied its own result, absolutely incompatible with possible results the rest - up to and including brutal reprisals against the losers:
1. Gently or roughly remove Yeltsin from power by protecting Gorbachev.
Gorbachev welcomed such a scenario, and by “eccentrics with the letter M” (as he called the GKChP-ists), he meant that instead of this scenario, something else happened, harmful to him, dooming the SSG plan to failure. Vice-President of the USSR Yanaev is one of the representatives.
Gennady Yanaev
2. Remove Gorbachev from power, saving the USSR from the “SSG” scenario. Put on Yeltsin in two options, either or:
2_A. Make Yeltsin president of the USSR.
The plan was developed by Prime Minister Pavlov's team and was optimal.
Yeltsin would have seized power; he would have had enough energy to bring everything to a common denominator in the republics, between groups of elites. Post-Soviet history could have been different: there would not have been such shocking reforms (and impossible on a territory larger than the Russian Federation, and many economic ties would have survived... conflicts in hot spots would have proceeded differently...).
Valentin Pavlov
2_B. Given the impossibility of preserving the USSR, making Yeltsin the president of the independent Russian Federation, carrying out monstrous shock reforms in it, instilling in the population a fierce hatred of capitalism-liberalism (and the people in 1991 really wanted capitalism, it was impossible to simply and rudely “break off” it - strikes and protests were guaranteed ).
According to plan people disillusioned with liberalism will calmly react to a more or less authoritarian non-communist authorities, restoring order in the country after the liberal revelry. Gradually everything will get better, Russia will “pull” some of the republics towards itself - and will reunite with Europe in some EU. KGB Chairman Kryuchkov also worked for this scenario.
Vladimir Kryuchkov
By the way, all processes, with more or less acceptable deviations, went according to plan 2B. Another thing is that the plan did not work in the end. Yeltsin turned out to be stronger than they thought. Having ousted Gaidar from his post back in the early 90s, he did not allow the people to become outrageously outraged by the shock changes. Somehow maneuvering between representatives of the Beria and Russian groups, he transferred power to Putin in 2000...
3. Remove both Yeltsin and Gorbachev. Bring to power people who can stabilize the situation, carry out moderate market reforms, preserve the socialist system and the USSR as an integral state. The weakest group, Politburo member Oleg Shenin is one of its representatives.
Oleg Shenin
This explains the contradictory nature of the actions of the State Emergency Committee; there were three large groups who really wanted different results. There were also smaller groups, they made parallel bets, played on contradictions, etc.
None of the main groups was ready for the decisive actions that the security forces could offer them to implement each of the scenarios. The members of the State Emergency Committee decided to act only “until first blood” - there was no determination to go to the end, there was no confidence in their own rightness. They did not formulate for themselves a GOAL that could justify the brute force used. They were looking for simple and quick solutions (which did not exist), and were not ready for bloody adventures.
Yeltsin had this GOAL, which is infinitely disgusting to the majority of Russians, was formulated in 1993, the determination was there - so the MEANS were used. Unlike the State Emergency Committee, he did not put “Swan Lake” on TV, he had people who knew what to say, what to call for, how to convince... The State Emergency Committee was not preparing for dialogue with the people AT ALL.
The main merit of the State Emergency Committee is the disruption of the signing of the "GCC" agreement by Gorbachev on August 20, 1991, which was being prepared for August 20, 1991 by the USSR republics, the worst of all possible scenarios.
The members of the State Emergency Committee acted morally, but the consequences were devastating. Having watched them for years, they may have regretted their indecision... This is the brilliance and poverty of the State Emergency Committee.
From the State Emergency Committee to the Belovezhskaya Accords. Why didn't they attack Yeltsin?
The State Emergency Committee lost. This monstrously changed the political balance of power. Until August 19, 1991 it was like this:
1. Conservative groups seeking to preserve the USSR.
Their representatives were members of the Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR, the Army and the KGB (certain groups of them), the CPSU with millions of people, the "Union" group, the Unions of Officers... There were also groups of intellectuals of the ETC and the newspaper "Zavtra" (then "Den") . Immediately more than 70% of those who voted in the referendum “FOR preserving the USSR as a renewed federation.” Federations, not confederations, etc. - it’s just that liberals always cling to the word “renewed”, interpreting the results of the referendum differently. Formally, federal structure implies even closer interaction than was the case between the republics in the USSR).
2. Sovereignizers seeking more radical transformations of the USSR.
Including Yeltsin and the Russian Group project he formalized in the Belovezhskaya Accords. Rutskoy (Vice-President of the RSFSR) and Khasbulatov (Chairman of the Supreme Council of the RSFSR) were shocked by Belovezhye, their contradictions with Yeltsin grew and resulted in political crisis September-October 1993.
Alexander Rutskoi, Boris Yeltsin and Ruslan Khasbulatov.
3. Gorbachev and his team.
He keeps a balance between democrats and conservatives, plays on their contradictions to his advantage. He does not want to unite either with Yeltsin’s group, or, ESPECIALLY, with those who are for a united USSR. Implements the project of Beria's group in execution of the new version of the SSG agreement.
After the defeat of the Emergency Committee, the conservatives were dealt a crushing blow. Many scenarios for defending the integrity of the USSR could be developed. The ETC group, which supported Prime Minister V. Pavlov, for example, was preparing a plan to remove Gorbachev from the post of Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee (he would have remained president, but the CPSU would have gone into opposition to him completely. Gorbachev’s group would have weakened and in the “CPSU versus Yeltsin” arrangement one could would achieve considerable results). The State Emergency Committee was the most ineffective scenario for the conservatives, which brought the minimum result - the failure to sign the JCC.
Gorbachev was now left alone with Yeltsin. Yeltsin finished off the conservatives and attacked Gorbachev, finished off and attacked...
The half-defeated conservatives and Gorbachev, trying to defeat Yeltsin, could unite. Gorbachev was the legitimate president, Supreme Commander-in-Chief(at least he had loyal units and power units ready for active action) - he could still give a worthy fight to Yeltsin and his Belovezhye... Gorbachev could, and was obliged, for the sake of preserving his own power, to paralyze the absolutely illegal actions of Yeltsin in December 1991. He should and was obliged to call on the people for help, declaring his desire to preserve the integrity of the USSR, about the Yeltsin rebellion.
All responsibility for the historical fate of the USSR rests with him.
Gorbachev did not do this.
Only a limited number of matters are under the jurisdiction of a union of sovereign states, while all its members retain state sovereignty. Such unions are created, as a rule, to solve certain problems and achieve specific goals and are rarely stable in a historical perspective, but there are exceptions.
What is a confederation?
A union of sovereign states is a form of government in which all decisions of the central government do not have direct force, but are mediated by the authorities of the member states of the union. The criteria for defining any union as a confederation are so vague that many political scientists are even inclined not to consider the confederation a full-fledged state.
All decisions made by the confederal government must be approved by the authorities of the states in the union. However, most important feature confederation is the right of any of its members to secede at will, without coordinating such a decision with other members and the central government.
It is worth considering, however, that the significant variety of forms of state-legal unions of states does not make it possible to set constant and unchanging criteria for determining a confederation. In this case, it makes sense to turn to historical examples and practice state government.
Historical forms of confederation
The history of statehood knows examples of both confederations with fairly strong centralization and clear powers of the central government, and rather amorphous state entities, in which the center performed exclusively nominal functions.
A striking example of the instability of a confederation as a union of sovereign states is the United States, through which one can trace the evolution of a confederation from an entity with an extremely weak center into a typical federation with a strong power of the head of state.
The first Declaration indicated that the states would enter into separate agreements among themselves for joint defense and improvement of infrastructure, but the “Articles of Confederation,” which outlined the plan of action for unification, were more of a recommendation in nature. Later, the Articles were fiercely criticized by the Founding Fathers, and the governmental structure of the United States of America underwent a significant transformation.
History of Switzerland
Switzerland is considered to be the most a shining example the ability of the confederation for long-term sustainable existence. In its current form, such a state-legal union of sovereign states took shape on August 1, 1291, when three Swiss cantons signed the so-called union letter.
Later, in 1798, Napoleonic France abolished the confederal structure of Switzerland, establishing the unitary Helvetic Republic. However, five years later this decision had to be reversed, returning the Alpine state to its natural state.
A confederation is a permanent union of sovereign states, but even in a confederation there are a number of issues that are dealt with by the central government. For example, in modern Switzerland, such issues are the issue of money and defense policy.
However, the main way to ensure state security in the case of Switzerland is political neutrality, which guarantees the country’s non-interference in any international conflicts. This position of the state in the world political arena provides it with a stable economic position and security on the part of the world's leading players, since each of them is interested in the existence of a neutral arbiter or mediator.
Prospects for a confederal structure
Despite the fact that historically the confederation appeared simultaneously with the federation, this form of union of sovereign states has become much less widespread.
Throughout the late Middle Ages and throughout modern times, state building tended toward centralization and strong state control in all areas.
Today, however, lawyers and government experts consider the confederal form of structure to be the most promising and agree that it will become increasingly popular.
Modern confederations
Such expectations are due to the fact that in international practice there has been an obvious tendency towards a partial renunciation of sovereignty in favor of supranational structures, which some political scientists tend to consider prototypes of future large confederations.
A striking example of a permanent union of states is which has a common currency, a single border and is subject to many decisions of the central authorities, although they are advisory.
The states that have signed this treaty, based on their declarations of sovereignty and recognizing the right of nations to self-determination; taking into account the closeness of the historical destinies of their peoples and expressing their will to live in friendship and harmony, developing equal, mutually beneficial cooperation; taking care of their material well-being and spiritual development, mutual enrichment of national cultures, ensuring general security; Desiring to create reliable guarantees of the rights and freedoms of citizens, we decided to create a Union of Sovereign States on a new basis and agreed on the following. I. Basic principles. First. Each republic party to the treaty is a sovereign state. The Union of Sovereign States (USS) is a confederal democratic state that exercises power within the limits of the powers that the parties to the treaty voluntarily grant it. Second. The states forming the Union reserve the right to independently resolve all issues of their development, guaranteeing equal political rights and opportunities for socio-economic and cultural progress to all peoples living on their territory.
Fifth. The states forming the Union independently determine their national-state and administrative-territorial structure, system of authorities and management.
Seventh. The Union of Sovereign States stands in international relations as a sovereign state, a subject of international law - the successor of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.
II. Structure of the UnionArticle 1. Membership in the UnionMembership of states in the Union is voluntary.
Article 2. Citizenship of the Union A citizen of a state that is a member of the Union is at the same time a citizen of the Union of Sovereign States.
Article 3. Territory of the Union The territory of the Union consists of the territories of all states party to the treaty.
Article 5. Armed Forces of the Union The Union of Sovereign States has unified armed forces with centralized control.
Article 8. PropertyStates parties to the treaty ensure the free development and protection of all forms of property. The states parties to the treaty shall place at the disposal of the bodies of the Union the property necessary for the exercise of the powers entrusted to them. This property is the joint property of the states forming the Union and is used exclusively in their common interests, including the accelerated development of lagging regions.
III. Bodies of the UnionArticle 12. Supreme Council of the UnionThe legislative power of the Union is exercised by the Supreme Council of the Union, consisting of two chambers: the Council of Republics and the Council of the Union.
The Council of the Republics makes decisions on the organization and procedure for the activities of the bodies of the Union of Sovereign States, considers issues of relations between the republics, ratifies and denounces international treaties of the Union, and gives consent to the appointment of the Government of the Union. The Council of the Union considers issues of ensuring the rights and freedoms of citizens and makes decisions on all issues within the competence of the Supreme Council, with the exception of those that fall within the competence of the Council of Republics.
Article 13. President of the Union The President of the Union is the head of the confederal state. The President of the Union acts as a guarantor of compliance with the Treaty on the Union of Sovereign States and the laws of the Union, is the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces of the Union, represents the Union in relations with foreign states, and monitors the implementation of the international obligations of the Union.
IV. Final provisions Article 19. Language of interethnic communication in the Union Parties to the agreement independently determine their state language (languages). The states parties to the treaty recognize the Russian language as the language of interethnic communication in the Union. Article 20. Capital of the Union The capital of the Union is the city of Moscow. Article 21. State symbols of the Union The Union has a state emblem, flag and anthem.
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