Fire tests (from left to right) - Frommer Stop M.17, Steyr M.1912/16 with butt, Frommer Stop M.12 with butt
With the outbreak of the First World War (WWI), it became increasingly clear to all belligerents: the “king” of the battlefield is the machine gun. It was he who led the parties to the situation that military historians call “positional impasse” - the powerlessness of offensive means over defensive means. As a result, the tactics of the warring armies came down to “trench warfare” - bloody attempts to win back at least a piece of the enemy’s defense. And in this kind of combat, as it turned out, light and powerful automatic weapons are required. Awareness of this fact had already occurred by 1915, and the warring parties tried to equip their infantry with light machine guns - these were both lightweight machine guns such as the German MG 08/15, and specially developed designs (British-American Lewis, French Chauchat Mle 1915 CSRG). However, light machine guns, despite obvious progress, had very significant drawbacks - a large dead weight (the lightest Shosh is from 9.5 kg, and the heaviest MG 08/15 is about 14 kg), and a large weight of ammunition.
German infantrymen with captured handguns Lewis machine guns, Battle of the Somme 1916
For “trench warfare” there is absolutely no need for a powerful rifle cartridge; a pistol cartridge is quite sufficient; after all, firing distances rarely exceed several tens of meters. The obvious solution is to replace the rifle cartridge with something less powerful but compact, such as a pistol cartridge. In this case, the recoil of the weapon is sharply reduced, the carryable ammunition increases and the automation system is simplified. And, most importantly, it becomes possible to create a truly compact weapon.
Villar-Perosa M1915
The Italians were the first to come to this conclusion, creating the world's first submachine gun, the Villar-Perosa M1915. The Italians themselves, having developed it for the 9×19 mm Glisenti pistol, considered it more of an ultra-light machine gun than an individual small arms weapon. It had two barrels, a bipod, and was fed from two carob magazines mounted on top. Fire control is done using handles, like a machine gun. The rate of fire, by the way, was phenomenal - about 3000 rounds per minute.
The Imperial and Royal (KuK, kaiserliche und königliche) Austro-Hungarian army encountered Villar-Perosa with Italy's entry into the war in 1915, after which it was concluded that such weapons were needed at home.
Demonstration of the Italian Villar-Perosa M1915 to the Austrian Emperor Charles I
A number of captured Villar-Perosas were re-barreled by the Austrians under the 9x23 Steyr cartridge, however, this did not solve the problem comprehensively.
And so, the Hungarian gunsmith Rudolf von Frommer makes a “knight’s move” - he takes two of his Frommer Stop pistols of the 1912 model under caliber 32 ACP (7.65x17 Browning) * and “with a slight movement of the hand” turns them into a pistol- machine gun Frommer Stop M.17.
*Strictly speaking, the cartridge used was called 7.65 Frommer, had the geometric dimensions of .32 ACP, but slightly higher bullet energy due to the weight of gunpowder. Now we would say .32 ACP + P
Model 1912 Frommer Stop pistol
Essentially, he turned two pistols with extended barrels upside down, inserted a long 30-round magazine into each, and mounted the structure on a tripod.
The automation of the original model worked on the principle of a long barrel stroke and a rotating bolt.
Frommer Stop M.17
The “miracle” turned out to be, as they say, both wrong and wrong: as a light machine gun, the Frommer Stop M.17 had an overly weak cartridge (just over 200 J), and as an individual weapon (submachine gun) it was too inconvenient to use.
According to some reports, the Austrians sent an experimental batch to the Italian front; this hybrid did not receive any positive reviews and did not go into production.
Another noteworthy attempt to make an Austro-Hungarian submachine gun was the . This is already much more interesting weapon, having original technical solutions. It has influences from the hand-modified Schwarzlose or the German MG 08/15.
M.G. des Standschützen Hellriegel M.15
Firstly, it is a water cooling casing around the barrel - with it the machine gun could conduct long-term continuous automatic fire.
Secondly, this is a combined belt or magazine (from a 20-round box magazine) ammunition supply.
Thirdly, M.G. des Standschützen Hellriegel M.15 had a “carbine” stock and could well be used for shooting on the move, unlike previous models.
The cartridge that was used in this PP is the 9x23 mm Steyr - a completely respectable cartridge with a muzzle energy (430 J) no worse than the 9x19 Parabellum.
From left to right: 9x23mm Largo, 9x19mm Parabellum, 9x23mm Winchester and 9x23mm Steyr
There is no information about the principle of operation of the automation, but it can be assumed that it was a blowback shutter.
If we characterize this model as a whole, then the Austrians had the opportunity to be the first among the warring countries to equip their infantry with an almost full-fledged submachine gun. The closest analogues appeared only at the end of the war.
However, even here the Austro-Hungarian generals made a blunder - M.G. des Standschützen Hellriegel M.15 was never accepted into service.
But what, in the end, did the Austrian “assault units” of the First World War use as light automatic weapons?
By analogy with their German attack trooper colleagues, who actively used Mauser C96 and luger Parabellum automatic pistols, the Austrian fighters were armed with a 9 mm Steyr M.1912 pistol
German assault group. Armed with long luger Parabellum
This pistol had a very durable and reliable design. Its significant drawback was its slow loading - the permanent magazine was filled from the top with eight rounds from the clip. And the weight, about 1 kg, was significant.
Steyr M.1912
Many authors note that this pistol was distinguished by high quality production and reliability. The pistol was accurate, and the cartridge was powerful enough to guarantee destruction of manpower. In addition to Austria-Hungary, this pistol was in service with Chile and Romania, 10,000 were purchased by the Bavarian Army, and after WWII it was distributed to all countries that left the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Many pistols ended up as trophies in Italy. In total, more than 200,000 copies were produced. During the Second World War, the Germans re-barrelled the Steyr M.1912 they received from Austria and chambered it for 9x19 Parabellum and used it in auxiliary units.
Zugführer (non-commissioned officer) of assault company 2. Tiroler Kaiserjaeger Regiment (Austria-Hungary) with a Steyr M1912 pistol (self-loading version)
By analogy with the fact that at the end of the war, German attack aircraft began to receive automatic versions of the Mauser C96 and Luger Parabellum (with a 32-round magazine, an extended barrel and an attached holster-butt), which they used as ersatz submachine guns, so did the Austrians made an automatic modification of the Steyr Repetierpistole M1912/16. From the original model, the M1912/16 differed in a fire selector, an extended permanent magazine for 16 rounds (it was also loaded with clips) and an attached holster-butt.
Steyr Repetierpistole M1912/16
In order to enhance the firepower of the assault infantryman, a “double-barreled” variation of the M1912/16 was proposed - the Doppelpistole M.12. It differed from the usual Repetierpistole M1912/16 only in the holster-butt common to the two pistols and in the wooden box for carrying this design. History is silent on the question of whether this “double-barreled gun” was effective.
Doppelpistole M.12
Schwarzlose machine guns
First Austro-Hungarian machine gun designed by Andreas Schwarzlose in 1902. It was produced in small batches at the Steyer arms factory. First serial model The Schwarzlose machine gun of the 1907 model became a model, soon followed by a machine gun of the 1908 model and a modification of 1912, to the level of which the two previous models in service with the Austro-Hungarian army were modernized.
There were few differences between the modifications; they all used the same automation.
Schwarzlose machine guns are massive, belt-fed, water-cooled weapons. The design used the unusual principle of a semi-free shutter. The recoil force acted on the bolt, which was held in the closed position (with the spent cartridge case in the chamber) by a lever mechanism.
Only after a short period of time did the levers allow the bolt to move back. During this time, the bullet had time to leave the barrel, and the pressure there dropped to a safe level. But such a system forced the barrel length to be limited so that the bolt would not open while the bullet was still moving in the channel. Thus, this system was a compromise between the power of the cartridge charge, the length of the barrel and the deceleration time of the bolt.
The Schwarzlose machine guns generally performed well among the troops, but due to the short barrel length, a strong muzzle flash occurred when using the standard 8 mm Austro-Hungarian cartridge. The problem was solved by installing a long cone-shaped flame arrester, which became one of the distinctive features Schwarzlose machine gun. Another characteristic feature of this weapon was the feeding system, which was one of the first to use an asterisk to feed the cartridge, which added reliability to the weapon.
Between 1914 and 1918, the main user of the Schwarzlose machine gun was the Austro-Hungarian army, but Italy, which later entered the war, also began to use captured examples. The Netherlands became a major buyer, but this country remained neutral during the First World War. By 1918, all machine guns of the 1907/12 model, 1908/12 model, and 1912 model that were in service were modernized.
In the first two initial samples, the fed cartridges were lubricated, but in the 1912 model machine gun they got rid of this. There was also a machine gun of the 1907/16 model (model 07/16) for installation on airplanes, but it was not used great success. Schwarzlose machine guns were different large mass and high quality workmanship. Many samples remained in service with infantry units of Italy and Hungary until 1945. The semi-blowback system is not widely used.
Madsen machine guns
The first Madsen machine gun was produced by the Danish company Dansk Industry Syndicate in 1904, and the last in 1950. The Madsen machine gun series consisted of very similar models, the main differences being calibers. The 8-mm machine gun "Madsen 8-mm Rekytgevaer М1903" was one of the first light machine guns and the first to use a top-mounted box magazine.
Used in weapons unique system locking, swinging bolt Peabody - Martini. This system is similar to that used in rimfire sporting rifles, but Madsen used a bolt that had previously only been used in hand-loading automatic weapons. Using a combination of barrel recoil and the movement of lugs and levers, the bolt opened and closed, but since it did not have any means for extracting the cartridge case, an additional rammer and extractor had to be created.
The system was complex, but had one great advantage - it worked reliably in any conditions, with any cartridges, although cartridges with a 7.7 mm rim were not very suitable for it. The Madsen machine gun was produced in different modifications with different calibers. Being air-cooled, this weapon was not very suitable for continuous fire; however, various types of machines were produced for it.
In the basic configuration, the machine gun was equipped with a conventional bipod mounted under the barrel, although some models, including those in service with the Danish army, were equipped with small stands under the barrel so that it could be placed on something when used in a building or fortification. A carrying handle was often installed. The reliability of the Madsen was complemented by the fact that high-quality materials were used for its production, which, however, significantly increased the cost.
During the First World War, the Madsen machine gun was not officially in service with any of the belligerents, but was used by many armies. This machine gun was one of the first to be used for installation on airplanes, although other models were soon preferred for these purposes.
They were used in small quantities on the Eastern Front by German assault troops, and somewhat more were used in armies Central Europe, but all in small quantities. As the light machine gun concept became more common, the Madsen machine gun became the subject of study in many countries, and the British tried to convert it to their .303 caliber cartridge. Unfortunately, this cartridge had a rimmed case, so it did not fit very well with the Madsen system.
Hotchkiss machine gun
Since the early 20th century, it was believed that machine guns would be a good asset to cavalrymen and could be light enough to be carried by charging infantrymen. The result was the Hotchkiss light machine gun model 1909 (Fusilmitrailleur Hotchkiss mle 1909), which used the energy of powder gases, as in the Hotchkiss heavy machine gun.
For a number of reasons, the power system was further complicated by changing the order in which the cartridge clips were fed. When the first production models were released, they were not supplied to the cavalry at all, and the infantry considered these weapons too heavy, so the machine guns were sent for storage or for installation in fortresses.
However, the Americans soon showed interest in the model, purchased a large batch and adopted these weapons for service. ground forces under the designation Benet - Mercie Machine Rifle model 1909. It was mainly used by American cavalry units.
When World War I began, the Model 1909 machine gun was again withdrawn from storage and even adopted by the British Army as the "0.303-in Gun, Machine, Hotchkiss, Mk 1". Machine guns produced in Great Britain were chambered for the British 0.303 caliber cartridge. Many were equipped with a stock and bipod instead of the original small tripod mounted in the middle of the machine gun.
However, the machine gun was not destined to gain popularity among infantrymen, since the cartridge supply system became a real problem, and gradually machine guns of this model began to be used for other purposes. Modified modifications were used as aviation ones, others began to be installed on the first tanks, for example the British Family.
In the cramped interior spaces of armored vehicles, cartridge clips often limited the field of fire, so many machine guns, especially British ones, were converted to use three-round linked clips designed for use on heavy machine guns Hotchkiss model 1914.
Some of these machine guns remained in service with the British Army even into 1939, while others were later used for airfield defense and merchant shipping. The Model 1909 machine gun had little effect on the development of the situation at that time. The problem was not so much its technical imperfection as the shortcomings of its application tactics. Positional warfare did not give this machine gun the opportunity to fully express itself.
It contributed to the history of weapon development as a tank machine gun, but was less successful as aviation weapons, since feeding with clips created too many problems in the open flight deck of an airplane.
Shosha machine gun
Officially known as the Fusil-Mitralleur mle 1915 machine gun, the Chauchat machine gun, or CSRG, became one of the worst weapons in the history of the First World War. The weapon was designed as a light machine gun and was created in 1914 by a group of designers (Chauche, Suter, Ribeirol and Gladiator, hence the name CSRG).
The result was a long and awkward machine gun, the automation of which worked using the recoil principle of a long-stroke barrel, in which the barrel and bolt frame moved back after the shot, after which the barrel returned to the forward position, and the bolt was held in place and moved forward only after some time. time, capturing and chambering the cartridge. This system worked, but was too complex, and the movement of heavy parts inside the machine gun made aiming extremely difficult.
When creating the Shosha machine gun, the designers strove for maximum simplicity of its production, but when its serial production was organized in 1915, many components were produced by subcontractors, and some of them had no experience in producing weapons at all. A real nightmare began: for many companies, the production of a machine gun became just a means of maximizing profits, so they used cheap or illiquid materials that quickly wore out or broke in battle.
But even when materials of acceptable quality were used, the machine gun still remained poor. It was uncomfortable to hold, and there were constant delays when shooting. The strongly curved lower magazine sometimes created inconvenience when carrying the weapon, and the bipod stops were so thin that they easily bent. French soldiers who used these weapons later claimed that the greed of the manufacturers was responsible for the deaths of many soldiers.
Manufacturers were not alone in wanting to maximize profits from gun production. When the United States entered the war, French politicians invited the Americans to adopt the Chauchat machine gun, and the unsuspecting Americans agreed. They received about 16,000 machine guns, and another 19,000 were additionally ordered for the American 7.62 mm cartridge (these machine guns had a straight magazine instead of the curved French one).
The American cartridge was more powerful than the 8 mm French cartridge and therefore more often led to breakdowns in the machine gun. In the event of a delay in shooting, the Americans simply threw the machine gun aside and picked up rifles, especially when they began to receive weapons chambered for a standard cartridge.
Quickly forgotten
In accordance with the concluded contracts, the production of these machine guns continued, but new machine guns were sent to warehouses, where they were stored in anticipation of naive buyers.
In France, some parliamentarians decided to investigate the Chauchat case, trying to understand the principle of awarding production contracts and the distribution of profits, but so many politicians and manufacturers were involved in this scam that the investigation was unsuccessful.
Many reference books claim that the Shosha machine gun became the worst machine gun of the First World War in all respects - from the design itself to the quality of production and materials used. The problem was aggravated by the complete lack of control over the machine gun production program.
As a result, many soldiers at the front put their lives at mortal risk, having extremely unreliable weapons in their hands, while at the same time greedy businessmen in the rear lined their pockets with excess profits.
Saint-Etienne machine gun
The Hotchkiss machine gun was a commercial invention, and the French military wanted to get their own design. Their attempts were not successful, and the gas exhaust system modified by Hotchkiss was protected by many patents, so it could not be borrowed.
Undeterred by this, the French attempted to create a machine gun known as the Puteaux machine gun or the Model 1905 machine gun. It was so unsuccessful that it was withdrawn from service after just two years. However, its design was used as the basis for a new machine gun, known as the Model 1907 machine gun or the Saint-Etienne machine gun, after the name of the arms manufacturing plant.
The designers decided to use a gas exhaust system, like in the Hotchkiss machine gun, but redesigning it. Instead of gases pushing the piston, the gases were diverted forward, and the piston compressed the spring. The compressed spring was then released with enough force to make the mechanism work. This system worked, but only at the cost of complexity and the use of many parts prone to failure. In practice, the idea was reduced to continuous problems.
The supply of cartridges to the machine gun was carried out with delays; the return spring, on which the entire operation of the mechanism depended, heated up to such an extent that its compression weakened or it simply broke. In the end, the designers were forced to make the spring open. This promoted cooling, but at the same time introduced dirt and dust, which led to further delays.
Despite all the problems, machine guns of the 1907 model were used in the First World War. The reason was the fact that the French army was in dire need of weapons and used everything they could find. It was necessary to somehow improve the operation of the machine gun, and in 1916 some attempts were made to correct the most obvious shortcomings.
None of the modifications was officially adopted, and gradually the already released models began to be replaced by more reliable Hotchkiss machine guns. Machine guns of the 1907 model were exported to French colonies, where they were used by local armed forces and police.
The Saint-Etienne machine gun turned out to be unsuccessful also because, for some unknown reason, obviously unsuccessful solutions from previous years were used in its design. The Puteaux machine gun, for example, showed the unacceptability of some of the designs used in the 1907 model machine gun.
The designers decided to use an extremely inconvenient method of feeding using clips, as in the Hotchkiss machine gun, although it was clear that it was impractical and was being replaced by new methods. As a result, in the conditions of trench warfare on the Western Front, the Saint-Etienne machine gun enjoyed extremely disrepute.
Machine gun MG - 08
Contrary to popular belief, the German army was not particularly enthusiastic about the machine gun when Hiram Maxim began showing his product in European capitals in the 1890s. His weapons certainly attracted some interest, but only a few examples were purchased. After, on the orders of Emperor Wilhelm II, several of these machine guns were purchased for the German army, and were paid for from the emperor’s private fund, attitudes towards this model quickly changed.
The command of the German army entered into a licensing agreement with Maxim, and soon the machine gun began to be mass-produced in civilian factories and the state arms company in Spandau, near Berlin. After the release of the trial series, the model was slightly modified, and the 1908 model sMG 08 (schwere Maschinengewehr 08) machine gun, created for the 7.92 mm rifle cartridge, went into production.
The sMG 08 model was not much different from other Maxim machine guns. The automatic system, which operates on the principle of short-stroke recoil, remained unchanged, and the production was of very high quality. In service, the Spandau machine gun proved to be very successful, working in any conditions. The only visible difference was the machine.
Having organized the production of the Maxim machine gun, German gunsmiths added to its design a machine known as the “Schlitten” (sled), which, when folded, was intended for dragging the machine gun along the ground. The machine could be carried by two people, as if the “Schlitten 08” stretcher provided good stability when shooting, but was too heavy, so in 1916 the “Dreifuss 16” tripod machine was adopted.
During the First World War, the use of these machine guns had a depressing effect on the soldiers of the Allied powers. Usually it was because of the machine guns of the 1908 model that massive infantry attacks were drowned out. After 1914, the number of machine guns in the German army increased significantly, and perhaps the most important change was that the Germans learned to use machine guns, placing them on the flanks, instead of placing them along the front and sweeping through no man's land.
The new tactics meant that the machine gunners received a field of fire and the ability to fire more effectively at the advancing enemy, while the crew itself was better protected. German machine gunners were carefully selected and had excellent training: they thoroughly knew the structure of the machine gun and, if necessary, could quickly repair the weapon in a combat situation (special tools were included in the kit for this purpose).
At that time, the crew of a German machine gun, consisting of two or three people, was able to stop the advance of an entire infantry battalion on open area. A significant part of the infantry losses in the battles of Nu Chapelle, Louze on the Somme and others can be attributed to the sMG 08 machine guns and their trained crews.
If you add to this artillery fire and barbed wire barriers, you can understand the reasons why the Allied offensive was repeatedly thwarted. After 1918, such machine guns remained in German service, and many were used in the rear in 1939.
Machine gun MG08-15
By 1915, the command of the German army realized the need to adopt a light machine gun. The sMG 08 available at that time was an excellent heavy machine gun, but it was still too difficult to drag it to new positions if the operational situation required it. It was decided to conduct comparative tests, in which, among others, the Danish Madsen machine gun, Bergmann and Dreyse light machine guns took part.
The choice was made on a light machine gun based on the sMG 08. It was given the designation MG 08/15, and the first samples began to enter the army in 1916. The machine gun retained the automatics and water cooling from the heavy machine gun, although the casing was made smaller. Other changes included reducing the thickness of the receiver walls, eliminating some parts, replacing the heavy sled with a bipod, adding a pistol grip and stock, and reworking the sights.
However, even with a rich imagination, the MG 08/15 could hardly be called manual, because it weighed 18 kg. However, it could be carried and even fired while standing using a belt. A shortened cloth cartridge belt was used for ammunition supply.
Since the basic model was familiar to machine gunners, they did not require additional training. In addition, many parts were interchangeable. Later, the developers went even further and abandoned the water casing; this modification was designated MG 08/18. The First World War ended before the new weapon entered service en masse, although some samples managed to reach the front in infantry units.
There was another modification of the MG 08/15 - LMG 08/15, in the designation of which the letter “L” meant “Luft” - “air”. This air-cooled model was intended for installation on German airplanes. Essentially it was the same MG 08/15 with the water casing retained for strength, but the casing was perforated to cool the barrel.
The trigger mechanism was controlled by a cable, and the rate of fire was synchronized with the propeller so that it was possible to shoot through the propeller without touching the blades. The cartridges were fed from a drum, and another drum was often used as a empty belt receiver. Some of the early Maxim aircraft machine guns were sMG08 light machine guns, known as LMG 08, but these were phased out once the LMG 08/15 appeared.
In the infantry, units in the platoon-company link were equipped with MG 08/15 machine guns, and sMG 08 heavy machine guns entered service with the battalion or were combined into special machine gun companies. Despite their mobility, the MG 08/15 machine guns were not truly light machine guns, since they remained heavy and bulky compared to other light machine guns of the time.
However, these weapons had great firepower, were reliable, and the German machine gunners were well trained in handling them. Perhaps the most effective use of the MG 08/15 machine gun was in the final campaign of 1918, when retreating German units used small units armed with light machine guns to cover their retreat. Sometimes a single machine gun pinned down an enemy battalion, and in open terrain it posed a serious threat to cavalry.
Maxim machine gun
The first Maxim machine guns for the Russian army in the early 1900s were produced at Vickers factories, but this did not last long as it was decided to start producing their own machine guns at the arms factory in Tula. The first Russian machine gun was the Maxim machine gun model 1905, which was a direct copy of the original, but produced on a Russian scale with a bronze water casing. In 1910, bronze was replaced with steel sheet, and this model was called the Maxim machine gun model 1910.
Of all the modifications of this model produced in the world, the Maxim machine gun of 1910 was destined to become the longest-lived - its production ceased only in 1943. During these years, several of its modifications appeared, but all of them, like the base model, were particularly durable and unpretentious, able to withstand any conditions and any climate, which was very suitable for the Russian army, scattered throughout all corners of the huge empire.
This reliability had a big price, in this case the price was weight. Maxim's machine gun was very heavy. so much so that even the machine for it looked more like an artillery carriage. This machine, known as the Sokolov machine, usually had a removable shield installed. The machine gun was mounted on a rotating table for shooting with dispersion; the barrel was raised using a screw with a handle.
The rotating table was mounted on two steel spoked wheels. On many early Sokolov machines there were two side stops that could be pulled forward for shooting through the parapet; on later machines the stops were removed.
The weight of the machine gun together with the machine was at least 74 kg. This meant that at least two people were required to drag the weapon even on level ground. The package included ropes for dragging over rough terrain, and in winter special sled machines were used.
Weapons were often transported on peasant carts, which were then common throughout Russia. To compensate for these inconveniences, the Maxim machine gun could be fired as long as ammunition remained. It did not require careful maintenance but was always trouble-free.
The machine gun was produced in huge quantities until 1917, by which time its production had been established at other factories besides Tula. The only changes made to the design during the First World War were the installation of a grooved casing (thus increasing the casing area and improving cooling) and the removal of the shield to reduce weight. During the war, the reliability of the machine gun became a legend, and the Germans willingly used captured models.
Lewis machine gun
The Lewis machine gun, commonly known simply as the "Lewis", was a joint development. Its inventor was Samuel McLean, an American, but the design was later modified and copyrighted by another American, Colonel Isaac Lewis. The American military leadership was not enthusiastic about the new machine gun, and Lewis proposed the design to the Belgians, who began producing it for their army. This happened in 1913, then production was transferred to the UK to the Birmingham Small Arms Factory
The Lewis machine gun was produced at the Birmingham factory under the designation "Lewis Gun Mk 1". The main motivating factor for the command of the British Army, which decided to adopt this machine gun for service, was the fact that it took the same amount of time to produce five or six Lewis machines as one Vickers machine gun. The fact that the Lewis machine gun was lighter and more mobile was not taken into account at that time, or, in any case, faded into the background. The machine gun immediately gained popularity among the troops precisely because it could be used by mobile groups.
The automatic machine gun operates based on the use of the energy of powder gases. They are retracted from the bore, pushing the piston. The piston retracts the bolt carrier, compressing the return spring located below, which returns the entire mechanism to the forward position. The mechanism was quite complex and required careful maintenance. In addition, the disc magazine was often the reason for delays in firing. The barrel was enclosed in a special air-cooling casing, but experience showed that this structural element turned out to be unnecessary. Aviation Lewis machine guns did not have a casing.
Only after a sufficient number of machine guns had been produced in Europe did the United States begin to realize the importance of such weapons and decided to organize its production in the United States under the American 7.7 mm cartridge. Some Lewis machine guns were installed on early tanks, and many were used on naval vessels. During World War II, Lewis machine guns were removed from storage and used to arm merchant ships, territorial defense troops and airfield security units.
"I want everything..."
HAND WEAPONS OF GERMANY
Officer's pistol "Parabellum" R.08 mod. 1908
CHARACTERISTICS: caliber – 9 or 7.65 mm; magazine capacity – 8 rounds, weight – 0.9 kg, muzzle velocity – 320 m/s
The pistol was developed by engineer Georg Luger in 1900 as a result of improving the design of the Borchardt system pistol mod. 1893. In 1901, this pistol was given the name “parabellum”, which comes from the telegraph address of the DVM company in Berlin, which in turn is the Latin expression “para bellum” - “prepare for war” (from the Latin proverb “If you want peace - prepare for war." The pistol is sometimes also called a "Luger", but in the German army it was assigned official name"Pistol 08" (R.08). 
The pistol's automatic mechanisms worked using the recoil energy of the barrel during its short stroke. Like the Borchardt system pistol, the barrel bore was locked using a hinged lever bolt, which gave the weapon unusual look. The standard capacity of the Parabellum magazine was 8 rounds, but the “assault” or “artillery” model used in the German army during the First World War was equipped with a drum-type magazine of increased capacity (for more information about this weapon, see the article “R-17 Assault Pistol”).
For the needs of the fleet, the designers of the DVM company extended the pistol barrel to 200 mm; They did the same for the “assault” pistols; the difference between these models was that marine version had a conventional fixed sight and a leather holster, and on the handle of the assault rifle model equipped with a sight there was a protrusion for attaching a wooden butt - a holster.
The P-08 pistol was adopted as the main standard officer model. All the Kaiser's army and navy officers were armed with it (at least until the shortage of Parabellums began to be felt due to huge combat losses); Other models of pistols were used to arm non-commissioned officers and soldiers. German officers were very pleased with the P-08 pistol; In the troops of Germany's opponents, this pistol was also highly appreciated - it was one of the most coveted trophies. For example, the captured “Parabellum” R-08 was the favorite weapon of the famous hero of the 1st World War and Civil War, commander of the 1st Cavalry Army Semyon Mikhailovich Budyonny. The Mauser, famous for cinematography, appeared with Budyonny only in 1921, when he was awarded an Honorary Revolutionary Weapon; before that, the famous cavalryman fought with a captured Parabellum, which he captured in battle in 1915 (in his memoirs, Semyon Mikhailovich colorfully describes how the Parabellum was somewhat once saved his life).
After the First World War, due to restrictions imposed by the Treaty of Versailles, only Parabellum pistols of 7.65 mm caliber with a barrel length of 98 mm were produced, but after 1934 the production of the standard model P.08 was restored, and the pistol was widely used during the Second World War world war.
Pistol of mounted rangers "Mauser" S.96 mod. 1896
CHARACTERISTICS: caliber – 9 mm; magazine capacity – 10 rounds, weight – 1.2 kg, initial bullet speed – 420 m/s, sighting range– up to 1000 m.
The Mauser S.96 pistol (in Russian K.96) is one of the most famous and popular weapons. Created in 1896, it underwent several modernizations in the years preceding the First World War, which, however, did not greatly affect the advantages and disadvantages of its design.
The positive qualities of the Mauser system pistol include: trouble-free operation when clogged and dusty, high survivability (during firing, one of the models withstood 10 thousand shots), good accuracy (from 50 m, 10 bullets fit into a 160x120 mm rectangle) and high rate of fire (aiming fire 30 rds/min, without aiming - up to 60 rds/min). The maximum flight range of a bullet was 2000 m; with a holster-butt attached, the Mauser could aim at up to 1000 m; at close range, a bullet weighing 5.5 g pierced ten 25 mm pine boards.
At the same time, the design of the pistol caused a lot of negative feedback. First of all, this concerned large dimensions and the weight of the weapon, poor balancing (due to the magazine placed in front of the trigger guard, the center of gravity of the pistol was placed far forward), the inconvenience of loading the magazine. These shortcomings significantly limited the scope of use of the pistol.
In 1905, a model with a shortened barrel and magazine was used by officers of the Italian Navy. Later, Türkiye and some European countries began to purchase this pistol. On the eve of the First World War, the Mauser K.96 was allowed to be purchased as an alternative weapon by Russian officers. In Germany, this pistol was considered only a civilian weapon - the Kaiser’s army was armed with more modern pistol R.08 “Parabellum”.
The German army turned its attention to the Mauser K.96 only during the 1st World War, when due to combat losses there was an acute shortage of personal defense weapons. The command expressed its agreement to purchase this model, subject to the Mauser being re-barreled for the standard 9x10 Parabellum army cartridge. The requirement was met, and in 1916 the 9-mm Mauser pistol entered service with the German army - as a weapon of a limited standard, to compensate for the shortage of pistols caused by the war. In total, the Kaiser's army purchased 130 thousand K.96 Mausers, all of which had the number "9" carved on the handle, indicating the army caliber - 9-mm Parabellum. First of all, Mausers went into service with units of mounted rangers, as well as in assault detachments, whose task was to clear captured enemy trenches. In these operations, the Mauser K.96, along with the R-17 assault pistol, turned out to be the best weapon (at least until the advent of submachine guns).
After Germany's defeat in World War I, under the restrictions imposed on the arms industry by the Treaty of Versailles, Mauser factories switched to producing small batches of model pistols. 1896 with reduced barrel length and caliber. The pistol remained popular as before, and subsequently, although to a limited extent, it was used even during the 2nd World War. 
Officer's pistol "Mauser" model 1914
CHARACTERISTICS: caliber - 7.65 mm; Magazine capacity – 8 rounds, weight – 0.6 kg, initial bullet speed – 290 m/s.
During the First World War in the German army, senior command personnel who were not directly involved in battles preferred to have small pocket-type pistols rather than bulky army pistols. Many front-line officers also wanted to have weapons of this class for personal self-defense. And since the industry did not have time to produce the required number of army pistols, it was decided to purchase a certain number of service (police) model pistols for the army. As a result, in 1916, the Kaiser’s army bought 100,000 model pistols from the Mauser company. 1914, designed for the 7.65 mm Browning cartridge. This small, lightweight pistol of the original design was compact and a very good self-defense weapon for its time.
It was created on the basis of the 6.35 mm Mauser pistol mod. 1910, and according to the principle of automatic operation it was classified as a blowback system. Its feature was that the bolt stopped in the rear position when the magazine was empty, which made it possible to significantly reduce the time for reloading and thereby significantly increase the combat capabilities of the weapon. It was enough to remove the empty magazine and replace it with a new one. In this case, the inserted magazine interacted with the bolt stopper, which automatically turned off and released the bolt. The latter returned to the forward position, sending a cartridge from the magazine into the chamber and locking the barrel. The pistol had a striker-type trigger mechanism. Although disassembling and reassembling this weapon was not difficult, small parts of the trigger mechanism were often lost during disassembly. Impact mechanism was sensitive to clogging and contamination, in addition, at low temperatures the Mauser pistol mod. 1914 often misfired when firing due to a weak mainspring. The advantages of the Mauser M 1914 pistol include good accuracy of fire: at a distance of 25 m, the bullets fit into an ellipse of 160x20 mm, and at 50 m - 170x70 mm.
Pistol Mauser mod. 1914 was one of the most coveted trophies for Russian soldiers and officers, who, even before the war, became acquainted with the excellent qualities of the “civilian” Mauser model 1910, which was freely sold in stores, and now eagerly obtained a more powerful version of their favorite weapon in the enemy trenches. This is how this pistol came into the hands of the father of the future writer Arkady Gaidar, who sent his son “a small pocket Mauser in a suede holster.” Gaidar wrote about how he used this pistol during the civil war in his story “School”. 
Soldier's pistol "Draize" mod. 1912
Caliber, mm - 9
Length, mm - 206
Barrel length, mm - 126
Weight without cartridges, g - 1050
Drum/magazine capacity - 8
This pistol was an enlarged 7.65 mm 1907 model chambered for the powerful 9 mm Parabellum cartridge. Thus, the designer turned a police weapon into an army pistol; it appeared shortly before the start of the 1st World War, and entered service with non-commissioned officers (sergeants) and ordinary infantry and cavalry soldiers, machine gunners, artillerymen, car drivers, etc. Using a powerful cartridge in a blowback pistol required the use of a strong recoil spring. Because of unusual shape With the shutter-casing, it was almost impossible to manually cock the pistol, and Schmeisser patented a special system that, when erecting the shutter, turned off the return spring. Externally, the 9 mm Dreyze gives the impression of a pistol with an abnormally long barrel, but in fact its length is almost five inches, and that is mainly due to the presence of a two-inch recoil spring bushing, which was necessary to maintain satisfactory ballistic characteristics of the weapon . The complex clutch-disengagement circuit functioned quite reliably, but only as long as the weapon was new. In most surviving examples, the lever lugs and bushings are so worn that the lever often rises spontaneously when firing. As a result, the bolt-casing, not meeting the resistance of the return spring, is thrown back with enormous force and jams in the open position. Fortunately, a strong bolt box bridge prevents the bolt casing from being torn off from the frame.
It was a rather heavy and complex weapon, but powerful enough to provide soldiers with good self-defense in trench hand-to-hand combat. The production of Dreyse pistols ceased at the end of the 1st World War, but for several years after the end of the fighting they went on free sale, so that many civilians were able to become familiar with serious army weapons.
7.92 mm Mauser G.98 infantry rifle mod. 1898
Caliber, mm 7.92x57 Mauser
Length, mm 1250
Barrel length, mm 740
Weight, kg 4.09
Magazine capacity, cartridges 5
By the end of the 19th century, the German arms company of the Mauser brothers already had a reputation as a well-known developer and supplier of small arms - rifles developed by the Mauser brothers were in service not only in Kaiser Germany, but also in many other countries - Belgium, Spain, Turkey. In 1898, the German army adopted a new rifle, created by the Mauser company based on previous models. It was Gewehr 98 (also designated G 98 or Gew.98 - rifle mod. (1898). The new Mauser rifle turned out to be so successful that it served in the German army in a slightly modified form until the end of the Second World War, and was also supplied in various versions for export and was produced under license in various countries (Austria, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia and others).To this day, rifles based on the Gew.98 design are very popular, produced and sold, although mainly in the form hunting weapons.
Together with the Gew.98 rifle, the Kar.98 carbine was also released, but it was produced in its original form only until 1904 or 1905, when the Gew.98 system underwent the first changes in connection with the adoption of a new 7.92x57 mm cartridge, which had a pointed bullet instead of a blunt one. The new bullet had much better ballistics and the rifles as a result received new sights, re-calibrated for a longer-range cartridge. In 1908, another version of the carbine based on the Gew.98 appeared, which from the early 1920s received the designation Kar.98a (K98a). In addition to the reduced length of the stock and barrel relative to the Gew.98, the K98a had a downward-curved bolt handle and a hook for mounting on a sawhorse under the muzzle of the barrel.
The G.98 rifle is a repeating weapon with a longitudinally sliding, rotating bolt. The magazine holds 5 rounds, box-shaped, integral, completely hidden in the stock. Placing cartridges in the magazine in a checkerboard pattern, loading the magazine with the bolt open, one cartridge at a time through the top window in the receiver or from 5-round clips. The clip is inserted into grooves in the rear of the receiver and the cartridges are squeezed out of it with your finger down into the magazine. Unloading the magazine - one cartridge at a time, operating the shutter. The bottom cover of the magazine is removable (for inspection and cleaning of the magazine nest) and is secured with a spring-loaded latch in front of the trigger guard. Loading cartridges directly into the chamber is not allowed, as it can lead to breakage of the extractor tooth. The Mauser bolt is longitudinally sliding, locked by turning 90 degrees. The loading handle is rigidly mounted on the bolt body, straight on rifles, and bent down on carbines, located in the rear of the bolt. There are gas outlet holes in the bolt body, which, when gases break through from the cartridge case, remove the powder gases back through the hole for the firing pin and down into the magazine cavity, away from the shooter's face. The bolt is removed from the weapon without the help of tools - it is held in the receiver by a bolt lock located on the left of the receiver. To remove the bolt, you need to put the safety in the middle position, and by pulling the front part of the lock outward, remove the bolt back. A special feature of the Mauser bolt design is a massive non-rotating extractor that grips the rim of the cartridge during its removal from the magazine and rigidly holds the cartridge on the bolt mirror. Together with a slight longitudinal displacement of the bolt back when turning the handle when opening the bolt (due to the bevel on the bolt box jumper), this design ensures the initial release of the cartridge case and reliable extraction of even cartridge cases that are very tightly seated in the chamber. The trigger is striker-operated, the trigger has a descent warning, the mainspring is located around the striker, inside the bolt. The firing pin is cocked and armed by opening the bolt by turning the handle. The condition of the firing pin (cocked or deflated) can be determined visually or by touch by the position of its shank protruding from the rear of the bolt. The fuse is three-position, reversible, located in the rear of the bolt. It has the following positions: horizontally to the left – “safety on, bolt locked”; vertically upward – “safety is on, bolt is free”; horizontally to the right - “fire”. The “up” safety position is used to load and unload the weapon and remove the bolt. The safety is easily switched with the thumb of the right hand. Sights include a front sight and a “v”-shaped rear sight, adjustable in range from 100 to 2000 meters. The front sight is mounted on the base in the muzzle of the barrel in a transverse groove, and can move left or right to shift the average point of impact. The adjustable rear sight is located on the barrel in front of the receiver. On some samples, the front sight is covered with a semicircular removable front sight. The stock is wooden, with a semi-pistol grip. The butt plate is steel, has a door that closes the cavity for storing accessories. The ramrod is located in the front of the stock, under the barrel, and is short in length. To clean a weapon, a standard cleaning rod is assembled (screwed together) from two halves, which requires at least two carbines. It is possible to mount a bayonet under the barrel. On the side of the butt there is a metal disk with a hole, which is used as a stop when disassembling the bolt and firing pin assembly with a spring.
In general, Mauser rifles of the 1898 model can easily be called one of the best in their class. In addition, the high strength of the receiver and locking unit, ease of barrel attachment (it is screwed into the receiver), compatibility of the bottom diameter of the 7.92 mm Mauser cartridge with many other cartridges (.30–06, .308 Winchester, .243 Winchester, etc. .d.) made Mausers extremely popular. 
Mondragon self-loading rifle mod. 1908 (Mexico for Germany)
CHARACTERISTICS: caliber – 7 mm; magazine capacity – 10 rounds; weight – 4.1 kg; sighting range – 2000 m
This weapon became the first self-loading rifle in history to be used in battle. Moreover, oddly enough, it was developed in Mexico, a country of extremely low technical capabilities. Naturally, the rifle was very complex and expensive to produce, and could not be mass-produced given the current level of technology. The main disadvantage of the new weapon was its extreme sensitivity to contamination; therefore, it could not be used in infantry. But the Mondragon rifle drew the attention of German aviators, who just at that time were looking for weapons for the beginning of the air struggle. First air battles The 1st World War consisted of shootouts between pilots of opposing sides using standard pistols and revolvers; Naturally, the effectiveness of such fire was zero. Cavalry carbines did not work in aviation: the pilot could not fly the plane with both hands and jerk the rifle bolt. Under these conditions, the automatically reloaded Mondragon seemed to the aviator to be a solution to the problem, and the German command purchased a batch of these rifles to arm aircraft and airfield personnel. Moreover, the soldiers guarding the airfield were armed with a standard version of the rifle with a box magazine for 10 rounds, and for flights the pilots received a version with a disk magazine of increased capacity (up to 30 rounds). Mondragons took part in a number of battles, but their combat effectiveness was almost on par with that of revolvers. For maneuverable high-speed battles, a completely different weapon was required - a machine gun, and aviators of all countries soon realized this. The introduction of machine guns into aviation armament marked the end of Mondragon's combat career - the rifle gave way to faster-firing weapons. 
Mondragon rifle for aviators with an enlarged disc magazine
Assault pistol R.17 (based on the Parabellum R.08) 1917
CHARACTERISTICS: caliber – 9 mm; magazine capacity – 32 rounds, weight – 0.9 kg, muzzle velocity – 320 m/s
The peculiarities of positional warfare and the need to fight in close trenches led the Germans to the idea of creating so-called “assault weapons,” which should be light, maneuverable and very fast-firing. While the designers were struggling to develop a completely new weapon - submachine guns, the engineers of the DVM company proposed to gain time by adopting a compromise option: to create an "intermediate" assault weapon, converting the standard pistol of the Kaiser's army R.08 "Parabellum" into it.
The modernization primarily affected the magazine: the standard 8-round magazine, which was emptied in 3-5 seconds, was replaced with a “snail” type drum magazine with a capacity of 32 rounds, which significantly increased the practical rate of fire. The usual leather Parabellum holster was replaced with a wooden one (modeled on the Mauser); fastened to the handle, the holster became a butt, turning the pistol into a semi-carbine. This made it possible to increase the effective firing range of the Parabellum to 300 meters, but thanks to the barrel extended to 200 mm and a new mobile sight (like a rifle), the best shooters could hit the target at a distance of up to 800 meters. The resulting weapon was called the “R.17 Assault Pistol,” although another name is found in the literature: “artillery model.”
Infantrymen armed with R.17 and hand grenades, usually engaged in covering the crews of MG.08/15 light machine guns in assault groups attacking enemy trenches. They have proven themselves very well in this matter, however, practice has shown that in order to fully solve combat missions, assault groups still require more powerful special weapons, with a high density of fire in close combat. Submachine guns became such weapons, and therefore, after the end of World War I, “assault pistols” were no longer made. In total, the Luger company produced 198 thousand long-barreled Parabellums, which were used by the Germans in assault attacks.
9-mm submachine gun MP-18 mod. 1918
CHARACTERISTICS: caliber – 9 mm; magazine capacity - 32 rounds, weight - 4.18 kg (without cartridges), 5.3 kg (with cartridges); initial bullet speed – 380 m/s; automatic fire only
The MP.18 was designed to increase infantry firepower in the face of new methods of warfare. For combat at short distances, in the trenches, where the range of rifles and machine guns was only a hindrance, a light, fast-firing, maneuverable weapon with a high density of fire was needed; Pistol cartridges were quite suitable for its creation. This is how it appeared the new kind small arms - submachine gun. Acquaintance with captured Italian Revelli submachine guns had a certain influence on the design of the MP.18; But German weapons turned out to be much lighter and more mobile than the Italian one. Equipped with a wooden stock with a butt, the MP.18 was convenient for hand-held shooting, which made it suitable for both defensive and offensive combat. In battle, the MP.18 was served by two soldiers: one fired a submachine gun, the other, armed with a Mauser rifle, carried 6 drum magazines and 2,400 rounds of ammunition behind the machine gunner. 
The command ordered 50 thousand MP.18 to the industry, but before the end of hostilities, German factories managed to produce 17,677 submachine guns, and only 3,500 copies of these weapons entered the troops. Already the first battles revealed the shortcomings of the MP.18: it caused a lot of delays when firing, it could fire when the bolt was not tightly closed, it was sensitive to contamination, and due to the lateral location of the magazine it had a large dispersion of bullets. Nevertheless, the submachine gun showed a high density of fire and high combat effectiveness, which determined the path further development this type of weapon. As a result, the Germans, even after defeat in the war, tried to keep the MP.18 in service, despite the prohibitions of the Versailles Conference. To do this, they transferred all the MP.18 issued to the police, and began to improve these weapons as police weapons. Thanks to this trick, German submachine guns continued their life, which turned out to be surprisingly long: even in 1943, the Wehrmacht and the police still had about 7,000 copies of the MP.18.
MACHINE GUNS OF GERMANY
7.92 mm heavy machine gun MG-08 mod. 1908
CHARACTERISTICS: caliber – 7.92 mm, belt capacity – 250 rounds, weight – 64 kg, muzzle velocity – 785 m/s, sighting range – 2000 m, rate of fire – 500-550 rounds/min, combat rate of fire – 250 -300 shots/min.
The MG-08 heavy machine gun was the main machine gun of the German army in the First World War. It was a variant of the famous American Maxim heavy machine gun. Like Maxim, the automatic machine gun worked on the principle of using the recoil of the barrel. After the shot, the powder gases threw the barrel back, thereby activating the reloading mechanism, which removed the cartridge from the fabric cartridge belt, sent it into the chamber and at the same time cocked the bolt.
The machine gun was mounted on a sled or tripod machine. In the German army, a sled-type machine was more widely used, which allowed firing from a prone, sitting and kneeling position. Changing the height of the line of fire in this machine was ensured by raising or lowering the two front legs. The machine was equipped with a lifting mechanism that allowed fine and coarse aiming of the machine gun. The machine gun was fed with cartridges from a fabric tape with 250 rounds of ammunition. In this case, 7.92 mm Mauser rifle cartridges with a light or heavy bullet were used. The MG-08 was distinguished by very high ballistic qualities and enormous firepower, but the serious disadvantages of the machine gun were its heavy weight and water cooling - when the casing was damaged by bullets and shrapnel, water poured out and the MG-08 barrel quickly overheated. 
With the development of German aviation, the need arose to arm aircraft with machine guns; For this purpose, the Germans used the same MG-08 machine gun. It was adapted for a synchronizer so that the weapon could fire through a rotating propeller, and the cooling system was changed - instead of water, they made it air, making many slots in the barrel casing through which the headwind passed during the flight of the aircraft. Under the name "Spandau machine gun" this weapon was used by German aviation until the very end of the war.
7.92 mm light machine gun MG-08/15 mod. 1917
CHARACTERISTICS: caliber – 7.92 mm, weight with casing filled with water – 18.9 kg, weight with air cooling – 14.5 kg, sighting range – 2000 m, rate of fire – 500-550 rounds/min., combat rate of fire - 250-300 shots/min.
The experience of combat showed the Germans, as well as the Entente troops, that infantry units lacked the flexibility of fire - heavy machine guns did not have the speed of movement necessary on the battlefield. To provide fire support for attacks by rifle units, light automatic weapons were required that could move forward in the front ranks of the advancing infantry. However, in creating new weapons, the Germans chose a path directly opposite to the direction of the Entente’s design thought: instead of developing completely new models of “machine guns,” they began to lighten and improve the MG-08 heavy machine gun that was in service. Having removed the body of the machine gun from the machine, German gunsmiths attached a bipod, butt and pistol grip to it, which significantly reduced the weight of the MG-08 and improved the ease of handling the weapon. Subsequently, the Germans carried out a number of works that made it possible to abandon water cooling of the barrel and switch to air cooling of the machine gun. And although in general the weight of the German “handbrake” remained excessive for this type of weapon, the Germans won in another way: the design, long established and well mastered by industry, was very simple and reliable. The transition to the production of a new machine gun did not require readjustment of equipment and a reduction in production rates; there was no need to waste time on retraining machine gunners for a new type of weapon. Unlike the new light machine guns of the Entente, the old MG-08 was devoid of numerous “childhood diseases” and outperformed the enemy “handbrake guns” in unpretentiousness, reliability, and ease of maintenance. That is why the rather heavy and outwardly awkward MG-08/15 remained Germany’s main light machine gun until the very end of the war, and was subsequently used by the Reichswehr and the Wehrmacht - some of the MG-08/15 were used by the Germans even at the initial stage of World War 2! At the very end of World War I, in 1918, a lightweight version of the MG-08 began to arrive in the troops - MG-08/18 - actually the same machine gun, but on which it was possible to abandon water cooling and remove the heavy water casing of the barrel, replacing it was lightly corrugated, providing air cooling for the barrel. This machine gun did not become widespread among the troops before the end of the fighting, but in the post-war years it, along with the MG-08/15, was actively used by the Reichswehr and the Wehrmacht until the middle of World War II. 
Light machine gun MG-08/18
7.92 mm Bergman light machine gun LMG-15nA mod. 1915
Caliber, mm 7.92x57
Length, mm 1150
Barrel length, mm 710
Weight without cartridges and bipod, kg 11.83
Weight without cartridges on bipod, kg 12.94
Rate of fire, rds/min 550
Initial bullet speed, m/s 892
Combat rate of fire, rds/min 300
Magazine capacity, 200 rounds
In 1900, Theodor Bergman took out a patent for the design of a machine gun with an automatic recoil engine (Louis Schmeisser is considered the author of the system). The Theodor Bergmann Abteilung Waffenbau AG company in Suhl produced the first batch of heavy machine guns in 1902. Then various changes were made to the system, and after the MG 08 was adopted by the German army, the MG 10 Bergman model was introduced as a “light” machine gun. After testing under the designation Model 11, this machine gun was purchased by China. The war forced us to pay closer attention to the “light” machine gun, and soon the Reichswehr received its modification MG 15, although this machine gun was never officially adopted for service. Like most of its contemporaries, the Bergman machine gun was water-cooled, had rear control handles, and was mounted on a tripod machine. The most promising features were the quick-change barrel and 200-round link belt, but in practice it was necessary to use the standard 250-round canvas belt.
After Louis Schmeisser left the company, the machine gun was modified by his son Hugo. In 1916, he created the air-cooled LMG 15 “light” machine gun. An improved version of this model, the LMG 15nA, received a pistol grip and a shoulder rest on the butt plate, a mount for a cartridge box of the MG 08/15 type and was proposed for armament with aviation, but in August 1916 it was adopted as an infantry weapon. It first appeared among German troops on the Italian front. We were talking about a machine gun, approaching the mobility of a manual machine gun with the intensity of easel fire. It was also installed on bipods of the MG 08/15 type and can be considered one of the distant prototypes single machine guns.
The machine gun's rack sight was notched up to 2000 m. A carrying handle was attached to the barrel casing. The design included 141 parts. The machine gun was attached to a light tripod machine via an eyelet in the front part of the box. However, in the last year of the war, the MG 15nA was more often used as a manual one on a bipod (it was especially convenient for assault groups), but the number of such machine guns was small, although the MG 15nA with a 200-round belt could replace the MG 08/15. During the war, it was not possible to expand its production on an appropriate scale - the production volume is estimated at 5,000 machine guns. Bergman machine guns remained in service until the rearmament of the German army in the early 1930s, and were used in the Spanish Civil War and even in World War II.
It is difficult to overestimate the role of machine guns in the development of military affairs - having cut short millions of lives, they forever changed the face of war. But even experts did not immediately appreciate them, at first considering them as special weapons with a very narrow range of combat missions - for example, at the turn of the 19th - 20th centuries, machine guns were considered just one of the types of fortress artillery. However, already during the Russo-Japanese War, automatic fire proved its effectiveness highest efficiency, and during the First World War, machine guns became one of the most important means of engaging the enemy in close combat and were installed on tanks, combat aircraft and ships. Automatic weapons made a real revolution in military affairs: heavy machine-gun fire literally swept away the advancing troops, becoming one of the main causes of the “positional crisis,” radically changing not only the tactical methods of combat, but also the entire military strategy.
This book is the most complete and detailed encyclopedia of Russian, Soviet and Soviet machine gun weapons to date. Russian army from the end of the 19th century to the beginning of the 21st century, both domestic models and foreign ones - purchased and captured. The author, a leading specialist in the history of small arms, not only provides detailed descriptions of the structure and operation of easel, manual, single, large-caliber, tank and aircraft machine guns, but also talks about their combat use in all the wars that our country waged throughout the turbulent twentieth century.
The army's need for weapons was determined by the GUGS.
On September 24, 1910, the General Headquarters, in relation No. 4208, forwarded a plan for supplying the army with machine guns. Subsequently, the GUGSH gave a number of additional instructions on this issue. As a result, according to A.A. Manikovsky, the need for machine guns was calculated as follows:
In the infantry:
352 machine gun teams of the 1st stage, 8 machine guns in each - 2816 pieces;
152 machine gun teams of the 2nd stage, 8 machine guns in each - 1216 pcs.
In the cavalry:
32 machine gun teams of 8 machine guns each - 256 pcs.
Calculation of the Maxim machine gun mod. 1910 in position. Machine gun - on a Vickers tripod machine
In addition, according to the instructions of the Main Directorate of General Staff, received at various times before the start of the World War, the following should have been released:
In the 4th Finnish Infantry Brigade, formed in April 1914, for 4 teams of 8 machine guns - 32 pieces;
Trans-Amur border guard district for 6 teams of 4-machine guns - 24 pieces;
In the 3rd and 9th Siberian Rifle Divisions, assigned to the Vladivostok garrison, to bring 2 machine guns per company up to standard - 192 pieces;
10% wartime stock - 454 pcs.
In total, it was planned to supply 4990 machine guns, of which 454 were in reserve.
By July there were machine guns in the Russian army.
352 machine gun teams of the 1st stage - 2816 units;
120 (instead of 152) machine gun teams of the 2nd stage - 960 units;
4 teams of the 4th Finnish Rifle Brigade - 32 pieces;
6 teams of the Zaamur border guard district - 24 pcs.;
32 cavalry teams - 256 pieces;
In stock - 69 pcs.
In total there are 4098 machine guns in the troops, 69 in reserve. The total shortage - 833 machine guns - fell on the second-line regiments and the reserve. But with one 8-machine gun team for each infantry and rifle regiment of four battalions and for each two-brigade cavalry division (24 squadrons), on average there was one machine gun per 1000 people. As for the mentioned 3rd and 9th Siberian Rifle Divisions, by the beginning of the World War they had only one 8-machine gun team.
It was believed that with such supply standards “you can be calm about the machine gun business.” Indeed, Russian infantry division at the beginning of the war had 32 machine guns, the French, German and Austrian - 24 each, the Russian cavalry division - 8 machine guns, the French - 6, while the French first-line troops lacked 800 machine guns at the beginning of the war. The front-line troops, which, according to data on March 1, 1914, Germany could field against Russia, had 2,730 machine guns (an average of 1 machine gun per 495 people), Austria-Hungary - 1,486 machine guns (1 machine gun per 590 people). These figures show that on the eve of the war machine guns were equally appreciated - or rather, equally underestimated - in all countries that entered the war. They also erroneously assessed the nature and duration of the upcoming war, the effort it would require, and the role that “technique” would play in it.
Accordingly, the norms for stocks of weapons and ammunition turned out to be low, which was also determined by the financial situation. Back in 1908, with the adoption of a cartridge with a pointed bullet in the Russian army, focusing on the experience of several battles of the Russo-Japanese War, they established a stock norm: 1000 rounds per rifle in the army, 1500 in fortresses, 200 in the militia, 75 000 - for a military machine gun, 30–50 thousand - for a serf. In total - 3,346,000,000 units, about 3 billion were planned. But by the beginning of the war, there were only 2,446,000,050 rounds of ammunition in stocks of all categories.
In general, the Russian army entered the war, slightly inferior to its opponents and allies in terms of the army’s saturation with modern weapons and practically not inferior in terms of the characteristics of these weapons. But it was much inferior to them in its industrial capabilities. The mobilization reserves, accumulated over decades, far exceeded anything used in previous wars, but they were exhausted in the first months, if not in the first weeks of the war. And the need for weapons and ammunition exceeded all expectations and forecasts.
In April 1915, the GAU raised the question of introducing a second machine gun team into the regiments and increasing the number of machine guns to 16 for each infantry regiment and 8 (one team) for each cavalry and Cossack regiment. Taking into account the need to replenish forward supplies, the monthly requirement was calculated at 800 machine guns. Even after decreasing to 600, it turned out to be 15 times higher than planned in 1910 (40 machine guns per month). In May 1915, the GUGSH approved the corresponding regulation.
On September 12, already Minister of War A.A. Polivanov doubled the standard of machine guns and ordered it to be increased to 2 per infantry company or 32 per regiment (4 times the pre-war figure). The demands of unit and formation commanders were even higher. But even with 32 machine guns for the infantry and 8 for the Cossack and cavalry regiments, the following was required:
To bring 616 infantry and 256 cavalry and Cossack regiments to the new state - 19,564 machine guns,
To supply 180 reserve battalions - 720 machine guns,
50% of the total reserve requirement - 10,886 machine guns.
Machine gun platoon with Maxim machine guns mod. 1910 on Sokolov's original model machines. Caucasian Front of World War I
In total, 31,170 machine guns were required to be supplied to the army and this must be completed by January 14, 1917. However, by the agreed date - early January 1917 - the need for machine guns turned out to be even greater. Already in 1916, there were demands to supplement the machine gun teams of the regiments with “portable machine guns on light machines” attached to the companies. In mid-1916, the GAU determined the annual need for 22,000 machine guns based on: 1) one-time requirement - 17,200, of which for new formations and “to bring to the highest approved standard” of 32 machine guns per regiment - 13,000, in reserve - 3,200 , for replenishment to the staff - 1000; 2) monthly deliveries of 400 pieces - 4800. The Main Military Technical Directorate (GVTU) of the War Ministry, by the way, for the same period included in its requirement 102 “motorcycles” with a machine-gun sidecar and 1042 with a sidecar for transporting cartridges.
From January 1915, troops began sending demands for rifle and machine gun cartridges in huge quantities. If before 1914 the monthly wartime requirement was estimated at 50 million rounds of ammunition, then in January 1916 it was set at 200 million, and in 1917 - 325 million. The monthly requirement for one in 1917 was estimated at 10,000 rounds.
An original improvisation of trench warfare - a homemade wheeled machine for the Madsen submachine gun
In the first months of the war we had to remember light machine guns(machine guns) - at first due to the same acute shortage of machine guns in the cavalry. The Madsen submachine guns were returned to the unit. According to General A.A. Manikovsky, with the beginning of the war, “cavalry units, as they say, “with their hands” tore them from the GAU.” In 1915, the GAU assembled them in the fortresses and, through the Petrograd warehouse, handed over still usable Madsens to the fronts; some of them had to be corrected at the Sestroretsk and Tula factories before shipment. Soon the role of submachine guns became clearer, as did the problem of saturating the army with them. The troops began to send more and more requests for submachine guns, which could follow everywhere in infantry lines, quickly take a position and open fire. The submachine gun was not required to “flood” enemy positions with fire - it was enough to fire bursts at individual points where enemy machine gunners or riflemen were seen or could be located. Submachine guns made it possible to increase the force of fire, while simultaneously reducing the number of shooters in the chain during an offensive, and to “save” shooters in the forward trenches in defense.
In addition to cavalry and infantry, submachine guns were needed “for arming aeronautical vehicles and river armored detachments.” On January 17, 1915, the Aeronautical Department of the GVTU wrote to the GAU: “To arm airplanes, it is necessary to quickly obtain about 400 submachine guns. Of the machine guns tested, the Lewis submachine guns and the Madsen submachine guns were relatively suitable for this purpose.” But the supply of Madsens was exhausted in less than a year - in August 1915, the GAU reported that “there are now no Madsen submachine guns at all at its disposal.” “Madsens” have already “worked out” their purpose; it was not possible to organize the production of spare parts for them. The production of Madsen parts, entrusted at the beginning of 1917 to the workshop of the Rifle Range of the Officer Rifle School, was not completed “due to the suspension of all kinds of work at the school of gunsmiths with the onset of the revolution” (referring to the February events of 1917). The aviation stated that “Madsen’s submachine guns perform poorly” and asked for new machine guns.
At the inter-allied conference in Petrograd in January 1917, the Headquarters of the Supreme Commander announced the following requirement: Maxim machine guns - 13,000 at a time and 7,200 throughout the year (600 per month), in addition - 10,000 Colt heavy machine guns and 110,000 at a time submachine guns. The need for submachine guns was determined - 8 per company, i.e. 128 per infantry and 36 per cavalry regiment (note the attitude towards submachine guns as a weapon for a company and platoon), plus for arming airplanes.
The total monthly requirement of the Russian army was determined at 4430 machine guns - comparable to the number with which they planned to fight the entire war in 1914.
Weapons...yes, many people believe that the history of weapons is simple and known as a clear day, but it’s not like that. I won’t even delve into the depths of centuries, the same century before last throws up surprises that are so out of the ordinary that many simply refuse to believe in reality... There will be no special research further, I’ll just show what is in common use, and no one doesn't pay any attention to it. Well, for example, everyone knows that in the so-called. “the civil war in the United States” was a Colt revolver and everyone thinks that it was exactly like in the movie about the wild west, put the bullets in the drum and na!-na!-na! By the way, but no, it was... capsule. And many people speaking or describing something don’t even bother to look at least in the official version, in the same pedia, here are links to the “Colts” of the civilian
https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82#Colt_Walker_.281847.29 and
https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82#Colt_Navy_.281851.29
and only once was it mentioned that these revolvers were extremely unreliable, that they were capsule-type and were loaded with paper cartridges, that is, a bag of black powder, a round lead bullet and a capsule. I won’t say anything about the “Wild West” either, the entire central part of the United States, which is usually painted as all sorts of states, stupidly did not belong to anyone until the last couple of decades of the 19th century, the most ordinary Terra nullius, and you think why the United States climbed onto the world stage and acquired colonies only on the threshold 20th century, but they haven’t completely captured “their” territory, what kind of external colonies are there...okay, I digress.
In general, “Colts” and “Winchesters” were rare and extremely unreliable weapons, the bulk of the weapons were single-shot and percussion, but... the main losses were still inflicted by melee weapons and NOBODY practically mentions this ANYWHERE
but actually this article is not about that, the article is about a war that is much closer to us, about which, against the backdrop of the Second World War, it is somehow not even customary to mention, but this was the FIRST MODERN WAR in the first months of which almost the entire personnel of the armed forces who fought were knocked out " in the old way" i.e. mostly with cold steel...
The stereotype of the First World War is a rifle, a revolver, a saber and a Maxim machine gun... but not at all, especially for myself I keep several links to clips about weapons of the First World War, and I think it’s time to share. Just as it is customary to overestimate weapons of the 50-60s of the 1910s, it is also customary to underestimate fairly advanced and modern weapons of 1913-1918... No, this article is not a reference guide and does not claim to be a complete coverage of all types of weapons, it designed to dispel myths about the limitations of the arsenal and give a general idea of the diversity of weapons at the beginning of modern times.
I'll probably start with machine guns. What is an automatic machine? Its more correct name is a submachine gun; it is a multi-shot automatic weapon designed to destroy, mainly in bursts, unarmored enemy personnel from a distance of up to 100 steps (80-90 meters or 260-300 feet) from two hands and using pistol cartridges for firing. The patriots of our Motherland probably know about the notorious “Fyodorov assault rifle”, but purely technically it is not an assault rifle, but a light machine gun without a bipod, like the much-hyped Pindostan BAR, which, like the latter, practically did not take part in the war, and was mainly produced only from the 20s years. Purely technically, a machine gun could also be fired from hand, and machine guns in the First World War were very advanced, “Schwarzlose”, “Maxims”, “Colts”, “Vickers”, “Hotchkiss” or “Madsen”, I think everyone knows, not to mention let’s talk about British consumer goods with the same name as the famous jeans. True, the weight of the “hand-held” samples was serious, and meant mainly not shooting from the hands, but the possibility of being carried by 1-2 machine gunners, although in short it was possible to shoot from the hands...
The most untamed was the naturally Austro-Czech 24-kilogram handsome Schwarzlose 1907/12/16
German samples of light machine guns, despite highest quality and reliability, also did not suffer from lightness, so the “Maxim” MG08/15 weighed 18 kg, and Remba would hardly have been able to shoot it with his hands... only Schwarznegra: D
a later version of this “Maxim” MG08/18 weighed “only” 14 kg, progress of course, but still...
The American Colt-Browning M1895/14 weighed 16 kilograms and was quite comfortable... but on a bipod
The English 24-kilogram Vickers could not be even close to tame in any form, so the Lewis appeared
The Italians were ahead of the Britons; their 17-kilogram Fiat-Revelli Modello 1914 with a lightweight machine was more convenient, but it also had a very specific features in the form of an exotic feeding system with cartridges from a multi-row open-type accordion magazine, as well as automatic action with a semi-blowback.
The ten-kilogram Hotchkiss machine gun is well known to everyone because of its specific radiator, and could already be used for hand-held shooting, but the very advanced machine gun was distinguished by an atypical ammunition supply circuit. The cartridges (French 8x50R) were in hard metal “belts” that were inserted from the left and pulled out as the fire was fired...
but few people know that on its basis a machine gun was developed that stood in service for more than 40 years... in Japan, this is the Type 3 of 1914.
Well, it’s probably worth mentioning the Chauchat C.S.R.G light machine gun. Model 1915 or “Shosh”, yes, it was difficult to operate, was afraid of contamination, often jammed, had a low rate of fire and poor accuracy, had a small magazine (only 20 rounds), was of little use for repairs in field conditions, but... it was the world's first technologically advanced mass machine gun, it turned out to be extremely easy to manufacture, suffice it to say that during the war it was assembled at a bicycle factory, and its production during 3 years of the war exceeded 250,000 pieces
in addition, its use did not require any special skill and any recruit could operate it
In principle, here is a small but wonderful film where, in my opinion, it is clearly and clearly told about machine guns of the First World War
Despite all its perfection and variety, the extremely strong cartridge and recoil make hand-held shooting ineffective... what is the solution? And there is only one way out, to use a pistol cartridge, which is easier, and that’s how a machine gun appeared, or rather a submachine gun. But here’s the catch, even if you clarify that the machine gun is precisely a submachine gun, few will even call it “Schmeisser” (MP-18), although by this name the vast majority mean the Volmer MP 38/40 submachine gun. This is partly true, but he was not the first at all, the first machine gun was weakened on the basis of... the Danish Madsen machine gun
and I’m afraid that no one even had an idea about such diverse types of manual automatic weapons used in the First World War by various parties, below is a fairly complete selection of this type of weapon for the years 1913-1918
The arsenal of pistols and rifles was also much more diverse than in the Second World War, and at the same time much better quality, more lethal and... more expensive. And one of the first countries to arm its armed forces with manual automatic weapons was... no, not Germany, Italy.
In general, I think that now, at least among those who read me, such a cliche about the First World War as “Maximka, saber and Nagant” will gradually dissipate and people will not be so dismissive of that turning point, key(!) time .
Loading...
