About 200 peoples live on Russian territory. The history of some of them goes back to distant millennia BC. We found out which indigenous peoples of Russia are the most ancient and from whom they originated.

Slavs

There are many hypotheses about the origin of the Slavs - some attribute them to the Scythian tribes from Central Asia, some to the mysterious Aryans, some to the Germanic peoples. Hence the different ideas about the age of an ethnic group, to which it is customary to add a couple of extra thousand years “for the sake of respectability.”

The first person to try to determine age Slavic people, there was a monk Nestor, taking the biblical tradition as a basis, he began the history of the Slavs with the Babylonian pandemonium, which divided humanity into 72 nations: “From these 70 and 2 languages ​​the Slovenian language was born...”.

From an archaeological point of view, the first culture that can be called Proto-Slavic was the so-called culture of podklosh burials, which received its name from the custom of covering cremated remains with a large vessel, in Polish “klesh”, that is, “upside down”. It originated between the Vistula and Dnieper in the 5th century BC. To some extent, we can assume that its representatives were Proto-Slavs.

Bashkirs

The Southern Urals and the adjacent steppes, the territories where the Bashkir ethnic group emerged, have been an important center of cultural interaction since ancient times. The archaeological diversity of the region baffles researchers and raises the question of the origin of the people in long list"mysteries of history."

Today, there are three main versions of the origin of the Bashkir people. The most “archaic” - Indo-Iranian says that the main element in the formation of the ethnic group were the Indo-Iranian Sako-Sarmatian, Dakho-Massaget tribes of the early Iron Age (III-IV centuries BC), the place of settlement of which was the Southern Urals. According to another, Finno-Ugric version, the Bashkirs are “siblings” of the current Hungarians, since they together descended from the Magyars and the Eney tribe (in Hungary - Eno). This is supported by the Hungarian legend, recorded in the 13th century, about the Magyars’ journey from the East to Pannonia (modern Hungary), which they made in order to take possession of Attila’s inheritance.

Based on medieval sources in which Arab and Central Asian authors equate the Bashkirs and Turks, a number of historians believe that these peoples are related.

According to the historian G. Kuzeev, the ancient Bashkir tribes (Burzyan, Usergan, Bailar, Surash and others) emerged on the basis of Turkic early medieval communities in the 7th century AD and subsequently mixed with Finno-Ugric tribes and tribal groups of Sarmatian origin. In the 13th century, historical Bashkortostan was invaded by nomadic Kipchakized tribes, who shaped the appearance of modern Bashkirs.

The versions of the origin of the Bashkir people are not limited to this. Passionate about philology and archaeology, public figure Salavat Gallyamov, put forward a hypothesis according to which the ancestors of the Bashkirs once came from ancient Mesopotamia and through Turkmenistan reached the Southern Urals. However, in the scientific community this version is considered a “fairy tale”.

Mari or Cheremis

The history of the Finno-Ugric people of the Mari begins at the beginning of the first millennium BC, along with the formation of the so-called Ananyin archaeological culture in the Volga-Kama region (VIII-II centuries BC).

Some historians identify them with the semi-legendary Fyssagetae - an ancient people who, according to Herodotus, lived near the Scythian lands. Of these, the Mari subsequently emerged, settling from the right bank of the Volga between the mouths of the Sura and Tsivil.

During the early Middle Ages they were in close interaction with the Gothic, Khazar tribes and Volga Bulgaria. The Mari were annexed to Russia in 1552, after the conquest of the Kazan Khanate.

Sami

The ancestors of the northern Sami people, the Komsa culture, came to the north in the Neolithic era, when these lands were freed from the glacier. The Sami ethnos, whose name translates as “land” itself, traces its roots back to the carriers of the ancient Volga culture and the Dauphinian Caucasian population. The second ones, known in scientific world as a culture of reticulated ceramics, they inhabited a wide territory from the middle Volga region to the north of Fennoscandia, including Karelia, in the 2nd-1st millennium BC.

According to the historian I. Manyukhin, having mixed with the Volga tribes, they formed an ancient Sami historical community of three related cultures: the late Kargopol in Belozerye, Kargopolye and South-East Karelia, the Luukonsaari in Eastern Finland and Western Karelia, the Kjelmo and “Arctic”, in northern Karelia, Finland, Sweden, Norway and the Kola Peninsula.

Along with this, the Sami language emerged and the physical appearance of the Lapps (Russian designation for the Sami) took shape, which is characteristic of these peoples even today - short stature, wide-set Blue eyes and blond hair.

Probably the first written mention of the Sami dates back to 325 BC and is found in the ancient Greek historian Pytheas, who mentioned a certain people “Fenni” (finoi). Subsequently, Tacitus wrote about them in the 1st century AD, talking about the wild Fenian people living in the area of ​​Lake Ladoga. Today the Sami live in Russia in the territory Murmansk region with indigenous status.

Peoples of Dagestan

On the territory of Dagestan, where remains of human settlements dating back to the 6th millennium BC are found, many peoples can boast of their ancient origins. This especially applies to the peoples of the Caucasian type - the Dargins and Laks. According to historian V. Alekseev, the Caucasian group formed on the same territory that it now occupies on the basis of the ancient local population of the Late Stone Age.

Vainakh

The Vainakh peoples, which include the Chechens (“Nokhchi”) and Ingush (“Galgai”), as well as many peoples of Dagestan, belong to the ancient Caucasian anthropological type, as the Soviet anthropologist Prof. Debets, “the most Caucasian of all Caucasians.” Their roots should be sought in the Kura-Araks archaeological culture that lived in the territory North Caucasus in the 4th and early 3rd millennium BC, as well as in the Maikop culture, which inhabited the foothills of the North Caucasus during the same period.

Mention of the Vainakhs in written sources is found for the first time in Strabo, who in his “Geography” mentions certain “Gargarei” living in the small foothills and plains of the Central Caucasus.

In the Middle Ages on the formation of the Vainakh peoples strong influence had the state of Alania in the foothills of the North Caucasus, which fell in the 13th century under the hooves of the Mongol cavalry.

Yukaghirs

The small Siberian people of the Yukaghirs (“people of the Mezlots” or “distant people”) can be called the most ancient on the territory of Russia. According to the historian A. Okladnikov, this ethnic group emerged in the Stone Age, approximately in the 7th millennium BC in the east of the Yenisei.

Anthropologists believe that this people, genetically isolated from their closest neighbors - the Tungus, represents the oldest layer of the autochthonous population of polar Siberia. Their archaic nature is also evidenced by the long-preserved custom of matrilocal marriage, when after marriage the husband lives on his wife’s territory.

Until the 19th century, numerous Yukaghir tribes (Alai, Anaul, Kogime, Lavrentsy and others) occupied a vast territory from the Lena River to the mouth of the Anadyr River. In the 19th century, their numbers began to decline significantly as a result of epidemics and civil strife. Some of the tribes were assimilated by the Yakuts, Evens and Russians. According to the 2002 census, the number of Yukaghirs decreased to 1,509 people.

Crimea is one of the amazing corners of the Earth. Due to its geographical location, it was at the junction of habitats different nations, stood in the way of their historical movements. The interests of many countries and entire civilizations collided in such a small territory. The Crimean Peninsula has more than once become the scene of bloody wars and battles, and was part of several states and empires.

Various natural conditions attracted peoples of the most diverse types to Crimea. different cultures and traditions For nomads there were vast pastures, for cultivators - fertile lands, for hunters - forests with plenty of game, for sailors - convenient bays and bays, a lot of fish. Therefore, many peoples settled here, becoming part of the Crimean ethnic conglomerate and participants in all historical events on the peninsula. In the neighborhood there lived people whose traditions, customs, religions, and way of life were different. This led to misunderstandings and even bloody clashes. Civil strife stopped when there was an understanding that it was possible to live and prosper well only in peace, harmony and mutual respect.

The first mentions of the Slavs are found in written sources of the 5th-6th centuries. But modern archeology claims that the first tribes Ancient Rus' lived on the territory of present-day Russia even before our era.
Initially, the peoples who lived until the IV-VI centuries. in the area between the Oder and Vistula rivers, near the Dnieper River, they were called Wends. Later they began to be called Slavs. The Veneds were engaged in agriculture, cattle breeding, knew crafts, and built fortified houses. All members of the tribe worked equally, there was no social inequality. This way of life made the Slavs a civilized and developed people. Our ancestors were among the first to build cities and large settlements, establish roads and trade relations.
Historians count several tribes that lived in Ancient Rus' from the 6th to the 11th centuries.
The Krivichi occupied a vast territory of modern Vitebsk, Mogilev, Smolensk, and Pskov regions. The main cities of the family were Smolensk and Polotsk. This tribe is one of the most numerous in Ancient Rus'. They are divided into two groups: Pskov and Polotsk-Smolensk. The Krivichi tribal union included Polotsk residents.
Vyatichi were the most eastern tribe Ancient Rus', they lived along the banks of the Moscow River and in upper reaches Okie. Their lands were located on the territory of modern Moscow, Oryol, Ryazan and other neighboring regions. The central city is Dedoslavl, its exact location has not yet been established. The people maintained paganism for a long time and resisted the Christianity imposed by Kiev. The Vyatichi were a warlike and capricious tribe.
The Ilmen Slovenes were neighbors with the Krivichi, inhabiting the lands near Lake Ilmen, which gave the tribe its name. According to written sources, they, together with other peoples, called on the Varangians, related to the Slovenes, to rule the lands of Ancient Rus'. The warriors of the tribal union were part of Prince Oleg's squad and took part in the campaigns of Vladimir Svyatoslavich.
Together with the Vyatichi and Krivichi they formed the people of the Great Russians.
The Dulebs are one of the most ancient clans of the Slavs. They lived in the area of ​​tributaries of the Pripyat River. Little information has been preserved about them. Written sources of that time indicate that the Dulebs participated in the military campaigns of Prince Oleg. Two groups later emerged from the people: the Volynians and the Drevlyans. Their lands belonged Kievan Rus.
The Volynians lived near the Bug and near the source of the Pripyat. Some researchers claim that the Volynians and Buzhans are the same tribe. In the territory occupied by this Slavic family, there were up to 230 cities.
The Drevlyans lived in the Polesie region, on the right bank of the Dnieper River. The name of the tribe comes from the habitat of the clan - forests. They were mainly engaged in agriculture and cattle breeding. Historical sources indicate that the tribe was peaceful and almost never fought. Associated with the Drevlyans famous story about the murder of Prince Igor in 945. Princess Olga, Igor's widow, burned their main city - Iskorosten, later known as Vruchiy.
The Polyans lived on the territory of present-day Kyiv and near the Dnieper River. Their settlements were located in the very center of the East Slavic lands. The culture of the glades was very developed, which is why Kyiv subjugated the peoples of other tribes by the 9th century. The most major cities Kyiv, Belgorod, Zvenigorod are considered tribes. It is believed that the name of the genus comes from their habitat - fields.
The Radimichi inhabited Upper Transnistria, the basin of the Sozh River and its tributaries. The founder of this tribal union was Radim, his brother Vyatko founded the Vyatichi people. Archaeologists note the similarity of the customs of these tribes. The last time the Radimichi appear in the records of sources was in 1169. Their territories later became part of the Smolensk and Chernigov principalities.
Dregovichi are one of the most mysterious and little-studied tribes of Ancient Rus'. Presumably they settled in the middle part of the Pripyat basin. The exact boundaries of their lands have not yet been established. The Dregovichi moved from the south to the Neman River.
Northerners lived near the Desna until about the 9th-10th centuries. The name of the tribe does not come from their geographical location. Researchers suggest that the word translates as “black.” This theory is confirmed by the fact that the main city of the tribe was Chernigov. They were mainly engaged in agriculture.
Tivertsy inhabited the area between the Dniester and Prut rivers. Currently, these lands are located on the territory of Ukraine and Moldova. In the 12th century, the tribe left these lands due to military aggression neighboring principalities. Subsequently, the Tiverts mixed with other peoples.
The streets occupied the territory of the lower Dnieper. Their main city was called Peresechen. For a long time the tribe resisted the attempts of the capital of Ancient Rus' to subjugate them.
All the tribes of Ancient Rus' had their own customs and way of life, but they were united by a common faith and religion, language, and culture.

1. Subject of the course. Historical sources and historiography.
2. The peoples who inhabited the territory of Ukraine in ancient times.
3. Kievan Rus.
4. Feudal fragmentation of Rus'. Galicia-Volyn principality.

1. Subject of the course. Historical sources and historiography.

When determining the subject of the history of Ukraine, it is necessary to take into account two
aspect. Firstly, by the history of Ukraine we mean the history of those
lands that make up the territory modern state"Uk-
Raina." And secondly, the history of Ukraine includes the history of Ukrainian
people in all the lands of their settlement around the world. Ukrainian diaspora.
According to various estimates, e? population ranges from 14 to 20 million people
century Of these: Russia - 8 million, USA - 2 million, Canada - 1 million, Kazakhstan -
900 thousand, Moldova - 600 thousand, Brazil - 400 thousand, Belarus - 300 thousand and
etc.
The main feature of the history of Ukraine is that on the territory
rhetoric of modern Ukraine at the same time (in parallel) existing
There were different state formations. Western lands Ukraine
in general, for a long time they lived separately from the rest of the Ukrainian ze-
stranded In Western Ukrainian lands, several historical
Russian regions that have their own history. This is Eastern Ga-
Lycia (or Galicia) with a historical center in Lviv, Northern Buko-
wines (historical center - Chernivtsi), Volyn (historical center -
Lutsk), Transcarpathia (historical center - Uzhgorod).
However, all Ukrainian lands, starting from the Middle Ages, were
villages by one people who have common origin, general
language and common cultural traits.
Historical sources. Any history and history of Ukraine in part-
ness is studied on the basis of historical sources. Historical
sources - this is everything that directly reflects the historical
process and makes it possible to study the past, that is, everything that was previously created
given by humanity and has survived to this day in the form of material objects
Noah culture, written monuments and other evidence.
All historical sources conditionally divided into several types:
written (for example, chronicles, legal acts, periodic
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Denmark, correspondence, etc.); material (they are mainly studied by archaeological
gia); ethnographic (data about life, morals, customs); linguistic
(language data); oral (epics, fairy tales, songs, thoughts, proverbs, weather-
workers, etc., i.e. folklore); photo, film, video, background materials and sources
nicknames on electronic media.
The term "historiography" has two meanings. Firstly, this is the
historical science, or scientific discipline that studies history
riya of historical science. Secondly, this is a body of research
dedicated to a specific topic or historical era.

2. The peoples who inhabited the territory of Ukraine in ancient times.

The first traces of humans discovered on the territory of modern
Ukraine, are about a million years old. These are found in Transcarpa-
at the site of the Early Paleolithic the tools of the archaeoanthropist. About 150
thousand years ago people of the following anthropological type appeared -
paleoanthropes (Neanderthals). On the territory of Ukraine, archaeologists have used
followed by more than 200 sites of Neanderthals, in particular Negroid
type. Modern man is a neoanthrope (Cro-Magnon, homo sapiens)
appeared no earlier than 40 thousand years ago. Throughout Ukraine
no more than 20-25 thousand people lived then.
The first highly developed primitive agricultural
pastoral culture on the territory of modern Ukraine, about which
historians have enough information, there was a Trypillian culture (V - III
thousand BC e). It existed when pyramids were built in Egypt
yes. Trypillians inhabited the Dnieper and Transnistria regions. They knew how
process copper, knew how to make tools, weapons, build 1-
2-storey rectangular adobe dwellings with a wooden frame,
sculpted completely perfect dishes, which were decorated with original
ornament.
From the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. e. the south of Ukraine from the foothills of the Carpathians and the lower
the Danube region to the Kuban was inhabited by agricultural and pastoral tribes
Cimmerians, the first on the territory of Ukraine, about whom we're talking about V
written sources (“Odyssey” by Homer, ancient Greek historians
Herodotus, Eustatius, Skimp, contemporary Assyrian Cimmerians, Ju-
Deysky, Urartian authors). The Cimmerians already widely used
lezo. Thanks to this, they had relatively highly developed agriculture.
literature and crafts, achieved great success in military affairs. Memories
about the Cimmerians disappear after 570 BC.
In VIII Art. BC e. militaries are moving from Asia to steppe Ukraine.
tribal tribes of the Scythians (Iranian origin), who gradually
drove out the Cimmerians. The Scythians successfully fought with the Persian king
Darius, who in 514-513 tried to win them over. All R. 1st millennium BC e.
17
Scythian tribes united and created a primitive state
new formation - Scythia. This is the first state association in
territory of Ukraine. At first, the capital of Scythia was on the Left Bank (city.
Gelon). WITH late III Art. BC e. the Scythian capital was in the city of Ne-
Apol-Scythian in Crimea, near Simferopol. Expressive
monument of Scythian times - grandiose funeral mounds, which
scattered across steppe Ukraine. In the burial places of noble Scythians
archaeologists find highly artistic gold jewelry.
From III Art. BC e. they also come to southern Ukraine from the Volga and Ural
Iranian-speaking tribes of the Sarmatians, who partially displaced, partially
conquered and absorbed the Scythians, thus establishing dominance over
Ukrainian steppe. This situation continued until the III century. n. e., when with
The ancient Germanic tribes of the Goths came to the Baltic. The Goths subjugated the place
ny agricultural-pastoral tribes, Sarmatians and remnants of the Scythians.
They created a powerful state, adopted Christianity, had a written
mentality (their translation of the Bible into Old German has been preserved).
From IV Art. n. e. The Great Migration (relocation) of peoples begins.
And almost all waves of this migration go through Ukraine. The first such wave
Noah for Ukraine were the Huns. They came from Transbaikalia and in 375
They smashed the Gothic state. Then most of the Goths went to the Danube
lands, a minority remained in the Azov region and Crimea, where the state
The Goths existed until 1475.
Then the Bulgarians (V-VII centuries), Avars passed through the steppe strip of Ukraine
(VI century), Khazars (VII century), Ugrians (Hungarians) (IX century), Pechenegs (X-XI century), Polovtsians
(XI-XII centuries), Mongol-Tatars (XIII century). Some of them are completely (badly)
negs, Polovtsians), and some partially settled on the territory of modern
of Ukraine.
Since the 7th century. BC e on the northern coast of the Black Sea
The Greeks are credited with creating the most developed civilization at that time.
tion of the world. They founded the cities of Istria (at the mouth of the Danube), Borysthenes
(near modern Ochakov), Tire (at the mouth of the Dniester), Olvia (at the mouth
Southern Bug, near modern Nikolaev), Chersonesus (modern
Sevastopol), Karkinitida (modern Feodosia), Panticapaeum (city.
Kerch), etc. These colony cities became centers of crafts and trade. They
had the status independent states. In the 5th century BC. Greek colonies on
The Taman and Kerch peninsulas united into the Bosporus kingdom.
estvo with the center in the city of Panticapaeum. Connections of highly developed Greek cities
with the population of the south of Ukraine - Scythians, Sarmatians and other tribes
actively influenced the development of these peoples. From the 1st century BC e. Greek cities in
northern Black Sea region fall under the rule of the Roman Empire and remain
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live under it until the invasion of nomads who destroyed them. Later there was
Only Chersonesus was restored.
Thus, in ancient times, the peoples who inhabited the
temporary Ukraine, replaced one another repeatedly (Cimmerians,
Scythians, Sarmatians, Greeks, Goths, Huns, etc.). And they all contributed to
ethnogenesis of the Ukrainian people. When some peoples are displaced by others
there has always been some part of the displaced people who were
strongly tied to the earth. And this part remained in place. Therefore, do-
mother, that with the arrival of some peoples, others completely disappeared - it was
It would be naive. New peoples gradually assimilated with the previous ones.
Ukraine at that time was a huge ethnic cauldron in which
clans, gradually melting down, formed the basis of the Ukrainian ethno-
sa. And the decisive role in the process of ethnogenesis of the Ukrainian people was played by
the Slavs fought.
More than 2000 years ago on the territory of modern Ukraine,
In Belarus and Poland, tribes appeared that were called Slavic
Not. It is difficult to say whether the Slavs were autochthons in these lands, or al-
Lochtons. Most scientists believe that the ancestral home of the Slavs is located
was located in the territory between the middle Dnieper, Pripyat, the Carpathians and
Vistula. The movement to the south of the Germanic tribes of the Goths and the Great Migration
nations violated the integrity Slavic world. Division has occurred
three Slavs large groups: western, southern and eastern.
In the 4th century. it was the Eastern Slavs who most likely formed the core
states of the Antes. This state extended from the Dniester to the Don.
In addition to the Slavs, it included the remnants of the Goths, Greeks, Scythians, and Sarmatians.
The Antes traded and fought with Byzantium. The state of the Antes lasted
lasted until the 7th century. and died in the fight against the Avars. The Eastern Slavs divided
settled on tribes and alliances of tribes (of which 15 were large), which settled
were located on the territory of Ukraine, Russia, and Belarus. So, the glades lived in
Middle Dnieper, the Drevlyans - mainly in modern life
Tomir region, Siverians - mainly in Chernigovshchensk, Dulibs (they are also
Buzhans, or Volynians) - in the Bug basin, white Croats - in the Carpathian region,
Tivertsy - in Transnistria, between the Southern Bug and Dniester rivers.
The East Slavic tribes occupied a very advantageous geography
economic position - the most important middle-grounds passed through their lands
centuries-old trade routes.
The centers of the tribes were cities. The main city of the Siverians was
Chernigov, Drevlyans - Iskorosten (modern Korosten). In the middle of I
thousand N. e. Kyiv was founded. It became the center of the clearings. His favorable me-
standing at the crossroads of trade routes “from the Varangians to the Greeks” and from
Asia to Europe quickly turned the city into an economic, political
19
and cultural center. At the beginning of the 8th century. the glades and the Severians recognized power
Khazar Kaganate and became its tributaries.

3. Kievan Rus.

Socio-economic and political development Eastern Slavs
led to the creation of their state, which soon became known as Kievan Rus.
In the middle of the 9th century. began to appear on the lands of the Eastern Slavs
the inhabitants of Scandinavia are the Varangians (Normans, Vikings). Typically this would be
whether warrior-merchants, who, together with their squads (armed
in detachments) traveled trade route"from the Varangians to the Greeks." Along the way
they made attacks on Slavic and Finnish settlements, gra-
beat them. At that time, all of Europe was afraid of the raids of the warlike Vikings.
Their military organization, as well as their tactics and ability to fight, were unsurpassed.
ascended. The Varangians conquered some East Slavic and Finnish
tribes. And there were also tribes that themselves began to invite military
Varangian leaders (kings) with their squads to reign for the
go to protect against the expansion of neighbors.
Around 862, the Varangian king (prince) Rurik united several
East Slavic and Finnish tribes in the north (Slovenes, Krivichi, Chud,
Vesi) and founded a state with its capital in the Slovenian city of Novgorod.
IN historical science There are several interpretations of the emergence
of the state among the Eastern Slavs. Polar among them are
Norman and anti-Norman theories. Normanists believe that the state
The Normans (Varangians) brought power to the Eastern Slavs. Antinor-
Manists see in the Norman theory a hint of the inability of the Slavs to self-
it is necessary to create our own statehood and therefore completely
deny main role Varangians in the formation of the ancient Russian state
va.
The truth is probably somewhere in the middle. Historical
experience shows that a state can arise only if there is
deep internal, indigenous socio-economic conditions.
It is possible to create a state without these conditions. History knows such cases
measures. But such artificially created states are unstable and deteriorating.
collapse in a short period of time. Kievan Rus was very
stable state formation, the strongest European environment
a non-centuries-old state that lasted for several centuries.
This means that it arose and developed on its own, immanent (internal)
renna inherent) basis.
On the other hand, it is unhistorical and unscientific to ignore
important role, which the Varangians played in the formation of Old Russian
state, because it is impossible not to admit that all its first rights
rulers were Varangians and the ancient Russian elite was at first predominant
Vienna Varangian.
After the death of Rurik, power passed to his warrior and relatives.
vennik Oleg, since Rurik’s son Igor was still very small. Oleg re-
carried the capital of the state to Kyiv, after which Rus' became Kyiv. Next
The leading Kyiv princes were Igor, Olga, and Svyatoslav.
Vladimir I the Great (Red Sun, Baptist) ruled in
Kyiv from 980 to 1015. He united the lands that conquered him
predecessors, expanded his power to other territories. So
Thus, under the rule of the Kyiv prince Vladimir the Great there was the most
big state in Europe. The territory of Kievan Rus included
yourself from the earth Baltic Sea in the north to the Black Sea in the south and from
Carpathians in the west to the river. Volga in the east.
In order to strengthen the unity of such large state And
raise his authority, Prince Vladimir decided to establish one state
national religion. The pagan cult of many gods slowed down the process of
unity of lands. In addition, different social groups gave preference
respect different gods(combatants - Perun, blacksmiths - Svarog, earth-
lollipops - Yarile, sailors - Stribog, etc.), which also does not contribute
led to the consolidation of ancient Russian society. Moreover, paganism
prevented the establishment of equal relations with advanced peoples
of that time who professed monotheistic religions and consider-
whether pagans (including Russians) are savages. This means that the new state
The real religion had to be monotheistic. But which one? Basic
New world religions had already taken shape at that time. Asian countries, With
with which Kievan Rus actively strengthened economic ties, used
Islam and Judaism were in charge, Europe - Christianity. Choosing a religion that
paradise in the Middle Ages became the basis of the entire spiritual life of each individual
of a person and society as a whole, meant the choice of foreign policy
orientation of the state. Vladimir make this choice in favor of Europe and
accepted Christianity. But the specificity of the geopolitical situation of the Kyiv
Rus' (between the West and the East) determined the choice of Christianity to restore
exact, Byzantine rite.
Rus' was baptized in 988. Hierarchically, the ancient Russian church was
associated with the Constantinople (Constantinopolitan) Patriarchate.
Baptism was of great importance for the entire life of the Kievan Ru-
si. It contributed to the unification of the state and raising the authority
Grand Duke. Baptism has greatly improved international status
the Kyiv state, which entered as an equal into the circle of European
countries It is difficult to overestimate the influence of baptism on the development of Chinese culture.
Eva Rus'.

4. Feudal fragmentation of Rus'. Galicia-Volyn principality.

After the death of his successor Vladimir the Great of Kyiv
Prince Yaroslav the Wise, the period of feudal fragmentation begins
Ancient Rus'. It is characterized by the gradual disintegration of a single state
donations to several independent principalities, strife between princes,
new economic trends, increased attacks by external enemies
to weakened Rus'.
The period of feudal fragmentation is a general historical
regularity, a certain stage in the development of feudal society. He
characteristic of most countries that had early feudal states
state and comes after the heyday of these states.
The objective reasons for feudal fragmentation lie in
development of the productive forces of feudal society. This is development
led to the economic growth of local centers (for Ancient Rus' -
centers of appanage principalities). In the conditions prevailing under feudalism
me subsistence farming separate territories rennfeudal state
states become economically independent from the national
nogo center. Economic independence inevitably leads to political
Russian separatism. Local feudal rulers not only no longer
needed centralized power to protect against external enemies, but
and on their own economic base could successfully resist this
authorities.
Subjective factors that became catalysts for the process
sa collapse of the Kyiv state, began the introduction of Yaroslav the Wise
the principle of lordship in succession and economic decline
Kyiv.
The introduction of seignorate in succession to the throne led to princely
discord.
The economic fall of the national center - Kyiv -
it accelerated disintegration processes in Rus'.
At one time, the separation of Kyiv from other East Slavic tribes
exchange centers were most facilitated by its cost-effective
geographical position at the crossroads of European-Asian trade
out ways. But from the end of the 11th century. the significance of these routes in international trade
The beef began to fall. Italian merchants connected Europe with the East
permanent Mediterranean sea routes, which are no longer
Vikings pirated. The Byzantine Empire entered its period
sunset, and trade relations with it became less and less profitable. And in
1204 Constantinople was sacked by the crusaders. After that
he was never able to recover from the blow until the conquest by the Turks. Ta-
Thus, the path “from the Varangians to the Greeks” completely lost its meaning.
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The Arab Caliphate also suffered a rapid decline. As a result, Kyiv
not only lost its major trading partners, but was also left without
income from the transit of foreign merchants. This all had disastrous consequences.
actions for Kyiv. The impoverished “mother of Russian cities” was physically not
able to fulfill the role of a government center. United Rus' disintegrates
was given, and the princely strife caused heavy damage to the ancient Russian lands
loss.
For some time this decay was suspended Kyiv prince Vla-
Dimir Monomakh (1113-1125). But after the death of his son Mstislav (1132)
The Kiev state was finally divided into several separate
principalities, between which there were constant wars.
At the end of the 12th century. Volyn stood out among these principalities. In 1199
Volyn prince Roman united Galicia with Volyn and created Galicia
Ko-Volyn principality. After some time, he joined his
their possessions of Kyiv. Galicia-Volyn state with center in Vla-
dimire extended from the Carpathians to the Dnieper and was the strongest in Ru-
si.
In the 13th century. the ancient Russian principalities had new enemies from Asia
- Mongol-Tatars. In 1222 they came to Ukrainian lands. Old Russian-
The princes united to protect their lands. But in 1223 the Mongol-
The Tatars defeated the army of the ancient Russian princes in the battle on the Kalka River.
On the Volga, the Mongol-Tatars created the state of the Golden Horde.
Roman's son, Prince Danilo Galitsky, was preparing for an active fight against the Tatars.
He significantly strengthened the Galicia-Volyn principality, but
could not free himself from Tatar dependence.
Danilo Galitsky founded the city of Lviv.
In the second half of the XIII - first half of the XIV centuries. Galicia-
The Volyn principality was constantly at war with its neighbors: Lithuania,
Poland, Hungary. As a result, in 1340 Lithuania occupied Volyn, and
in 1349 Poland took Galicia into its possessions. Under Polish rule
Galicia was located until 1772.
Transcarpathian Ukraine became part of Hungary, where it remained until
1918 After the collapse of the Galicia-Volyn principality, Bukovina became part of
composition of Moldova. She stayed there until 1774.

Who inhabited the territory of the Orenburg region in ancient times and the Middle Ages?

History of geographical research and development of the region

When did the first information about the region's territory appear?

The most ancient information about the territory of our region is provided by the Greek historian and traveler Herodotus. In the "History", written by Herodotus in the middle of the 5th century. BC, the Caspian Sea is described, behind which there is a “plain in a vast expanse”, beyond which “the land is rocky and uneven”, and behind it “stand high impassable mountains”. Herodotus' description suggests endless plains Caspian lowland, “rocky and uneven” General Syrt and “high and impassable” Ural Mountains.

The first map with the image of the river. Ural and the mountains of the Southern Urals in the 2nd century. AD compiled by the Alexandrian geographer Claudius Ptolemy. On the map of Asia he showed the river. Daix (Ural), in the upper reaches of which were the Rimmikai (Ural) mountains.

But neither Herodotus nor Ptolemy were in the territory of our region. The first famous traveler to visit our region was the Arab writer Ibn Fadlan. In 921-922 As part of an embassy heading to Volga Bulgaria (the territory of modern Tatarstan), he crossed the western regions of what is now the Orenburg region.

In the X-XII centuries. The Arabs were already well aware of the r. Ruza (Ural) and r. Magra (Sakmara). Western merchants and missionaries also repeatedly crossed the South Ural steppes. Among them is the ambassador of the Pope, Palazio Carpini (1246), ambassador French king Willem Rubruck (1253), Italian brothers Nicolo and Mateo Polo (1265) - father and uncle of the famous Marco Polo.

At the end of the 16th century. the famous “Big Drawing” appeared - a huge road map of the Moscow state and the adjacent lands of the Volga and Trans-Ural regions. Unfortunately, the map itself has not survived. Only the description of the map has survived to this day - “The Book of the Big Drawing” (1627). It says: “The Yaik River flowed level with Oraltovaya Mountain (Southern Urals) against the upper reaches of the Tobol River. The Yaik River flowed into the Khvalynsk Sea, and the channels of the Yaik River to the sea were 1050 versts... The Yuryuk Samar (Sakmara) River ... fell into the Yaik against the Aralt Mountains with right side... fell into Yaik, on the left side of Yaik, the Ilez River, below Mount Tustebi, in our opinion that Solyanaya Mountain, they break salt in it...”

Who inhabited the territory of the Orenburg region in ancient times and the Middle Ages?

In the ancient and Middle Ages, the expanses of the southern Urals and Trans-Urals served as habitats, nomads and an arena of movement for various tribes and peoples (Appendix 1). The abundance of pastures and fertile lands, rivers and lakes rich in fish, deposits of copper and iron ores have long contributed to the development of our region. By the 2nd century BC e. In the steppes of the Urals and Kazakhstan, an economic structure developed that combined nomadic cattle breeding, primitive agriculture and metallurgy, as well as trade with neighbors.

In the eastern part of the Orenburg region (Kvarken district), the remains of ancient cities of the Bronze Age, covering the 3rd-2nd millennium BC, were discovered. e. It is believed that these cities were built by the ancient Aryans, who then moved from the South Ural steppes to the west and became the basis for the formation of many peoples of foreign Europe.

For many centuries, the Ural-Caspian region was the gateway to great migrations. Waves of peoples, one after another, rolled onto the Orenburg steppes, displacing each other, leaving traces of their presence in archaeological monuments and geographical names. In the 1st century BC e. The Orenburg region was the site of a thousand-year residence of Sarmatian tribes engaged in nomadic cattle breeding. From the 4th to the 13th centuries, our region was inhabited, successively, by the Huns, Avars, Guzes, Pechenegs, Bulgars, Polovtsians, and Mongol-Tatars.

During this period, various parts of the region's territory were part of state entities that existed in the Middle Ages. In the 9th century. the southwestern Orenburg region was the northeastern outskirts of the Khazar Kaganate. In the 12th century. the northwestern part of the region was part of Volga Bulgaria. Over the next two centuries, the entire territory of the Orenburg region was within the Golden Horde. In the 15th-17th centuries, after the collapse of the Mongol-Tatar state, the northern part of the region became a place of nomadic Bashkirs, the uluses of the Nogai Horde were located between the Volga and Ural rivers, and the lands of the Kazakh zhuzes stretched along the left bank of the Urals and to the south.