"Russian Armed Forces" - Patch Ground Forces RF. Army bearing, uniform, posture. Space Forces. Independent branches of the RF Armed Forces. Fit for service due to health reasons. Middle emblem of the Russian Ground Forces. Constitution of the Russian Federation. Flag of ships and vessels of the Russian Navy. Air Force. Strategic Missile Forces.

“Fundamentals of military service” - Statistics. The main burden of training in military specialties lies with the Russian Defense Sports and Technical Organization (ROSTO). Mandatory preparation of citizens for military service is carried out in the manner determined by the Government of the Russian Federation. Objectives of training in military registration specialties:

“Conscription for military service” - Citizens who are not subject to conscription for military service. Problems of modern Russian army. Dysfunctional. Educational institutions. Not well off financially. State. School problems. Society. In the Russian Federation in 2005, 400,000 people reached conscription age. 2. The following citizens have the right to exemption from conscription for military service:

“Psychological Service” - Problems of the Service for Practical Psychology of Education in Moscow. Tasks of the Service for Practical Educational Psychology. Basic psychological services are provided in educational institutions, specialized ones - in PPMS centers. Standards of psychological services. Algorithm for interaction between an educational psychologist and teachers within the framework of pro-professional activities.

“History of the Armed Forces of Russia” - Peter I introduced a new army recruitment system. History is a powerful factor in the education of conscious patriotism. In the 80s of the 17th century it was reorganized in the image of the “new order” regiments. In 1874, a new Charter on military service was approved. Military reforms of the 1860-70s. Working on definitions.

A state is a special organization of society, united by common sociocultural interests, occupying a certain territory, having its own system of governance and possessing internal and external sovereignty.

The term is commonly used in legal, political as well as social contexts. Currently, all the land on planet Earth, with the exception of Antarctica and some other territories, is divided between approximately two hundred states.

Definition of State

Neither in science nor in international law There is no single and generally accepted definition of the concept of “state”.

As of 2005, there is no legal definition of a state recognized by all countries of the world. The largest international organization, the UN, does not have the power to determine whether something is a state. " Recognition of a new state or government is an act that only states and governments can commit or refuse to commit. As a rule, it means a willingness to establish diplomatic relations. The United Nations is not a state or a government, and therefore does not have any authority to recognize any state or government.»How does a new state or government achieve recognition by the United Nations? How does a country join the UN as a member state? UN non-official document for information.

One of the few documents defining a “state” in international law is the Montevideo Convention, signed in 1933 by several American states. Russia or the USSR did not sign it.

The textbook “General Theory of Law and State” offers the following definition of the state: “ special organization political power society, which has a special apparatus of coercion, expressing the will and interests of the ruling class or the entire people"(General Theory of Law and State: Textbook. Edited by Lazarev V.V., M. 1994, p. 23).

The explanatory dictionary of the Russian language by Ozhegov and Shvedova gives two meanings: “ 1. The main political organization of society, carrying out its management, protection of its economic and social structure " And " 2. Country under administration political organization that protects its economic and social structure.»

Here are a few more definitions of the state:

« State is a specialized and concentrated force for maintaining order. A state is an institution or a series of institutions whose main task (regardless of all other tasks) is to maintain order. The state exists where specialized agencies for maintaining order, such as the police and the judiciary, have been separated from other spheres of public life. They are the state" (Gellner E.

1991. Nations and nationalism/ Per. from English – M.: Progress. P.28).

« State there is a special, fairly stable political unit that represents an organization of power and administration separated from the population and claims the supreme right to govern (demand the execution of actions) over a certain territory and population, regardless of the latter’s consent; having the strength and means to implement its claims" (Grinin L.G. 1997. Formations and civilizations: socio-political, ethnic and spiritual aspects of the sociology of history // Philosophy and society. No. 5. P. 20).

« State is an independent centralized socio-political organization for regulating social relations. It exists in a complex, stratified society, located in a certain territory and consisting of two main strata - the rulers and the ruled. The relationship between these layers is characterized by the political dominance of the former and the tax obligations of the latter. These relations are legitimized by an ideology shared by at least part of society, which is based on the principle of reciprocity” (Claessen H. J. M.

1996. State // Encyclopedia of Cultural Anthropology. Vol. IV. New York. P.1255).

« State there is a machine for the oppression of one class by another, a machine for keeping other subordinate classes in obedience to one class” (V.I. Lenin, Complete Works, 5th ed., vol. 39, p. 75). copied this from: “Philos. encyclopedic dictionary." M.: Sov. Encyclopedia, 1983, article “State”. Also available in TSB on Yandex (arseniy.bocharov)

« State- an apparatus of violence in the hands of the ruling class" (V.I. Lenin. Complete works (third edition). - M.: Politizdat, vol. 20, p. 20).

“The state is the embodiment of law in society” Brockhaus-Efron. Philosophical Dictionary of Logic, Psychology, Ethics, Aesthetics and History of Philosophy edited by E.L. Radlova. St. Petersburg, 1911, p. 64.

Etymology

Word " state"in Russian comes from Old Russian " sovereign"(as the prince-ruler was called in ancient Rus'), which in turn is related to the word " ruler" (giving " dominion»).

Old Russian " ruler" derived from " lord" Thus, almost all researchers agree on the connection between the words “ state" And " lord"(for example, Vasmer's dictionary, 1996, vol. 1, p. 446, 448). The exact etymology of the word “ lord» unknown.

It can be assumed, however, that since the derivatives " state», « dominion"appear later than those that already had established meanings" sovereign», « ruler", then in the Middle Ages " state"usually perceived as directly related to possessions" sovereign».

« Sovereign“At that time, a specific person (prince, ruler) usually appeared, although there were notable exceptions (the contractual formula “Mr. Veliky Novgorod” in 1136-1478).

State or country?

Although concepts a country And state often used interchangeably, there is a significant difference between them.

Concept state stands for political system of power established in a certain territory, a special kind of organization, while the concept a country rather refers to cultural, general geographical(common territory) and other factors. Term a country also has a less formal connotation. A similar difference exists in English with the words country(which is closer to the concept a country) And state (state), although in a certain context they can be used interchangeably.

State, union state (federation) or union of states?

Sometimes it is problematic to draw a clear line in defining the differences between the concepts of “state”, “ unitary state", "union state" and "union of states".

Moreover, in history, one form often flowed into another during centralization and vice versa - the collapse of empires.

Origin of the state

There is no consensus on the reasons for the emergence of the state. There are several theories that explain the origin of the state, but none of them can be the final truth. The most ancient known states are the states of the Ancient East (in the territory of modern Iraq, Egypt, India, China).

Theories of the origin of the state:

• Patriarchal theory
• Theological theory
• Social contract theory
• Theory of violence
• Materialist (Marxist) theory
• Psychological theory
• Racial theory
• Organic theory
• Irrigation theory
• Complex theory of the origin of the state by H. J. M. Klassen

Functions of the state

Initially, any state performed a threefold task:

Manage the economy and society;

Defend the power of the exploiting class and suppress the resistance of the exploited;

Defend your own territory and (if possible) plunder someone else’s.

As the public relations the opportunity has arisen for more civilized behavior of the state:

The nature of the state and its position in the political system presuppose the presence of a number of specific functions that distinguish it from others political institutions. The functions of the state are the main directions of its activities related to sovereignty state power. The goals and objectives of the state, which reflect the main directions of the political strategy chosen by a particular government or regime, and the means of its implementation, differ from functions.

The state as an organism

Comparisons of the state with an organism are no less ancient in origin than political atomism. Their origin must also be sought in pre-scientific ideas, in the “natural” way of thinking, which quite instinctively in its characteristics of the state applies such concepts as “political whole”, “head of state”, its “members”, “organs” of the state, its “controls” or “functions”, etc. Alekseev N.N. Essays on general theory states. Basic premises and hypotheses of state science. Moscow scientific publishing house. 1919

Hegel pointed out that there cannot be a definition of the state, that the state is an organism, that is, the development of an idea in its differences. “The nature of an organism is such that if not all its parts become identical, if one of them assumes itself to be independent, then all must perish. With the help of predicates, principles, etc., it is also impossible to achieve a judgment about the state in which an organism should be seen, just as it is impossible with the help of predicates to comprehend the nature of God, whose life I must contemplate in myself. Savelyev: Nation and state. Theory of conservative reconstruction (2005): 2.1. Definition is impossible, the meaning is knowable

Plato bases his political philosophy on the likeness of the state to the individual: the more perfect the state is, the more similar it is to the individual. In the same way, Aristotle compares the state (set) with one person - many-legged, many-armed, with many feelings. Salisbury, referring to Plutarch, characterizes the state as an organism similar human body(the clergy is the soul of the state and, as such, has power over the entire body, not excluding the head of the state, i.e. the sovereign). Hobbes, Spinoza, and Rousseau have analogies. Organic theory of the state

Kjellen defined the term “geopolitics” as follows: it is the science of the state as geographical organism, embodied in space. R. Kjellen's thesis: “the state is a living organism.” This is developed in his main work, “The State as a Form of Life”: “The state is not a random or artificial conglomeration of various parties human life, held together only by the formulas of the lawyers; it is deeply rooted in historical and concrete realities, it is characterized by organic growth, it is an expression of the same fundamental type that man is. In a word, it represents a biological entity or a living being. As such, it follows the law of growth: ... strong, viable states, having limited space, are subject to the categorical imperative to expand their space by colonization, merger or conquest" Rudolf Kjellen - author of the category *geopolitics*

IN " Political geography"F. Ratzel, which formed the basis of geopolitics, provides a number of fundamental ideas: 1) the state is an organism that is born, lives, ages and dies; 2) the growth of the state as an organism is determined by the “soil”; 3) the properties of the state are composed of the properties of the people and territory; 4) the “historical landscape” leaves an imprint on the citizen of the state; 5) the determining factor in the life of the state is “living space” (lebensraum). In accordance with these ideas, the scientist gives the following definition: “The state is formed as an organism tied to a certain part of the earth’s surface, and its characteristics develop from the characteristics of the people and the soil” Plakhov V. Western sociology

The constituent structural unit of the state as an organism is the family.

Moving from the individual to the social, each member of society performs its own function, increasing the likelihood of the existence of a state and civilization

Bibliography

• Grinin, L. E. 2007. State and historical process. M.: KomKniga.
• Kradin, N. N. 2001. Political anthropology. M.: Ladomir.
• Malkov S. Yu. Logic of the evolution of the political organization of states // History and Mathematics: Macrohistorical dynamics of society and state. M.: KomKniga, 2007. pp. 142-152.

Links

• The logic of the evolution of the political organization of states

· It is necessary to approach such children individually, to create special educational environments for them, for example, children with early childhood autism need to create a special structured education.

· It is necessary to expand the educational space as much as possible beyond the boundaries of a special educational institution, to integrate the child into society.

· Long duration the process of education and its going beyond school age.

· Coordinated participation of various specialists: psychologists, doctors, social workers, teachers of special disciplines, as well as involving the child’s parents in the process of education and training.

Children with disabilities are not people lost to society. With a special educational approach, they are able to adapt socially, integrate into society, benefit it and be happy. The emergence of the term “child with special educational needs” emphasizes the importance of this approach.

3. Main directions of special psychology

These appeared before others areas of special psychology, How psychology of the mentally retarded(oligophrenopsychology), psychology of the deaf(deaf psychology), psychology of the blind(typhlopsychology).

Currently, there are trends towards revising clinical and psychological terms and replacing them with psychological and pedagogical terms. For example, instead of “psychology of the mentally retarded” and “oligophrenopsychology” the terms “psychology of children with severe deviations in intellectual development”, “psychology of children with cognitive underdevelopment”, etc. are used. Modern special psychology includes the psychology of children with mental retardation, disorders of the emotional-volitional sphere and behavior, dysfunction of the musculoskeletal system and speech, with complex developmental disabilities.

The steady increase in the number of combined developmental disorders, the increase in the number of children with psychogenic disorders manifested in autism, aggressiveness, behavioral and activity disorders, etc. - all this leads to the fact that in special psychological assistance A significant number of children in general developmental preschool educational institutions, as well as students, also need secondary schools.

4.Interdisciplinary connections of special psychology with other sciences.

Special psychology has extensive interdisciplinary connections, which have a clear tendency to further growth.

In addition, it is worth recalling that special psychology has historically been formed in the process of continuous interaction with other sciences. Thus, being a part of psychological science, special psychology is primarily and most closely connected with its other branches, and especially with general, developmental and pedagogical ones. The knowledge accumulated by them acts as a theoretical basis for special psychology, since the development of the psyche in conditions of sensory, speech, motor and other disorders is subject to general laws functioning and genesis of consciousness. On the other hand, general psychological concepts are significantly enriched through clinical and psychological research conducted within the framework of special psychology.

Many patterns can normally easily escape the attention of a researcher or are extremely difficult to study under artificial conditions. Cases of pathology are, according to figuratively I.P. Pavlova, a “cruel experiment of nature,” providing a unique opportunity to test the degree of universality of the laws discovered and described earlier.

This is especially important if we consider that the structure of the psyche cannot really be decomposed into its constituent components; this is only possible theoretically. And in this sense, the significance of clinical psychological research is unique: sometimes a particular law reveals itself only when it is violated, which makes it possible to describe and study it.

It is no coincidence that almost all major representatives of psychological science paid considerable attention to clinical material.

Close connections also exist between special and medical or clinical psychology. At the initial stages of their formation, their subject content was not always clearly divided. We can say that at the beginning of the 20th century. they constituted a single scientific discipline, which was sometimes designated by the term “pathological psychology.” Some authors still identify them today. This point of view is not entirely correct, although there is much in common between special and medical psychology. The main problem of medical psychology is the question of the influence of a particular disease on the functioning of the psyche, as well as the role of the psyche in the process of treating diseases.

The subject content of special psychology is related With different variants of deviant mental development, which are not considered as nosological units. Another significant difference is that medical psychology views the individual in a clinical context, during the treatment process. In special psychology there is a different context - social, that is, training, education, professional self-determination. Different contexts are associated with different application focus

psychological knowledge. Medical psychology serves the healthcare sector, and special psychology serves the field of correctional education. These differences do not deny

the existence of areas and zones of interaction between the two sciences. Special psychology has especially close connections with one of the most developed sections of medical psychology - neuropsychology. The latter studies disorders of higher mental functions in local brain lesions. As is known, many children with developmental disabilities are characterized by the presence of residual organic pathologies of the brain. That is why the use of the basic principles and methods of neuropsychology in the study of these children turned out to be very productive and promising.

Special psychology also comes into contact with a number of clinical and biological sciences: neurophysiology, neuropathology, child psychiatry, ophthalmology, otorhinolaryngology, medical genetics, etc. Knowledge about the structural and functional foundations of the organization of mental activity deepens ideas about the nature of mental development disorders. Numerous mental and nervous diseases, as well as diseases of the organs of vision, hearing and speech apparatus, can cause developmental disorders.

That is why clinical information from the listed disciplines is so important for building a theory of special psychology. The above, of course, does not mean the identification of clinical and psychological approaches, because the clinician (doctor) is primarily interested in the symptoms and syndromes of the disease as external manifestations of the internal pathophysiological process. The psychologist, in the fair opinion of V.V. Lebedinsky, looks for mechanisms of disturbances in normal mental activity or psychological reactions to these symptoms behind the clinical symptoms.

Thus, clinical and psychological analyzes are directed towards different levels the phenomenon being studied - physiological and psychological, each of which, with all their unity, has pronounced specificity, its own laws and is not reducible to the other.

The relationship between clinical and psychological analyzes often resembles the well-known psychological phenomenon of alternate changes of figure and ground, successively transforming into each other. For example, child psychiatry deals not just with mental illnesses, their etiology, pathogenesis, etc., but primarily with how they proceed and manifest themselves depending on age factor. Here, illness acts as a figure, and age as a background. Special psychology is interested in how mental illness and its consequences (as well as other somatic disorders) affect the process age development psyche. In this case, the process of age-related development is presented as a figure, and the disease and its consequences as the background.

The range of subject connections of special psychology is not limited to interaction with psychological and clinical-biological disciplines. The very emergence of special psychology is associated with the practice of teaching and raising children with developmental disabilities. It is obvious that the methods And content of special education And Education should be based on knowledge of the characteristics of the mental development of children with disabilities. This is, first of all, the connection between special (correctional) pedagogy And special psychology. In this case, special psychology acts as one of the elements of the theoretical basis of correctional pedagogy.

WITH on the other hand, learning practice And raising children with developmental disabilities is an important means of checking the accuracy And reliability of psychological ideas.

Interaction of special psychology And pedagogy contributes to the content enrichment of both sciences; over the past decade it has changed significantly.

Learning process And raising children with disabilities V development long years was strictly regulated by uniform programs, curricula, standards And etc. To date, many original directions have appeared in this area, the pedagogical space has expanded significantly And freedom of pedagogical experimentation.

In the current conditions, special psychology has received a unique opportunity to comparatively study the unique development of a special child in different conditions of upbringing and education, ranging from traditional And ending with various forms of integrated learning. Such comparative studies can significantly enrich

ideas about the phenomena of deviant development, they themselves and their results act as expert assessments that determine which of the pedagogical technologies have great developmental and correction potential.

Another aspect of the relationship between special psychology and correctional pedagogy concerns the content of the process of raising children with special needs and family education. For quite a long time, family education was not given due attention and was not given the necessary importance.

The revival of genuine interest in this process began precisely in the field of special pedagogy. Within the framework of the family, the foundations of the moral consciousness of the individual, the hierarchy of values, socially significant motives of behavior, etc. are laid - special pedagogy realized these provisions earlier than the general one for a number of reasons, among which it should be noted the role of the personality of the disabled person in the process of his social adaptation. It has been shown many times that for the same violation, other things being equal, the success of social adaptation depends on the personal properties of the individual and, above all, on the nature of his self-esteem, attitudes and hierarchy of motives. As has already been said, it is these qualities that are fundamentally laid under the influence of family upbringing.

In this regard, it seems no coincidence that, simultaneously with the rise of interest in the problems of family education in correctional pedagogy, in the field of special psychology, the problems of the development of emotional

volitional sphere and personality in general in people with developmental disabilities. There is a growing awareness of the fact that knowledge of the peculiarities of children’s cognitive activity s p problems in development (on which the emphasis has traditionally been placed) are clearly insufficient and one-sided and do not include an understanding of the uniqueness of the formation of the personality of these children.

IN Lately There are more and more studies devoted to the psychological aspects of family education of a special child. The interaction of correctional pedagogy and special psychology in the field of family education of a child with special needs inevitably led to the problem of psychological and pedagogical assistance to parents of such children. The nature of the parental reactions to the fact of the birth of a sick child, the characteristics of the attitude that is formed towards him, which determines the style of upbringing, largely determines the uniqueness of the development of his personality, as well as the solution to the cardinal issue of social adaptation - whether or not the personality of a disabled person will turn into a disabled person.

Circle of interdisciplinary connections of special psychology V In fact, it is very wide and is not limited to those indicated above. We could also refer to the engineering sciences that deal with the design of technical devices and devices for the disabled; for sociology, general pedagogy, philosophy, ethnography, etc. But the connections considered are quite enough to understand: the subject of special psychology is extremely complex, multidimensional And multidimensional phenomenon.

5. The influence of L.S.’s ideas Vygotsky on the development of special psychology.

The formal start of the work of L.S. Vygotsky’s work in the field of special psychology and special pedagogy is his appointment in 1924 as head of the subdepartment for the education of physically handicapped and mentally retarded children in the department of social and legal protection of minors of the Main Directorate of Social Education of the People’s Commissariat of Education of the RSFSR. But his interest in this area developed earlier.
L.S. Vygotsky is one of the creators of special psychology as a special integral branch of psychological science.
L.S. Vygotsky made an invaluable contribution to solving such problems as:

· formation of the foundations of special psychology,

· identification of general patterns of mental development in various defects,

· diagnosis of developmental deficiencies.

6. Conditions for normal development of a child (according to G.M. Dulnev, A.R. Luria).

There are many types of influences that influence the occurrence of various deviations in the psychophysical and personal-social development of a person. And before characterizing the causes leading to developmental deviations, it is necessary to consider the conditions for the normal development of the child.

These 4 basic conditions necessary for the normal development of a child were formulated by G.M. Dulnev and A.R. Luria.

First most important condition - “normal functioning of the brain and its cortex.”

Second condition – “the normal physical development of the child and the associated preservation of normal performance, normal tone of nervous processes.”

Third condition – “preservation of the sense organs that ensure the child’s normal communication with the outside world.”

Fourth condition – systematic and consistent education of the child in the family, in kindergarten and in secondary school.

Data from the analysis of the psychophysical and social health of children shows a progressive increase in the number of children and adolescents with various developmental disabilities. There are fewer and fewer children who are healthy in all respects of development. According to various services, from 11 to 70% of the total child population at various stages of their development, to one degree or another, need special assistance.

7. Exo- and endogenous factors in the occurrence of deviations in different periods of development.

Individual tissues and organs are formed during different periods of embryonic and fetal growth. At the same time, body tissues at the moment of maximum intensity of differentiation processes become highly sensitive to the damaging effects of the external environment (ionizing radiation, infections, chemical agents, etc.).

Such periods, which are characterized by increased sensitivity to the effects of damaging factors, are called critical periods of embryogenesis. The likelihood of developmental deviations occurring during critical periods is highest.

In human ontogenesis, several critical periods of development can be distinguished: in progenesis, embryogenesis and postnatal life. These include:

1) development of germ cells – ovogenesis and spermatogenesis;

2) fertilization;

3) implantation (7th – 8th day of embryogenesis);

4) development of axial organ primordia and formation of the placenta (3–8th week of development);

5) stage of increased brain growth (15–20th week);

6) formation of the main functional systems of the body and differentiation of the reproductive apparatus (20–24th week);

7) birth;

8) neonatal period (up to 1 year);

External (endogenous) and internal (exogenous). External - ecology. Internal - the mother’s behavior, her lifestyle (food, alcohol, cigarettes, lack of vitamins and microelements), the compatibility of the mother and the child’s fetus according to the Rh factor.

8. Psychosocial factors in the occurrence of developmental disorders.

1. mental deprivation is a mental state that arises as a result of certain conditions in which the subject is not given the opportunity to satisfy a number of his basic psychosocial needs in sufficient measure and for a long time. There are maternal (emotional), sensory and

social deprivation

2. childhood attachment disorders - the occurrence of deviations in the development of a child is considered in line with the theory of attachment. mother's inadequate or inconsistent satisfaction of basic needs

the child leads to a distortion in the formation of attachments and the appearance of specific symptoms: a) persistent

reluctance to interact or maintain relationships with other adults, apothecary or depressed

background mood, poor interaction with peers, aggression towards oneself and others. 6) diffuse sociability -

lack of a sense of distance from adults and familiarity in communicating with almost strangers, “clingy behavior,” indiscriminate connections with peers. This variant is called “disinhibited attachment disorder” and is typical for children in orphanages

3. separation - a situation of long-term separation of a child from his mother. There are three most typical phases of separation for children from 7 months to 4 years old when placed in a 24-hour nursery, hospital or orphanage, however, these phases can also be observed at an earlier or older age: 1st phase of “protest”: the child cries for his mother 2nd phase “despair”: occurring after a few days: the child becomes depressed, immersed in

yourself, sleep and appetite disturbances are noted, stereotypical actions may appear. 3rd phase of “alienation”: lost

interest in the object of attachment, there is a loss of needs for it. These phases may not be sequential, but rather intertwined.

Classification of unfavorable psychosocial factors.

1. Global - fear of war, environmental disasters, surviving natural disasters

(earthquakes, floods..) and industrial disasters (explosions, fires).

2. national and ethnic hostility, economic disasters

H. migration, separation from native environment, loss of social status

4. fear of attacks, bullying, persecution from neighbors

5. admission to school, pressure of demands of the educational process, difficulties knowledge acquisition,

an atmosphere of rejection or hostility from peers or elders, a conflict situation.

6. stay in 24-hour nurseries, orphanages, hospitals

7. isolation of the family from the immediate environment

8. improper parenting by one parent, lack or inadequacy parental care, excessive parental pressure

10. being raised by a mentally ill or disabled parent

11. interpersonal antagonistic relationships between family members, lack of emotional

warmth, cruelty, sexual abuse.

12. personal experiences associated with one’s own significant characterological deviations.

If factors of a biological nature largely constitute the field of interest of clinicians, then the socio-psychological spectrum is closer to the professional field of teachers and psychologists.

Clinical studies show that the same cause sometimes leads to completely different developmental disorders. On the other hand, pathogenic conditions that differ in nature can cause the same forms of disorders. This means that the cause-and-effect relationship between a pathogenic factor and impaired development can be not only direct, but also indirect.

9. Factors mediating the influence of pathogenic effects

10. General patterns of “normal” and deviant development.

11. General patterns of deviant development

12. The concept of “norm” in special psychology

Determining the “degree of normality” of a person is a complex and responsible interdisciplinary problem. “Norm” in relation to the psycho level social development person is increasingly “blurred” and viewed in different meanings.

Statistical norm– this is a level of psychosocial development of a person that corresponds to the average qualitative and quantitative indicators obtained from a survey of a representative group of a population of people of the same age, gender, culture, etc. Focus on the statistical norm of development of certain mental qualities is especially important at the stage of primary diagnosis of the child’s mental state when determining the nature of the main disorder and its severity. As a rule, the statistical norm represents a certain range of values ​​for the development of any quality (height, weight, level of intelligence, its individual components, etc.), located around the arithmetic mean, usually within the standard square deviation.

Orientation to the statistical norm is important primarily at the stage of identifying developmental deficiencies and determining the extent of their pathology, which requires special psychological and pedagogical, and in some cases, medical care.

Functional norm. The concept of a functional norm is based on the idea of ​​the unique development path of each person, as well as the fact that any deviation can be considered a deviation only in comparison with the individual development trend of each person. This is a kind of individual development norm, which is Starting point and at the same time the goal of rehabilitation work with a person, regardless of the nature of his impairments. The achieved state can only then be considered the norm when, in the process of independent development or as a result of special correctional pedagogical work, such a combination of relationships between the individual and society is observed in which the individual, without long-term external and internal conflicts, productively carries out his leading activities, satisfies basic needs and at the same time fully meets the requirements that society presents to it depending on age, gender, level of psychosocial development.

Ideal norm– optimal development of the individual in optimal social conditions. This is the highest level of the functional norm.

13. Concept and criteria of abnormal development (mental dysontogenesis).

Abnormal children – these are children who have deviations in physical or mental development and need special educational conditions.

The development of abnormal children is, in principle, subject to the same laws as the development of normal children. In the process of abnormal development, not only negative aspects, but also the positive capabilities of the child appear. The uniqueness of abnormal children is due to the processes of natural compensation through the use of intact functions. But in order for the development of abnormal children to be as close as possible to normal, a system of special pedagogical influences is required that have a corrective focus and take into account the specifics of the defect.

14.Psychological parameters of dysontogenesis (according to V.V. Lebedinsky)

V.V. Lebedinsky /10/, based on these views of L.S. Vygotsky (which have not lost their relevance to this day), identified four pathopsychological parameters that determine the nature of mental dysontogenesis. In his opinion, exactly how mental development will be disrupted in each specific case depends on:

1) functional localization of the disorder;

The first parameter is related to the functional localization of the disorder. Since the brain organization of mental functions has a complex system structure, disorders of various brain structures will have different consequences. In this regard, general and specific defects are distinguished.

The general defect is associated with a violation of the regulatory systems of both cortical and subcortical. Violations of subcortical regulatory systems (primarily the reticular formation, basal subcortical ganglia) lead to a decrease in the level of wakefulness, disturbances in mental activity, pathology of drives, and elementary emotional disorders. In case of violations of cortical regulatory systems (dysfunction of the frontal lobes of the brain, for example), there is a lack of focus, programming, control, which causes defects in intellectual activity and violations of more complex, specifically human emotional formations (higher feelings).

A particular defect is associated with disruption of the activity of various analyzers (primarily their cortical sections). A particular defect leads to a deficiency of certain functions of gnosis, praxis, and speech.

2) time of defeat;

The second parameter of mental dysontogenesis is related to the time of the lesion. The nature of the developmental abnormality will vary depending on when the damage to the nervous system occurred.

3) the ratio of primary and secondary defects;

The third parameter of mental dysontogenesis characterizes the relationship between the primary and secondary defect. As stated earlier, L. S. Vygotsky in complex structure defect characterizing mental development disorders, distinguished primary (arising directly from the biological nature of the disease) and secondary symptoms. The latter arise indirectly, in the process of abnormal social development. It is secondary disorders that are of a social nature, according to L. S. Vygotsky, that should become the object of psychological and pedagogical study and correction.

4) the nature of the violation of interfunctional interactions in the process of abnormal systemogenesis.

The fourth parameter of dysontogenesis is associated with a violation of interfunctional interactions in the process of abnormal systemogenesis.

15. Age-related causes of deviant development (time and duration of exposure to a pathogenic factor).

Deviant Development- this is any deviation of a separate function or system of mental function from the development program, regardless of the sign of this change + or - (advance or lag) that goes beyond the limits of the socio-psychological standard determined for a given educational, sociocultural or ethnic situation and a given age of the child.

During individual development baby There is a constant struggle between the immaturity of its structures and the fund for growth or development. Depending on the predominance of the first or second factor under the same conditions, in some cases one can expect more stable pathological changes, and in others - easier and amenable to correctional and pedagogical influence (L. S. Vygotsky, G. E. Sukhareva, G. Gelnitz). The most vulnerable periods of childhood are the period of “primary immaturity” of the body in the period up to three years, as well as the period of restructuring of the body during puberty, when the already harmoniously formed systems of the child’s body again lose their state of balance, rebuilding to “adult” functioning.

According to clinical and psychological materials, the most severe underdevelopment of mental functions occurs as a result of exposure to damaging hazards during the period of intense cellular differentiation of brain structures, i.e., in the early stages of embryogenesis, in the first third of pregnancy.

During the period of preschool and primary school age (3 - 11 years), the child's body is a system that is more resistant to persistent irreversible deviations.

Each age leaves its mark on the nature of the response in the event of pathogenic exposure. These are the so-called levels of neuropsychic response of children and adolescents to various pathogenic influences:

– somato-vegetative (from 0 to 3 years) - against the background of the immaturity of all systems, the body at this age reacts to any pathogenic influence with a complex of somato-vegetative reactions, such as general and autonomic excitability, increased body temperature, sleep disturbances, appetite, gastrointestinal disorders;

– psychomotor (4 - 7 years) – intensive formation of the cortical parts of the motor analyzer, and in particular the frontal parts of the brain, makes this system predisposed to hyperdynamic disorders of various origins (psychomotor excitability, tics, stuttering, fears). The role of psychogenic factors is increasing - unfavorable traumatic relationships in the family, reactions to addiction to children's educational institutions, unfavorable interpersonal relationships;

– affective (7–12 years) – for any harmfulness the child reacts with a noticeable affective component - from pronounced autism to affective excitability with phenomena of negativism, aggression, and neurotic reactions;

– emotional-ideational (12–16 years old) – leader in prepubertal and pubertal age. It is characterized by pathological fantasizing, overvalued hobbies, overvalued hypochondriacal ideas, such as ideas of imaginary ugliness (dysmorphophobia, anorexia nervosa), psychogenic reactions of protest, opposition, emancipation.

The predominant symptoms of each age level of response do not exclude the symptoms of previous levels, but assign them a less noticeable place in the picture of dysontogeny.

The reactions listed above are an aggravated form of a normal age-related reaction to one or another in rarity.

16. Clinical classification of mental development disorders.

Physical and mental abnormalities lead to disruption of the normal course of overall development - an abnormal child. The development of such a child follows laws healthy person. In domestic clinical psychology on this moment The following types of violations are distinguished psychological development(mental dysotogenesis):

1) Mental underdevelopment, the model of this type is oligophrenia. Leading violation- this is concrete-situational thinking, the absence of the abstract.

2) Delayed mental development - delayed mental development or abbreviated as “ZPR”. In this case, the immaturity of the emotional-volitional sphere and intellect comes to the fore.

3) Damaged mental development - TBI and its consequences, epilepsy. The child experiences rapid exhaustion, inertia, decreased memory, level of thinking and mental performance.

4) Deficient mental development - impaired hearing, vision, cerebral palsy. The underdevelopment of a certain sensory channel affects the development of perception as a whole, which in turn turns out to be defective for adaptation in society.

5) Distorted early mental development - childhood autism. The primary defect of the morpho-physiological substrate (nervous tissue) entails a violation of the need sphere (as the unconscious sphere: “I want something”) and the motivational sphere (as the sphere of materialized needs: “I want exactly this”). All higher mental functions appear to have a reduced social orientation.

6) Disharmonious mental development - neuroses and psychopathy. The emotional-volitional sphere is wounded.

17. Types of mental dysontogenesis (according to V.V. Lebedinsky).

This type of dysontogenesis is characterized by primary failure of cortical-subcortical functions(mosaicity and partiality of disorders) in somatogenic forms and disorders of cerebro-organic genesis.

Possible manifestations:

Exhaustion, headaches, weather dependence, increased need for sleep

lability, explosiveness of emotions, touchiness, impulsiveness, hesitation

attention deficit

poor time orientation (ability to calculate time and effort)

With pedagogical neglect, the primary manifestation is a lack of educational motivation.

Thinking and regulatory functions are secondarily affected(for example, from exhaustion or motivational characteristics).

Depending on its origin, delayed development (RD) can be divided into:

1. harmonic infantilism

2. ZR of cerebral-organic origin

3. psychogenic (microsocial and pedagogical neglect of the child, entailing a lack of outlook, narrow knowledge and infantile interests)

4. somatogenic GR

Predisposition factors (for psychogenic genesis):

· minimal emotional contact with the child

· overprotection

· psychotraumatic conditions

· a situation of systematic failure, as a consequence there is a decrease in the level of aspirations, infantilism of interests

· interaction with the environment in different senses failed

With delayed mental development, in some cases the delay in the development of the emotional sphere is more pronounced, in others - the intellectual.

COGNITIVE SPHERE

Undeveloped educational motivation is a common phenomenon in harmonious infantilism. In the case of somatogenic forms, there is increased exhaustion.

The main feature is the potential preservation of thinking and the presence of cognitive interest. They are the main preservation link on the basis of which corrective work can be carried out. Since children with delayed development are characterized by a deficit of regulatory functions, the basis of rehabilitation work should include increasing external control.

EMOTIONAL SPHERE

Infantility of the emotional sphere:

Somatic level of response to stressful events

lability of emotions

impulsiveness of emotions

moodiness, tearfulness, irritability

· emotions are very draining – the inability to adequately assess the meaning of events (little things can cause very strong emotional reactions)

low reflection

BEHAVIORAL MANIFESTATIONS

Harmonic infantilism is characterized by “living by one’s own interests”

With somatogenic delayed development and developmental disorders of cerebral-organic origin there may be:

preservation of early reflexes

vestibular motion sickness

· headaches, weather dependencies

· night terrors

rare enuresis

stuttering when excited

And law are inextricably linked. Law is a set of rules of conduct that are beneficial to the state and approved by it through the adoption of legislation. The state cannot do without law, which serves its state and ensures its interests. In turn, law cannot arise outside of the state, since only state legislative bodies can adopt generally binding rules of conduct requiring their enforcement. The state introduces enforcement measures to comply with the law.

The study of state and law should begin with the concept and origin of the state.

The state is a special organization of political power that has a special apparatus (mechanism) for managing society to ensure its normal functioning. The main features of the state are territorial organization population, state sovereignty, tax collection, lawmaking. The state subjugates the entire population living in a certain territory, regardless of administrative-territorial division.

Under form of government refers to the organization of the highest bodies of state power (the order of their formation, relationships, the degree of participation of the masses in their formation and activities).

Form of government

By form of government differentiate monarchy And republic

In a monarchical form of government, the state is headed by a monarch (king, emperor, czar, shah, etc.), whose power can be unlimited (absolute monarchy) and limited (constitutional, parliamentary monarchy).

An example of an absolute monarchy is the monarchy in Oman, the United United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia. Limited monarchies exist in Great Britain, Sweden, Norway, Japan and other countries.

The features of a monarchical form of government are:

The power of the monarch is lifelong, a hereditary order of succession operates (history knows exceptions: the regicide becomes king), the will of the monarch is unlimited (he is considered God’s anointed), and the monarch does not bear responsibility.

Republican the form of government has following signs: election of the head of the republic by an elected body (parliament, federal assembly, etc.) for a certain period, collegial nature of government power, legal responsibility of the head of state under the law.

IN modern conditions There are different republics: parliamentary, presidential, mixed.

TO anti-democratic regimes include fascist, authoritarian, totalitarian, racist-nationalist, etc. The regime in Hitler's Germany was both fascist and racist.

In a democracy, there is a desire to create a rule of law state. The rule of law is a form of organization and activity of state power that is built in relationships with individuals and their various associations on the basis of legal norms*

*Cm.: Khropanyuk V.N. Theory of Government and Rights. - M.: IPP. "Fatherland", 1993. P. 56 ff.

The presence and operation of legislation does not yet indicate the existence of legal statehood in society. Russian state has the goal of becoming legal. Russia is democratic federal state with a republican form of government.

The signs of a rule of law state in a democracy are considered in the legal literature in different ways. So, S.S. Alekseev includes among them: the performance of legislative and control functions by representative bodies; the presence of state power, including executive power; the presence of municipal self-government; subordination of all branches of government to the law; independent and strong judiciary; assertion in society of inalienable, fundamental human rights and freedoms *

V.A. Chetvernin contrasts the concepts of “rule of law” and “state of legality”, believing that the rule of law cannot but limit subjective rights *.

* Cm.: Chetvernin V.A. The concept of law and state. - M.: Publishing house. Case, 1997. pp. 97-98.* See: Fundamentals of Law Russian Federation./ Edited by V.I. . Zueva. - M.: MIPP, 1997. P. 35.

The theory of the rule of law in Russian legal literature has not yet been fully formed. Foreign theory and practice of the concept of the rule of law are largely used.

A rule of law should be characterized by the rule of law, the division of powers into legislative, executive and judicial, subordination to the law of the state itself and its bodies, mutual responsibility of the state and the individual, the development of local self-government, etc.

Krylova Z.G. Law basics. 2010

Ticket 1.

1. State: concept (3 definitions), characteristics, essence.

Concepts: The state is a society at the highest level of development (Greeks). Hegel: the state is the procession of God on Earth. State- this is a special organization of political power that has a special apparatus (mechanism) for managing society to ensure its normal functioning. The state is an organization of political power that acts in relation to the entire population in a fixed territory, using the law and the social apparatus of coercion.

Signs of the state

Territory and territorial organization of power. Internal territorial division.

Population.

Sovereignty.

Tax system.

The presence of a special public apparatus of governance, which has a special legal apparatus of coercion - the use of force and control (police, courts, army).

Legislative system.

Availability of state symbols, capital, coat of arms, state language.

Concepts of the state.

State - an organization of political power that governs society and ensures order and stability in it.

The state is an organization of political power that promotes the primary implementation of specific class, universal, religious, national and other interests within a certain territory.

The state is a special organization of the political power of society, which has a special apparatus of coercion, expressing the will and interests of the ruling class or the entire people.

Signs of the state.

Availability of public authority

System of taxes and loans

Territorial division of the population

Monopoly on lawmaking

Monopoly on the legal use of force and physical coercion.

Is in stable legal ties with the population living on its territory

Possesses certain material means to carry out its policies

Acts alone official representative the whole society

Sovereignty

Symbols – coat of arms, flag, anthem

The essence of the state.

The main thing in the essence of the state is the substantive side, that is, whose interests this organization of political power carries out.

In this regard, we can distinguish class, universal, religious, national, racial approaches to the essence of the state.

The class approach, within which the state can be defined as the organization of political power of the economically dominant class.

A universal approach within which the state can be defined as an organization of political power that creates conditions for a compromise of the interests of various classes and social groups.

Within the framework of the religious approach, the state can be defined as an organization of political power that primarily promotes the interests of a particular religion.

Within the framework of the national approach, the state can be defined as an organization of political power that promotes the primary implementation of the interests of the titular nation by satisfying the interests of other nations living on the territory of a given country.

Within the framework of the racial approach, the state can be defined as an organization of political power that promotes the preferential implementation of the interests of a certain race by satisfying the interests of other races living in the territory of a given country.