Stages and features of ancient philosophy. Ancient philosophy and stages of its development

Further ideas ancient philosophy formed the basis of medieval philosophy and are considered the main sources of the development of European social thought.

In ancient philosophy, there are 4 main periods: Natural philosophical (pre-classical) stage (7-5 ​​centuries BC, Classical stage (5-4 centuries BC), Hellenistic-Roman stage (4 centuries BC .c. – 3rd century AD), final stage (3rd-6th centuries AD).

Pre-classical ancient philosophy arose in the ancient Greek city-states (polises): Miletus, Ephesus, Elea, etc. It represents a collection philosophical schools, named after the corresponding policies. Natural philosophers (translated as philosophers of nature) considered the problems of the universe in the unity of nature, gods and man; Moreover, the nature of the cosmos determined the nature of man. The main question of pre-classical philosophy was the question of the fundamental principle of the world.

Early natural philosophers highlighted the problem of cosmic harmony, to which harmony must correspond human life(cosmological approach).

U late natural philosophers the contemplative approach is combined with the use of logical argumentation, and a system of categories emerges.

Natural philosophers include:

Classical stage (5th-4th centuries BC)

The heyday of ancient philosophy. At this stage, the center of philosophical thought was Athens, which is why it is also called Athenian. Main features of the classical stage:

• systematized teachings (original philosophical systems) appear;
• switching the attention of philosophers from the “nature of things” to questions of ethics, morality, problems of society and human thinking;

Most famous philosophers classical period are the ancient Greek thinkers Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, as well as the sophistic philosophers.

Sophists (in translation from Greek - “sages, experts”) - a group of ancient Greek enlighteners from the mid-5th to first half. 4th centuries BC. They can be called professional philosophers, since the sophists taught logic to those who wished for a fee, oratory and other disciplines. They attached particular importance to the ability to convince and prove any position (even incorrect ones).

Features of the philosophy of the Sophists:

• a turn from natural philosophical problems to man, society and everyday problems;
• denial of old norms and experiences of the past, critical attitude towards religion;
• recognition of man as the “measure of all things”: free and independent of nature;

The Sophists did not create a single philosophical doctrine, but they aroused interest in critical thinking and human personality.

The senior sophists include (2nd half of the 5th century BC): Gorgias, Protagoras, Hippias, Prodicus, Antiphon, Critias.

The younger sophists include: Lycophron, Alcidamont, Thrasymachus.

Socrates (469-399 BC) - considered the founder of classical philosophy. Like the Sophists, he made man and his inner world, however, he considered their teaching sterile and superficial. He questioned the existence of gods and put reason, truth and knowledge at the forefront.

The main ideas of Socrates:

• Self-knowledge is both the search for knowledge and virtue.
• Admitting your ignorance encourages you to expand your knowledge.
• Exists higher intelligence, scattered throughout the Universe, and the human mind is only a tiny fraction of it.

The essence of Socrates' life was his conversations with his students and discussions with his opponents. He believed that the way to comprehend the truth was maieutics (a method he invented, in Greek means midwifery) - the search for truth through dialogue, irony and collective reflection. Socrates is also credited with the invention of the inductive method, leading from the particular to the general.

Since the philosopher preferred to present his teachings orally, its main provisions have come to us in the retellings of Aristophanes, Xenophon and Plato.

Plato (Athenian) real name - Aristocles (427-347 BC). A student and follower of Socrates, he preached the moral meaning of his ideas all his life. He founded his own school, called the Academy, in the suburbs of Athens, and laid the foundation for an idealistic trend in philosophy.

The basis of Plato’s teachings is made up of three concepts: “one” (the basis of all being and reality), mind and soul. Main question his philosophy is the relationship between being and thinking, material and ideal.

According to Plato's idealistic theory, the world is divided into 2 categories:

• world of becoming- a real, material world in which everything is changeable and imperfect. Material objects are secondary and are only a semblance of their ideal images;
• world of ideas, or “eidos” - sensory images that are primary and comprehended by the mind. Every object, thing or phenomenon carries within itself own idea. The highest idea is the idea of ​​God, the creator of the world order (demiurge).

As part of his philosophy, Plato also developed the doctrine of virtue and created the theory of the ideal state.

Plato presented his ideas mainly in the genre of letters and dialogues (mainly actor which Socrates is). His works include 34 dialogues in total. The most famous of them: “The Republic”, “Sophist”, “Parmenides”, “Theaetetus”.

Plato's ideas had a huge influence both on subsequent philosophical schools of antiquity and on thinkers of the Middle Ages and Modern times.

Aristotle (384 – 322 BC). Aristotle was a student of Plato and spent twenty years at his Academy. After the death of Plato, he served as tutor to Alexander the Great for eight years, and in 335-334. BC. founded his own educational institution in the vicinity of Athens, the Lyceum, where he taught together with his followers. He created his own philosophical system based on logic and metaphysics.

Aristotle developed the basic principles of Plato's philosophy, but at the same time criticized many of its aspects. Let’s say he believed that it is not the contemplation of abstract “ideas” that leads to the highest truth, but the observation and study of the real world.

Basic principles of Aristotle's philosophy:

• at the basis of any thing are: matter and form (the material essence and idea of ​​the thing);
• philosophy is the universal science of being, it provides justification for all sciences;
• the basis of science is sensory perception (opinion), but true knowledge can only be achieved with the help of reason;
• the search for the first or final cause is crucial;
• the main reason for life is soul- the essence of being of any thing. There are: lower (vegetative), middle (animal) and higher (reasonable, human) soul, which gives meaning and purpose to human life.

Aristotle rethought and generalized the philosophical knowledge of all previous ancient thinkers. He was the first to systematize the existing sciences, dividing them into three groups: theoretical (physics, mathematics, philosophy), practical (among which one of the main ones was politics) and poetic, regulating production various items). He also developed theoretical basis ethics, aesthetics, social philosophy and the basic structure of philosophical knowledge. Aristotle is the author of the geocentric system in cosmology, which existed until heliocentric system Copernicus.

Aristotle's teachings appeared highest achievement ancient philosophy and completed its classical stage.

Hellenistic-Roman stage (4th century BC – 3rd century AD)

This period takes its name from the Greek state of Hellas, but also includes the philosophy of Roman society. At this time, in ancient philosophy there was a refusal to create fundamental philosophical systems and a transition to problems of ethics, meaning and values ​​of human life.

Final stage (3rd-6th centuries AD)

Period from 3rd to 6th centuries AD includes the philosophy of not only the Greek, but also the Roman world. At this stage, there was a crisis in Roman society, which was reflected in social thought. Interest in rational thinking faded, the popularity of various mystical teachings and the influence of Christianity grew.

The most influential teaching of this period was Neoplatonism, most well-known representative which was Plotinus (205-270 AD).

Representatives of Neoplatonism interpreted Plato's teachings and criticized all subsequent movements. The main ideas of Neoplatonism were:

• Everything lower flows from the Higher. The highest is God, or some kind of philosophical principle. The Supreme cannot be comprehended by reason, only through mystical ecstasy.
• The essence of knowledge is the knowledge of the divine principle, which embodies the authenticity of being.
• Good is spirituality, liberation from the body, asceticism.

Useful sources

1. "Philosophy. Course of lectures” / B.N. Bessonov. – M.-LLC “AST Publishing House”, 2002
2. "Philosophy. Short course» / Moiseeva N.A., Sorokovikova V.I – St. Petersburg-Petersburg, 2004
3. “Philosophy: a textbook for universities” / V.F. Titov, I.N. Smirnov - M. graduate School, 2003
4. "Philosophy: a textbook for higher education students educational institutions» / Yu.M. Khrustalev - M.: Publishing Center "Academy", 2008.
5. “Philosophy: a textbook for higher educational institutions” / executive editor, Ph.D. V.P. Kokhanovsky - Rostov n/a: “Phoenix”, 1998

Ancient philosophy: stages of development, representatives and features updated: October 30, 2017 by: Scientific Articles.Ru

Features of ancient philosophy

Development of ancient philosophy - the most important stage historical dynamics of the subject of philosophical knowledge. Within the framework of ancient philosophy, ontology and metaphysics, epistemology and logic, anthropology and psychology, philosophy of history and aesthetics, moral and political philosophy are highlighted.

Ancient philosophy(first Greek and then Roman) cover more than a thousand-year period from the 6th century. BC e. to VI century AD e. Ancient philosophy originated in the ancient Greek (city-states) with a democratic orientation and its content, methods and purpose differed from the eastern methods of philosophizing, the mythological explanation of the world, characteristic of the early ancient culture. Formation philosophical view the world was prepared by ancient Greek literature and culture (the works of Homer, Hesiod, gnomic poets), where questions were raised about the place and role of man in the universe, the skills of establishing the motives (reasons) of actions were formed, and artistic images structured according to feelings of harmony, proportion and measure.

Early Greek philosophy uses fantastic imagery and metaphorical language. But if for myth the image of the world and real world were no different, then philosophy formulates as its main goal the desire for truth, a pure and selfless desire to get closer to it. Possession of the complete truth, according to ancient tradition, was considered possible only by the gods. Man could not merge with “sophia” because he was mortal, finite and limited in knowledge. Therefore, only an unbridled desire for truth is available to a person, which has never been fully completed, active, active, passionate desire for truth, love for wisdom, what the concept itself expresses "philosophy". Being was associated with a multitude of constantly changing elements, and consciousness was associated with a limited number of concepts that restrained the chaotic manifestation of the elements.

Search for the fundamental principle of the world in the changing circulation of phenomena is the main cognitive goal of ancient Greek philosophy. Therefore, ancient philosophy can be understood as doctrine of "first principles and causes". According to its method, this historical type of philosophy seeks to rationally explain existence, reality as a whole. For ancient philosophy, reasonable evidence is significant, logical argument, rhetorical-deductive rationality, logos. The transition “from myth to logos” created a well-known vector of development of both spiritual culture and Europe.

The main stages in the development of ancient philosophy

In the development of ancient philosophy there are four main stages(you can see the detailed division of philosophical schools in the table below).

First stage – 6-5 centuries BC e. "pre-Socratic" . The philosophers who lived before Socrates are called pre-Socratics. These include the sages from Miletus (Miletus school - Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes), Heraclitus from Ephesus, the Eleatic school (Parmenides, Zeno), Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans, atomists (Leucippus and Democritus). Natural philosophers deal with the problem of arche (Greek arhe - beginning) - the unified basis of the universe (senior physicists) and the problems of the integral unity of multiple worlds (junior physicists).

The central subject of knowledge in ancient Greek natural philosophy acts space, and the main form of philosophical teaching is cosmological models. The central question of ontology - the question of the essence and structure of the world - is highlighted from the perspective of the question of its origin.

Second phase – approximately mid 5th – late 4th centuries BC. e. – classical. The emergence of classical philosophy marks a radical turn to logical-epistemological, socio-political, moral-ethical and anthropological issues. This turn is associated with the sophistic tradition and with the figure of Socrates. Within the framework of mature classics, perfect examples of systemic abstract theoretical and philosophical concepts are developed, defining the canon of the Western European philosophical tradition (Plato and Aristotle).

Third stage - end of 4th-2nd centuries. BC e. usually called Hellenistic. In contrast to the previous one, associated with the emergence of significant, deep in content and universal in theme, philosophical systems, various eclectic competing philosophical schools are being formed: peripatetics, academic philosophy (Plato’s Academy, Stoic and Epicurean schools, skepticism). All schools are united by one feature: the transition from commenting on the teachings of Plato and Aristotle to the formation of problems of ethics, moralistic frankness in the era of the decline of Hellenistic culture. Then the works of Theophrastus, Carneades, Epicurus, Pyrrho and others became popular.

Fourth stage – 1st century BC e. – 5-6 centuries on the. e. - the period when Rome began to play a decisive role in antiquity, under whose influence Greece also fell. Roman philosophy was formed under the influence of Greek, especially Hellenistic. There are three schools of thought in Roman philosophy: Stoicism (Seneca, Epictetus, Marcus Aurelius), skepticism (Sextus Empiricus), Epicureanism (Titus Lucretius Carus). In the 3rd-5th centuries. n. e. Neoplatonism arises and develops in Roman philosophy, a famous representative of which is the philosopher Plotinus. Neoplatonism significantly influenced not only the early Christian philosophy, but also for the whole.

References:

1. World Encyclopedia: Philosophy / Main. scientific ed. and comp. A. A. Gritsanov. - M.: AST, Mn.: Harvest, - Modern writer, 2001. - 1312 p.

2. History of philosophy: A handbook for a high school. - Kh.: Prapor, 2003. - 768 p.

Ancient philosophy refers to directions, schools and teachings that developed in ancient Greek and Roman societies. Ancient Greek philosophers, depending on what they preached, formed many movements, and the totality of these philosophical teachings, which developed in ancient Greek and Roman slave societies, constituted ancient philosophy. Ancient philosophy- a single and unique phenomenon in development philosophical consciousness humanity.

Ancient (ancient) philosophy, that is, the philosophy of the ancient Greeks and ancient Romans, originated in the 7th century. BC e. in Greece and lasted until the 6th century. n. e. During this millennium, two main directions in European philosophy were formed - materialism and idealism, dialectics arose, were put in embryo, (or even quite developed form) all the main questions of philosophy, were created by dozens of thinkers, whose names are familiar even to those who have not specifically studied philosophy - Pythagoras, Heraclitus, Socrates, Democritus, Plato, Aristotle, Epicurus, Lucretius Carus, Marcus Aurelius, Cicero, Seneca, Philo .

Ancient philosophy, which was an integral phenomenon in the history of philosophy, can be divided into a number of periods.

First period ancient philosophy - the period of its origin from the mythological worldview - dates back to the 7th century. BC e. The first philosophical anti-mythological teachings, which are still full of mythological images and names, date back to this period. The creators of these teachings were the philosophers of the Milesian school (Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes), founder of the Eleatic school Xenophanes, Pythagoras, Heraclitus and his contemporary and philosophical antipode Parmenides - the main representative of the Eleatic school.

Second period in the history of ancient philosophy - the period of its maturity - is the main and most difficult. This includes the Teachings of the great natural philosophers - Empedocles, Anaxagoras, Leucippus and Democritus, as well as the Pythagorean Philolaus, the movement of the Sophists, who first turned to ethical and social themes, and Socrates, in whose views the problem of philosophical methodology arose. IN IV century. BC e. Plato introduces the concept of “idea” into philosophy precisely as “ideal”.

This includes the beginning of the activities of the so-called Socratic schools (Cynics, Cyrenaics, etc.). Aristotle's teaching ends this period.

Third period in the history of ancient philosophy there is an era of the spread of Greek culture both to the East and to the West - to Rome. This period covers the III-I centuries. BC e. In these centuries, both the old philosophical schools of Plato and Aristotle, as well as new ones, continue to function. These are the schools of Epicurus and Zeno. Their teachings penetrated the Roman Republic, giving rise to Roman Epicureanism (Lucretius Carus), skepticism and stoicism (Seneca, Marcus Aurelius) .

The last period in the history of ancient philosophy - the philosophy of the Roman Empire - was influenced first by Stoicism, and then by Neoplatonism and the emerging Christian ideas, the philosophical support of which was the same Neoplatonism. Dispersal by the Emperor Justinian in 529 the philosophical schools in Athens, and above all Plato's Academy, marks the end of ancient philosophy.

Antiquity is the largest period in the history of European civilization, stretching over 3.5 thousand years. It is based on the history of the development of two civilizations - Greek and Roman. In other words, antiquity is a Greco-Roman culture, but the roots of these two cultures lie in even deeper antiquity. The development of Hellenic culture was greatly influenced (or even were immediate predecessors) by the so-called Aegean (Minoan, Cretan) and Mycenaean (Achaean) cultures. As for the Romans, the formation of Roman culture was greatly influenced by Etruscan culture. Within a given era and two cultures, different stages of development are distinguished.

The following periods are distinguished in the history of ancient Greek culture:

1. Aegean or Creto-MycenaeanIII– IIthousand BC e. Name of this period associated with the geographical location of the two main centers of proto-Greek culture. One of them is centered on the island of Crete, and the other is Mycenae, a powerful city-state on mainland Greece. The culture of Crete (or Minoan culture) was distinguished by a number of characteristic features. First of all, it was a thalassocratic culture (Greek - “dominant at sea”). Thalassocracy was expressed in the fact that the Cretans, having created a magnificent fleet, controlled with its help both the Aegean Sea and the coast of mainland Greece, making periodic raids on coastal settlements and forcing them to pay tribute to Crete (this aggressive policy of Crete was immortalized in the myth of Theseus and Ariadne ). The fleet also enabled Crete to conduct brisk trade with Egypt and the Middle East, which contributed to the enrichment of not only the treasury, but also the culture of Crete with the achievements of the cultures of Egypt and Mesopotamia. A kind of “calling card” of Crete were the palaces of its rulers, excavated by archaeologists at the end of the 19th century (Knossos, Phaistos, Agia Triada, etc.). They were complexes located over a large area, extremely intricately interconnected buildings and passages, equipped with a ventilation system, sewage system, special light shafts and walls decorated with paintings. We know little about the religion of Crete, but the numerous figurines of female guardian goddesses found indicate that the cult of fertility occupied a significant place in this religion. In addition, there was a ritual practice on Crete "tauromachy"(“battles with bulls”). Frescoes with images of the tauromachy adorned the walls of Cretan palaces and served as a subject for small sculptures.

Mycenae, as well as other cities of mainland Greece, were inhabited by tribes of the Achaeans - a people with a lower cultural level than the Cretans. But the Mycenaean culture was still not devoid of its original originality. In Mycenae, as well as in Crete, palaces were built, but these were monumental structures surrounded by thick walls with the so-called “cyclonic masonry” (Greeks of later times believed that the walls of Mycenae, made of huge stone blocks, were built by the Cyclopes), with a main hall for starting a fire - megaron inside. In addition, the graves of the Mycenaean kings were distinguished by their originality, who were buried surrounded by golden utensils and with a golden mask on their face in deep shafts, covered with stone slabs on top. The Mycenaeans also achieved great art in monumental sculpture (“Lion Gate” of Mycenae).

2. Homeric period (XI- VIIIcenturies BC e.). In cultural history Ancient Greece- this is a time, on the one hand, of general cultural degradation, and on the other, the formation of a single Greek nation. By the 8th century, which dates back to the writing of Homer’s poems, the prerequisites were created for the emergence of a distinctive Greek culture: social division in society intensified, an aristocracy appeared, Life in urban centers has revived again. During this era, the anthropomorphic Olympic mythology of the Greeks also took shape.

3. Archaic period (VII– VIBC e.) was marked by the cultural rise of Ancient Greece. This is the time when Greek culture began to flourish: fortified slave-holding cities turned into city-states, writing, medicine, and astronomy emerged. Characteristic features of this period are the Greek maritime colonization of the shores of the Black and Mediterranean Seas, the development of international trade and intercultural contacts, the creation architectural styles, the emergence of sculpture, literature and poetry (Hesiod, Pindar, Archilochus, Anacreon).

4. Classical period (V– three quartersIVBC e) – This is the heyday of Greek culture. During this period, the Greeks, through joint efforts, were able to resist the eastern conquerors - the Persians, which contributed to the greatest spiritual upsurge in all the far from homogeneous Greek city-states. Athens is confidently emerging as the cultural center of Greece in this era. It was the Athenians who carried out the most radical democratic reforms, and it was to Athens that philosophers, rhetoricians, historians, artists and poets flocked from all over Greece, admiring or criticizing the Athenian polity. Under the leadership of the politician and military commander Pericles, at this time a complete reconstruction of the Athenian Acropolis was carried out, its famous temples were created and, above all, the Parthenon, decorated with sculptures by the master Phidias. Along the streets of Athens in the 5th century. The philosophers Socrates and Plato communicate with the demos, and every year in theaters, on a citywide holiday in honor of the god of wine Dionysus, performances are staged, consisting of tragedies (Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides) and comedies (Aristophanes). By the end of the 5th century. Athens is experiencing a political crisis and, having lost to Sparta in the Peloponnesian War, significantly reduces the pace of its cultural development.

Hellenistic period in the history of Greek culture, the cultural era that began in Greece is called after the conquest of all Greek city-states by King Philip of Macedonia and the grandiose campaign of Philip’s son, Alexander the Great, at the head of the combined Greek army to the East. As a result of this campaign, the Greeks subjugated Egypt, Syria, Mesopotamia, Minor and part of Central and Central Asia (Alexander’s troops even entered India, but the death of the young king forced them to retreat). On the territory conquered by Alexander, after his death, a number of states arose, which were headed by his former military leaders - the Diadochi. In the new states, the cultural policy that Alexander initiated during his campaign was carried out: the Greeks became related to the local population, adopted their customs, but they themselves influenced those they conquered, actively organizing their life according to the laws of the city. During the Hellenistic era, many architectural masterpieces were created. Thus, in Alexandria (the capital of the Ptolemaic state, founded by Alexander the Great), the Library of Alexandria and the Lighthouse of Alexandria were built, as well as the sculpture of the Colossus of Rhodes, and the famous mausoleum was erected in Halicarnassus (the last three were considered by the ancients to be among the seven “wonders of the world”). Sculpture, literature and philosophy also developed. The strengthening of the monarchy still could not save the Hellenistic states from being conquered by stronger and more powerful neighbors. On the one hand, Parthia, and on the other, Rome gradually absorbed Hellas.

Culture Ancient Italy and Ancient Rome includes three main stages: 1) Tsarist period (VII– VIBC e.); 2) Republican period (510 - 31 BC); 3) Imperial period (31 BC – 476 AD)

The founding date of Rome and the beginning of the royal period is considered to be 753 BC. e. According to legend, the city on Palatine Hill was founded by the brothers Romulus and Remus, descendants of the hero Aeneas, who once arrived in Italy after the destruction of Troy. Due to a dispute over the name of the city, Romulus killed Remus, and Rome received its historical name "Roma".

During the Age of Kings, the city expanded, conquering surrounding territories. Thanks to their proximity to the highly developed culture of the Etruscans and Greek colonies, the Romans very rapidly developed their culture. They adopted from the Etruscans " Latin alphabet", the secret sciences of the priests, the basics of urban planning and metallurgy, and among the Greeks - the polis form of urban structure.

From the very beginning, the Republican period was marked by the struggle of the plebeians with the patricians for civil and property rights. This struggle ended after the establishment of uniform norms for all Roman citizens (“Laws of the XII Tables”).

In the IV–III centuries. BC e. Rome managed to subjugate the entire Apennine Peninsula, conquering Carthage, Greece and the entire Eastern Mediterranean. Having mastered vast territories, the Romans created a powerful military-administrative state and introduced firm order into their life.

The culture of the Republic era was less vibrant than the culture of the Greek city-states during the heyday of democracy. The Romans continued to be strongly influenced by the Greeks, from whom Rome learned architectural and fine arts, poetry, drama, philosophy. The first Roman writers were Naevius of Campania and Titus Maccius Plautus (comedian). Gladiator fights, which gathered many thousands of residents in huge amphitheaters, became a unique phenomenon of Roman republican life.

The growth of wealth of the nobility (nobles) and the poverty of the plebs led to a series of civil wars and slave uprisings in the 2nd–1st centuries. BC e. As a result of severe civil wars, Rome came to the need to centralize power over the metropolis and provinces in the hands of one person. But the first attempt at such centralization, made by Julius Caesar, ended with his assassination by supporters of the Republic in 44 BC. e., however, 17 years after this, the Roman Republic finally became a thing of the past - the time of the empire had come.

The imperial period in the cultural history of Ancient Rome lasted five centuries, from 27 BC. e. to 476 AD e., beginning with the brilliant era of the reign of the first principle, Octavian Augustus, who managed to stabilize the life of Rome and the provinces. Augustus turned Rome into the capital of a world empire.

The period of the early empire was a time of tremendous cultural upsurge. New temples and baths are being built, a forum is being defended, a gigantic Colosseum amphitheater is being created, a system of aqueducts supplying cities clean water. Alexandria, with its famous library, becomes the intellectual center of the empire. In the first two imperial centuries, sciences successfully developed - medicine (Galen), natural science (Pliny the Elder), astronomy (Ptolemy), geography (Strabo).

In the religion of this time, two new phenomena are making themselves known: firstly. a cult of deification of the emperor arises; secondly, starting from the middle of the 1st century. n. e. Throughout the empire, Christianity begins to gradually spread, a religion that originated in provincial Judea, but is cosmopolitan in nature.

Pythagoreanism

This philosophical movement was founded Pythagoras(c. 570 - c. 500 BC) from about. Samos, that's why it was called Samos. In the south of the Apennine Peninsula in the city of Croton, he created an alliance (secret, with strict rules) like-minded people who shared his views, actively participating in political life Crotona.

Unlike the Milesians and Ephesians, Pythagoras was an idealist. He considered numbers (natural integers) to be the fundamental principle of the world.. Everything in the world is countable and is in numerical relation to each other; these relationships create harmony in the world. Numbers are the basis of the five elements that make up all the diversity of the world and our planet - the center of the Universe. He correlated even sounds (including in music) with different numbers. Pythagoras also believed in the transmigration of souls.

Eleatic school

Existed in the city of Elea in the southern part of the Apennine Peninsula. Its most famous representatives were Parmenides(lived in the 6th-5th centuries BC), Zeno(c. 490-430 BC).

The Eleatics were the first to put forward the idea that the sensory world is illusory; in their opinion, the intelligible world, and not the physical, should be considered true. Moreover, it was not people who were created by gods, but gods by people ( Xenophanes). The truth can only be known rational way, since being and thinking are identical, sensations are false.

Being is motionless, because if there is non-being, then it - non-being - also exists, which means it is also being, and if being and non-being are identical, then there cannot be any transitions between them, therefore, there are simply no grounds for movement ( Parmenides). To prove this point, Zeno developed aporia(difficulties).

If space were divisible into some finite fragments, then a flying arrow (aporia “Arrow”) would occupy at each specific moment in time only certain of them and only completely; at another moment in time it motionlessly occupies other fragments of space. If space is divisible to infinity, then Achilles will never catch up with the tortoise (aporia “Achilles and the tortoise”), since he needs to overcome the distance separating him from the tortoise, but at the same time it moves to another point while Achilles reaches a new goal, the turtle moves again and so on ad infinitum, although the distance is significantly reduced each time.

Atomists

Most scientists agree that one of the authors of atomism was Democritus(c. 460-370 BC) from the city of Abdera, his teacher Leucippa many consider it the fruit of legends.

Atomists believe that the fundamental principle of existence is atoms(indivisible) - indivisible, uncreated and indestructible, the smallest (but different in shape, mass and size) mobile particles. There are an infinite number of them. They periodically combine to form objects of the observable material world, then over time they disintegrate and form other objects in a different ratio. This process is endless, but not chaotic, but subject to a certain necessity (determinism). In the spaces between the atoms there is an infinite void (similar to a vacuum).

In addition to the listed schools and philosophers, there were others, with their own characteristics of ideas about the world, with their own versions of the principles. For example, Anaxagoras(c. 500-428 BC), who considered the fundamental principle of being homeomerism — tiny particles substances that are carriers of special qualities (for example, the qualities of fire, air, water or iron), their different ratio in a specific thing determines its properties; or Empedocles(c. 490-430 BC), who considered the basis of being Love And feud being in constant interaction and setting in motion elements that are essentially passive.

Common to early ancient philosophy were attempts to explain the essence of nature, a declarative rather than disputative way of presenting their positions. Most philosophers sought to find the fundamental principle of the world, many animated things, nature (hylozoism). main feature The philosophy of this period was cosmocentrism.

The next period of ancient philosophy is distinguished by great maturity and depth of understanding of the essence of nature and the cosmos, and the watershed was fundamental change the main problems considered by philosophy. In particular, Socrates' teaching was anthropocentric rather than cosmocentric. And if early period became the origin of ancient philosophy, then classical philosophy became its flowering.

Classical ancient philosophy

Classical period includes the philosophical activities of the Sophists, and the emergence of the “Socratic” schools.

Sophists

With this name, researchers unite a group of ancient Greek philosophers (they lived in Athens at the same time as Socrates), who believed important goal victory in disputes. At the same time, they did not care about the objective correctness of the potential winner of the philosophers, many of whom were engaged in educational activities and education. Sophists (Greek) sophistes - sage) - philosophers and educators, paid professional teachers, engaged general education citizens and especially those who have had extensive experience in teaching oratory are usually divided into “seniors” ( Protagoras, Gorgias, Critias etc.) and “younger” ( Lycophron, Alkydamant and etc.).

The Sophists placed man at the center of attention; Protagoras famously said: “man is the measure of all things.” The man became the main one Starting point all reasoning and the main criterion of the surrounding reality. The Sophists drew attention to the difference between the laws of nature and social norms established by the person himself.

Sophists are characterized by a critical attitude towards the surrounding reality, denial of previous traditions, philosophical ideas and conclusions, ethical standards that are not sufficiently substantiated, as well as the desire to defend their positions with the help of logic. They taught other people to win victories in disputes, and invented various methods of conducting disputes. For this purpose, they, in particular, developed sophisms (Greek. sophisma- cunning) - formally seemingly correct, but essentially false conclusions based on a deliberate violation of the rules of logic. For example, the sophism “Horned”: What you have not lost, you have. You didn't lose your horns. Therefore you have horns.

Some contemporaries and researchers classify Socrates as a sophist - he also had little interest in natural philosophy (philosophy of nature), put man at the center of the philosophical understanding of the world, also taught other people, and was also skeptical about dogmas. But it should be remembered that the Sophists taught people for money, but Socrates was disinterested; the main goal of the sophists in a discussion is to defeat their opponent; Socrates always sought the truth; the sophists rejected objective criteria of good and evil (everything is relative); Socrates believed that what makes people virtuous is knowledge of the essence of good and evil.

The philosophy of this time was influenced by the partial depreciation of previous mythological, religious and generally cultural values. The worship of ancient gods became more of a habit. than internal need; the mythical inhabitants of Olympus were rapidly losing their former power and authority. In parallel with this, some ethical standards. Speaking modern language, crisis phenomena could not remain unnoticed by philosophers.