Articulation (from the Latin articulatio - I pronounce articulately) is the work of the speech organs aimed at producing sounds. Each pronounced sound has three articulatory phases: attack (excursion), endurance and retreat (recursion). All phases are interconnected as components of sound pronunciation.
An attack of articulation consists in the transition of the speech organs from a calm state or articulation of the previous sound to the position required by the pronounced sound. Exposure is the preservation of the position of the articulating organs necessary to pronounce a given sound. The retreat of articulation consists in the exit of the speech organs from the holding position or in the beginning of the articulation of the next sound. During the speech process, there is no clear boundary between the phases, since during the transition from one phase to another, they seem to be layered on top of each other in the speech flow.
When pronouncing some sounds, the shutter speed practically approaches zero - these are the so-called instant sounds. These are, for example, Russian and Belarusian stop consonants [p], [b], [t], [d], [k], [g]. When pronouncing Russian and Belarusian vowels, sonorants, and some other consonants, the endurance is perceived acoustically quite clearly - these are long sounds. Their duration may not always be evident, but if desired, these sounds can be extended.
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The entire set of articulations necessary for the free formation of sounds of any language is called articulatory base of this language. The articulatory bases of languages differ from each other. For example, deep pronunciation organs - the uvula and pharynx - practically do not participate in the formation of sounds of the Russian language. Therefore, in the Russian language there are no lingual (uvular), pharyngeal (pharyngeal) and laryngeal (laryngeal) consonants. And, on the contrary, in the articulatory base of the Georgian language, deep pronunciation organs play a significant role in the formation of consonant sounds. In the Russian language, the work of the vocal cords is also combined with oral articulations, which leads to the formation of voiced consonants. In Finno-Ugric languages, the work of the vocal cords is rarely accompanied by oral articulations, which explains the absence of voiced consonants in these languages.
The articulatory base of language is a historical phenomenon. The articulatory skills that make up it can gradually change. This turns out to be one of the reasons for the development of a sound system in a particular language. For example, the loss of nasal vowels in a certain historical period in the Russian language or the acquisition of the consonant sound [f]. However, the process of development of the articulatory base is very long-term: the sound system of a language, as a rule, remains unchanged over a number of eras. Much remains unclear about the causes of sound changes, as well as the associated changes in the articulatory base of the language.
4.4. Classification of speech sounds
Vowels and consonants. The number of speech sounds found in different languages of the world is quite large. The number of typical sounds (phonemes) ranges from 12 to 80. Despite the different set of sounds in different languages, in all languages of the world there are two types of speech sounds - vowels and consonants. The combination of vowel sounds forms vocalism(from Latin vocalis - vowel) the phonetic system of a language, and the set of consonants is its consonantism(from lat. con-
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sonāns, born p.cōnsonantis - consonant). The classification of sounds can be based on both acoustic and articulatory features. When dividing sounds into vowels and consonants and their internal classification, both of these characteristics are most often taken into account.
Vowels- these are sounds, during the formation of which in the supraglottic cavities there are no obstacles to the path of the air stream: the stream of exhaled air passes freely through the speech canal. For vowel sounds, the so-called diffuse tension of the muscles of the entire pronunciation apparatus is typical, when all speech organs taking part in sound formation are tense. The degree of tension can change: with greater tension, the pronounced vowel has a clearer character (for example, a stressed vowel in Russian). When characterizing vowels, other features are usually noted: vowels are tonal sounds. They are characterized by the presence of musical tones (voices), which are formed by the work of the vocal cords.
Consonants- these are sounds, the formation of which in the supraglottic cavities or in the larynx necessarily creates one or another obstacle to the path of the air stream (in the form of close or even closed speech organs). Consonants are characterized by concentrated muscular tension at the point of formation of the obstruction and a stronger air stream than vowels. In addition, consonant sounds are characterized by the presence of noise that occurs when overcoming an obstacle. The admixture of musical tones (voices) may be greater or lesser.
Acoustic classification of speech sounds. The peculiarities of acoustic classification are that it describes vowels and consonants with the same set of terms. In this case, acoustic classification is based, as a rule, on a binary principle, that is, two-term oppositions. In other words, the application of the binary principle in acoustic classification at each division gives two classes of speech sounds. For example, sign vocality - non-vocality, based on the presence or absence of a clearly defined formant structure of sound, it divides speech sounds into sonorant (from the Latin sonorus - sonorous) and noisy. Sonorant (vocal) include -
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All vowels and sonorant consonants [m], [n], [l], [p], [j]. Nonvocal consonants include noisy consonants [b], [p], [d], [t], [g], [k], [v], [f], [z], [s], [zh], [ w], [x], [ts], [h]. Sonorant sounds are characterized by the presence of resonator tones; noise in them is either absent (vowels) or minimally involved (for example, in p different types). In noisy consonants, the timbre is determined by the noise characteristic of this sound.
Based on consonance - non-consonance, based on low or high general level energy of sound, all sounds are divided into consonant (all consonants) and non-consonant (all vowels). In terms of energy level, non-consonant sounds are strong sounds, while consonant sounds are weak sounds. This sign does not duplicate the previous one, since in the first case some consonants have the sign of “publicity”. This is clearly visible on the following plate, where + indicates the presence of the attribute, and - (minus) its absence:
Another binary sign sonority - deafness, based on presence or absence harmonic vibrations in low frequencies, allows you to separate all sounds into voiced and unvoiced. Voiced sounds include all vocal sounds - and these are vowels, sonorant consonants and voiced noisy sounds; - non-vocal, that is, deaf noisy. As already noted, vowel sounds are characterized by the presence of only voice; in sonorant, or sonant sounds, the voice predominates over noise. Voiced noisy [b], [v], [g], [d], [z], [z] are formed with a predominance of noise over the voice, and voiceless noisy [k], [p], [s], [t] , [f], [x], [ts], [h], [w] - without voice participation.
The acoustic characteristics of sounds are based on experimental data from electroacoustics. It is based both on the actual frequency characteristics of the formants and on the location of the formants in the sound spectrum. To describe the phonetic systems of the world's languages, 12 pairs of features are usually used. In addition to the marked pairs, these are features such as compactness - differential
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fuzziness, discontinuity - continuity, tension - non-tension, sharpness - blurredness, nasality - non-nasality, aruptiveness - non-abruptiveness, flatness - non-flatness, sharpness - non-sharpness, high tone - low tone.
Formants compact sounds on the spectrogram occupy the central part of the spectrum, formants diffuse- located at the ends of the spectrum. For example, Russian consonants [zh], [k], [r] are compact, and [b], [s], [f] are diffuse sounds. Intermittent sounds on spectrograms are characterized by a sharply broken edge of the wave, while in continuous there are transitional tones. An example is the contrast between Russian stop consonants (discontinuous) and fricative consonants (continuous). U tense sounds, the total amount of energy is higher, and the duration of sound is longer than that of relaxed, for example, in German consonants [ä-a, ö-o, ü-u]. Acoustically sharp and unsharp sounds differ in noise intensity. When sharp sounds are formed in oral cavity Turbulent air flows arise - jet turbulence when part of the air flows across the general flow, disturbing it. In Russian, sharp sounds include affricates [ts, ch"] and tremulous [rr"]. Nasality due to the participation of the nasal resonator in the formation of sound. Nasal sounds include nasal vowels and consonants. Under abortiveness This refers to the formation of consonants accompanied by a glottal stop. Abruptive, or glottalized, consonants are found in many languages of America, the Caucasus, and the Far East. Acoustically, aruptive ones are characterized by a higher rate of energy consumption than non-abruptive ones. U flat sounds at least one of the formants is lowered compared to non-flat. So, in the Russian language, the vowels [a-e-y-i] are non-flat, and the vowels [o], [u] are flat, which is due to the roundness of these sounds. U sharp sounds, unlike flat ones, have at least one formant higher than that of unsharp. An example of sharp sounds is the soft consonants of Slavic languages. Opposition low tone-high tone is based on the concentration of energy in the lower or higher frequencies of the sound spectrum. In the Russian language, for example, vowels [у, о], hard consonants have a low tonality, and vowels [i, e], soft consonants have a high tonality.
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To describe the phonetic system of the Russian language, 9 pairs of features are considered sufficient. At the same time, some of them for individual sounds turn out to be insignificant and duplicative in some cases, since their presence or absence follows from other signs and is predicted by them. For example, the vocality of [a] predicts its nonconsonantity; from the absence of vocality [s] follows its consonance.
Articulatory classification of speech sounds. The peculiarities of the articulatory classification are that vowels and consonants are described separately and, as a rule, in different terms, which is due to the specific articulation of these speech sounds.
Classification of vowels. In different languages, the number of vowels does not coincide: for example, in modern Russian and Belarusian there are six of them, in modern German there are thirteen, and in modern English twenty-one. The International Phonetic Association (IPA) chart of vowel sounds is represented by 25 vowel sounds. The vocalism of the Russian language is considered quite simple, in contrast, for example, to the vocalism of English and French, in which there are tense and labial front vowels, long vowels and diphthongs.
Articulatory classifications of vowels are based on the degree of elevation of the tongue vertically (rise), the degree of its advancement forward or backward horizontally (row), on the participation or non-participation of the lips (the presence or absence of labialization; from the Latin labium - lip), on the position of the soft palate .
According to the degree of tongue elevation vowels are divided into: sounds of the upper rise (Russian [i], [ы], [у]), in the formation of which the language occupies the most high position in the oral cavity; sounds of the lower rise (Russian [a]), when articulating them, the tongue occupies the lowest possible position in the oral cavity; mid-rise sounds (Russian [e], [o]), when they are formed the tongue occupies a middle position in the oral cavity; There can be quite a lot of average rises.
During education front vowels(Russian [i], [e]) the tongue moves forward in the oral cavity, back row (Russian [u],
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[o]) - back, middle row (Russian [ы], [а]) - the tongue is extended along the oral cavity.
By participation or non-participation of lips vowels are divided into labialized (rounded) and non-labialized (unrounded). Rounded sounds are formed by rounding and stretching the lips. In Russian it is [u], [o]. When pronouncing unrounded sounds, the lips are passive.
In the speech stream, vowel sounds, in addition to their basic form, exist in a variety of shades, which depend on various phonetic conditions: on the place in relation to stress, on proximity to hard or soft consonants, on the place in the word.
According to the position of the soft palate Vowels are divided into oral, or oral, and nasal. When the oral cavity is formed, the soft palate is raised and closes the passage into the nasal cavity. When nasal vowels are formed, the soft palate is lowered and the air stream passes freely into the nasal cavity. In modern Russian there are no nasal vowels. In ancient times, the Slavs had nasal vowels; they are still preserved in the Polish language.
Vowels are also distinguished degree of mouth opening. For example, the Russian vowel [and] belongs to the “narrow” sounds, since when pronouncing it the mouth almost does not open. And, on the contrary, the sound [a] is one of the “widest” sounds, since when it is pronounced, the widest mouth opening is formed. The simplest table of Russian vowels looks like this:
|
Climb | |||
|
front |
average |
rear |
|
|
non-labialized |
labialized |
||
In the languages of the world, there are also complex vowels, consisting of two elements pronounced in one syllable and acting as one phoneme. These are the so-called diphthongs. They are divided into descending, or falling, and ascending. In a downward direction
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In a phthong, the first element of sound is strong. For example, in the English diphthong [оu] in words go - go, home - home, By - - no, this is the initial [o]-shaped sound, while the second element is pronounced less clearly. In an ascending diphthong, the second element of the sound is strong, or syllabic. For example, in Spanish diffthongs, in words biep- Fine, biepo - A good one is the final [e]-shaped overtone.
Classification of consonants. The articulatory classification of consonant sounds is more complex, since there are more consonant sounds in the languages of the world than vowels. In some languages, the number of consonants ranges from 50% to 90% of the total number of sounds. For example, in English language 24 consonants and 21 vowels, in French there are 21 consonants and 13 vowels, in Lithuanian - 45 consonants and 12 vowels, in Armenian - 30 and 6, respectively, in Georgian - 28 and 5, in Uzbek - 24 and 6, in Estonian - 16 consonants and 9 vowels (data from V.I. Kodukhov). In the Russian language there are 36 consonants and 6 vowels (sometimes other numbers are given).
The basis for the classification of consonants are the following articulatory features: 1) an active organ that forms a barrier; 2) place of formation of the barrier; 3) method of formation of the barrier; 4) work of the vocal cords; 5) position of the soft palate.
According to the active organ, consonants are divided into labial, lingual, uvular, pharyngeal and laryngeal.
During education labial sounds the barrier is created by the closure of the lower lip with the upper or the convergence of the lower lip with; upper teeth. In the first case, labio-labial (bilabial) sounds are obtained [p-p", b-b", mm"], in the second - labio-dental (labiodental - from Latin labium - lip, dens (dentis) - tooth ) [v-v", f-f"].
lingual consonants are divided into front-lingual, middle-lingual and back-lingual. Forelingual Consonants according to the place of formation are divided into dental and anteropalatal. In the production of dental sounds, an obstruction is created by the approach of the front and tip of the tongue to the teeth, teeth and alveoli or alveoli. The vast majority of anterior lingual sounds
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belongs to the dental category: [d-d", t-t", z-z", s-s", n-n", l-l", c]. Anteropalatines are formed by raising the anterior part of the back of the tongue or its tip towards the alveoli and the anterior part of the hard palate. In Russian these include [zh, sh, ch", r-r"].
The articulations of front-lingual consonants vary across languages. Depending on the position of the tip of the tongue, they are also divided into dorsal(from lat.dorsum - back), apical (from lat.apex - top) and kakuminal (from lat.cacumen - sharp end, top). Dorsal ones are formed by bringing the front part of the back of the tongue closer to the upper teeth and alveoli (for example, Russian [t, n, s]), while the tip of the tongue is lowered to the lower teeth. During education apical sounds, together with the front part of the back of the tongue, the tip of the tongue rises towards the upper teeth and alveoli (for example, English). During education cuminal sounds, the tip of the tongue is raised, and the front part of the back of the tongue is somewhat concave inward (for example, Russian [r]).
Middle language consonants are formed by bringing the middle part of the back of the tongue closer to the hard palate - palatum, which is why they are sometimes called palatal(for example, Russian [j]).
During education posterior lingual the barrier of sounds is created by the convergence of the back of the tongue with the soft palate, which is why they are also called velar(from Latin velaris), or posterior palatal. The back-lingual sounds include [g-r", k-k", x-x"].
Education uvular sounds are characterized by the convergence of the soft palate and uvula (uvula) with the back of the tongue (for example, German [x] in the words ach, Buch).
During education pharyngeal, or pharyngeal, The barrier to sounds is created by a narrowing of the pharynx associated with the backward movement of the root of the tongue and contraction of the muscles of the pharynx. Pharyngeal sounds are found in German ([h] in words Held - hero, ha-ep- have), Arabic and some other languages.
Laryngeal, or laryngeal, sounds are formed when the vocal cords are bowed or brought together. Laryngeal sounds are very close to pharyngeal sounds and are often not distinguished between them (both are called laryngeal).
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Thus, the division of consonants according to the active organ is layered on their division according to the place of formation, which is natural, since during the formation of a sound all its articulatory features appear, acting in a complex, in interconnection. This applies to the way the speech organs form an obstruction, to the functioning of the vocal cords, and to the position of the soft palate.
The method of formation refers to the nature of the barrier and passage for a stream of air (free, narrowed, closed) during the formation of a speech sound. According to this articulatory feature, all consonants in one of the classification options are divided into stops, fricatives, stop-frictions, stop-passages and tremors.
During education stops a complete closure of the organs of speech occurs, which then ends in an “explosion” under the pressure of an air stream, which explains another term for these consonants - “explosive”. The articulation of stops has three elements - stop (implosion), sustain and explosion (explosion). The bow, hold and explosion occur very quickly, so these sounds are also called instantaneous, emphasizing the speed of their pronunciation: Russian. [b-b", p-p", d-d", t-t", g-g", k-k"], English. and etc.
Slotted consonants are created by the passage of air through the gap formed by the speech organs. A gap occurs in the oral cavity - between the lips and teeth or between the tongue and teeth or palate. An air stream passes through it with friction, which is why slot sounds are also called fricatives(from Lat. fricare - to rub): Russian. [v-v", f-f", z-z", s-s", zh, sh, j, x-x"], English, etc. Friction consonants can be unifocal and bifocal. When forming unifocal consonants the air stream passes through one obstacle, that is, one focus, in the oral cavity. When articulating bifocal consonants, an obstacle is formed simultaneously in two places, that is, in two foci, passing through which the air stream creates a complex specific noise. An example of bifocal consonants is Russian [ш , and].
Occlusion-slit consonants arise as a result of complete closure of the speech organs and the subsequent transition of the shutter into the gap: rus. [ts, h]. In other words, an attack of affricate-stop-
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ny, and the indentation is slotted. Stop-friction sounds are called differently affricates(from Latin affricata - ground in).
Connectively-passing sounds are formed when an air stream bypasses the resulting closure of the speech organs. Depending on the path of passage of the air stream, the occipital passages are divided into nasal and lateral. When the nasal cavity is formed, the soft palate descends and closes the passage into the oral cavity, air passes through the nose: rus. [mmm", n-n"]. Lateral, or lateral (from Latin lateralis - lateral), occur when air leaks along the sides of the tongue: Russian. [l-l"].
Trembling consonants are formed by rhythmic vibration of the tip of the tongue, that is, vibration, which is why they are also called vibrants. In Russian these are the sounds [р-р"].
As already noted in the acoustic classification of sounds, according to the relationship between voice and noise, all consonants are divided into sonorant and noisy; the latter, in turn, are divided into voiced and voiceless.
Along with the main articulation in the formation of sounds in each language, there is an additional one that creates a specific coloring of timbre. Based on additional coloring, consonants are distinguished between palatalized, or soft, and non-palatalized, or hard.
Palatalization consists of additionally raising the front or middle part of the back of the tongue to the hard palate. The consonant [j] occupies a special place in this system: it is always soft - palatal, since during its formation there is only the main articulation of the middle part of the back of the tongue to the hard palate and there is no additional one. In different languages, the degree of palatalization of consonant sounds varies. There are languages for which palatalization is unknown.
The opposite process of palatalization is called velarization(from Latin velumpalati - curtain of palate). During velarization, the back of the tongue moves toward the soft palate.
The proposed classification very incompletely reflects the real diversity of sound differences in consonants that exist in the phonetic systems of the world's languages. The simplest table of Russian consonants can be presented as follows:
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|
Articulation method |
Place of articulation | ||||||||||||
|
labiolabial |
labiodental |
front-lingual |
middle language |
posterior lingual |
|||||||||
|
anteropalatal |
|||||||||||||
|
Occlusion-slit | |||||||||||||
|
Connectively-passing | |||||||||||||
|
Trembling | |||||||||||||
|
Absence or presence of palatalization |
|||||||||||||
Thus, the acoustic and articulatory classification of speech sounds shows that each sound has a number of characteristics that are preserved or not preserved when the sound is in proximity to others in the speech stream.
Articulation of sound C.
Articulation of sound C
The lips are stretched, slightly pressed against the teeth. There is a small gap between the incisors. The tip of the tongue is lowered, pressed against inner surface lower incisors. The front part of the back of the tongue is lowered, the middle part is raised, the back part is lowered. The tongue is in the “slide” or “bridge” position. The lateral edges of the tongue are pressed against the upper molars. The front part of the back of the tongue forms a gap with the alveoli, in the middle of the tongue there is a groove that directs the exhaled air stream in the center. The soft palate is raised (C - oral sound). Vocal folds
open (C – dull sound).
About the production of the C sound here.
Articulation of sound Z
Articulation of sound Z
Exactly the same as when pronouncing the sound S. The only difference is that the vocal
the folds are closed (Z – ringing sound).
Articulation of the sound Сь
Articulation of the sound Сь
middle part the back of the tongue is more elevated, the groove is destroyed, the anterior part of the back of the tongue is more curved.
Articulation of the sound Зь
Articulation of the sound Зь
Exactly the same as when pronouncing the sound Сь. The only difference is that the vocal folds close (Зь – voiced sound).
Articulation of sound C
The lips are slightly tense and stretched. There is a small gap between the incisors, the tip of the tongue
Articulation of sound C
pressed against the lower incisors. At the first moment of articulation, the anterior part of the back of the tongue is raised and closes with the anterior edge of the hard palate. At the second moment of articulation, it descends, forming a gap with the palate. The middle part of the back of the tongue is raised, the back part is lowered. The lateral edges of the tongue are pressed against the upper molars. The soft palate is raised (C - oral sound). The vocal folds are open (C – dull sound).
About the production of whistling sounds. Defects in the pronunciation of whistling sounds are called sigmatism.
Types of sigmatism
1.Labiodental sigmatism. The lower lip approaches upper incisors. (C, C resembles F, G - C) Predisposing factors of labiodental sigmatism: prognathia, wasting of the muscles of the tip of the tongue with dysarthria.
2. Interdental sigmatism. When pronouncing a sound, the tip of the tongue is pushed between the teeth. The result is a lisping sound. Predisposing factors for interdental sigmatism: anterior open bite, flaccid tongue, prognathia, weakness of the tongue tip muscles due to dysarthria, missing anterior teeth, adenoids, excessively large or long tongue, weakness of the orbicularis oris muscle.
3. Labial sigmatism. When pronouncing a sound, the tip of the tongue near the teeth at the level of the gap between the teeth produces not a whistling, but a dull noise (the sound resembles T or D). The predisposing factors for predental sigmatism are the same as for interdental sigmatism.
4. Lateral sigmatism. The lateral edges do not touch the upper molars; a gap is formed on the side through which part of the air stream escapes. Lateral sigmatism can be unilateral or bilateral. Predisposing factors for lateral sigmatism: lateral open bite, long narrow tongue, pareticity of the lateral edges of the tongue with dysarthria.
5. Nasal sigmatism. The soft palate does not close tightly with the back wall of the pharynx. Some of the air passes through the nose. Predisposing factors of nasal sigmatism: pareticity of the soft palate, clefts.
6. Hissing pronunciation of whistling sounds. Mechanism: the tip of the tongue is pulled deeper into the oral cavity, the back of the tongue is raised, a groove is not formed. Predisposing factors: increased tone of the tongue muscles with dysarthria, with open organic rhinolalia.
Parasigmatism
If the sounds С and Сь, З, Зь, Ц are replaced by other sounds, then this disorder is called parasigmatism of whistling sounds. Sound substitutions are a phonemic defect, i.e. they indicate imperfection phonemic awareness. This is very important to take into account when making corrections.
The sound S is most often replaced by F, Сь, Ш, Т, З.
The sound З is most often replaced by В, Зь, С, Д, Ш, Ж.
The sound C is most often replaced by S, T, S', T', Sh.
About the production of whistling sounds.
If you thought this information useful, share with friends on in social networks. If you have questions about this topic, write in the comments, I will definitely answer. Your online speech therapist Natalya Vladimirovna Perfilova.
Only general anatomical and physiological information regarding the formation of speech sounds is presented here. A detailed description of the articulation of individual sounds is included in the speech therapy course.
The peculiarity of the extension pipe of the human vocal apparatus in comparison with the extension pipe of a reed musical instrument is that it not only amplifies the voice and gives it an individual coloring (timbre), but also serves as a place for the formation of speech sounds.
Some parts of the extension tube (nasal cavity, hard palate, posterior wall of the pharynx) are motionless and are called passive organs of pronunciation. Other parts (lower jaw, lips, tongue, soft palate) are movable and are called active organs of pronunciation. When the lower jaw moves, the mouth opens or closes. Various movements of the tongue and lips change the shape of the oral cavity, forming closures or crevices in different places of the oral cavity. The soft palate, rising and pressing against the back wall of the pharynx, closes the entrance to the nose, falling - opens it.
The activity of the active organs of pronunciation, which is called articulation, and provides education speech sounds, i.e. phonemes. The acoustic features of speech sounds, which make it possible to distinguish them from each other by ear, are determined by the features of their articulation.
The phoneme system of the Russian language consists of 42 sounds, including 6 vowels (a, i, o, u, ы, e) and 36 consonants (b, b", v, v", g, g", d, d" , f, h, 3", j (yot), k, k", l, l", m, m", n, n", p, p", p, r", s, s", t, t", f, f", x, x", c, h, w, sch).
Vowel articulation. A common feature for all vowel sounds that distinguishes their articulation from the articulation of all consonant sounds is the absence of obstacles in the path of exhaled air. The sound arising in the larynx in the extension pipe is amplified and perceived as a clear voice without any admixture of noise. The sound of a voice, as has been said, consists of a fundamental tone and a number of additional tones - overtones. In the extension pipe, not only the fundamental tone, but also the overtones are amplified, and not all overtones are amplified equally: depending on the shape of the resonating cavities, mainly the oral cavity and partly the pharynx, some frequency regions are amplified more, others less, and some frequencies are not amplified at all. These enhanced frequency regions, or formants, characterize the acoustic properties of various vowels.
Thus, each vowel sound corresponds to a special location of the active organs of pronunciation - the tongue, lips, soft palate. Thanks to this, the same sound, originating in the larynx, acquires a color characteristic of a particular vowel in the supernatant, mainly in the oral cavity.
The fact that the peculiarities of the sound of vowels do not depend on the sound originating in the larynx, but only on air vibrations in a correspondingly established oral cavity, can be verified through simple experiments. If you give the oral cavity the shape that it takes when pronouncing a particular vowel, for example ah, oh or y, and at this time, pass a stream of air from the bellows past your mouth or click your finger on your cheek, you can clearly hear a peculiar sound, quite clearly reminiscent of the corresponding vowel sound.
The shape of the oral cavity and pharynx, characteristic of each vowel, depends mainly on the position of the tongue and lips. Movements of the tongue back and forth, raising it more or less to a certain part of the palate change the volume and shape of the resonating cavity. The lips, stretching forward and rounding, form the opening of the resonator and lengthen the resonating cavity.
Articulatory classification of vowels is built taking into account: 1) participation or non-participation of the lips; 2) degree of tongue elevation and 3) location of tongue elevation. These divisions differ in the following characteristics:
1. vowels o and y, when pronounced, the lips protrude forward and are rounded, called labialized(from lat. labium - lip); the lips do not take an active part in the formation of the remaining vowels, and these vowels are called non-labialized;
2. when pronouncing vowels, the tongue can rise to a greater or lesser extent to the sky; There are three degrees of tongue elevation: upper, middle And lower. High vowels include and, y, s; with the average rise of the tongue, the vowels e and o are formed; Only one vowel belongs to the lower rise - A;
3. the location of tongue elevation depends on the movement of the tongue forward and backward; when pronouncing some vowels, the tongue moves forward, so that a large space remains behind the root of the tongue, the tip of the tongue rests on the lower teeth, the middle part of the back of the tongue rises to the hard palate; vowels formed with this position of the tongue are called vowels front row; they include And And e.
When forming other vowels, the tongue moves back, so that only a small space remains behind the root of the tongue, the tip of the tongue is moved away from the lower teeth, the back of the back of the tongue rises to the soft palate; vowels formed with this position of the tongue are called back vowels; they include O And u.
Vowels A And s at the place where the tongue rises, they occupy an intermediate position, and they are called middle vowels; when pronouncing a vowel s the entire back of the tongue is raised high to the hard palate; vowel A It is pronounced without raising the tongue, so it can be considered non-localized in relation to the place of rise.
The stated classification of vowels according to the degree and location of tongue elevation can be presented in Table 10.
Table 10
Vowel classification
Articulation of consonants. A distinctive feature of the articulation of consonants is that during their formation, various kinds of obstacles arise in the path of the exhaled stream of air in the extension pipe. Overcoming these obstacles, the air stream produces noises, which determine the acoustic characteristics of most consonants. The nature of the sound of individual consonants depends on the method of noise formation and the place of its origin.
In some cases, the organs of pronunciation form a complete closure, which is violently torn apart by a stream of exhaled air. At the moment of this rupture (or explosion), noise is produced. This is how they are formed stops, or explosive, consonants.
In other cases, the active organ of pronunciation only approaches the passive one, so that a narrow gap is formed between them. In these cases, noise occurs as a result of friction of the air stream against the edges of the gap. This is how they are formed slotted, otherwise spacious or fricatives(from Latin fricare - to rub), consonants.
If the organs of pronunciation that have formed a complete stop do not open instantly, by explosion, but by transitioning the closure into a fissure, then complex articulation arises with a stop beginning and a fissure end. This articulation is characteristic of education occlusive-frictional(fused) consonants, or affricate.
An air stream, overcoming the resistance of the organ of pronunciation blocking its path, can lead it to a state of vibration (trembling), resulting in a peculiar intermittent sound. This is how they are formed trembling consonants, or vibrants.
If there is complete closure in one place of the extension tube (for example, between the lips or between the tongue and teeth), in another place (for example, on the sides of the tongue or behind the lowered soft palate), there may be a free passage for the air stream. In these cases, almost no noise occurs, but the sound of the voice acquires a characteristic timbre and is noticeably muffled. The consonants formed with such articulation are called closure-passage. Depending on where the air stream is directed - into the nasal cavity or into the oral cavity, transitive consonants are divided into nasal And oral.
The characteristics of noise characteristic of consonants depend not only on the method of its formation, but also on the place of origin. Both explosion noise and friction noise can occur at different locations in the extension pipe. In some cases, the active organ of pronunciation, forming a stop or cleft, is underlip, and the consonants that arise are called labial In other cases, the active organ of pronunciation is the tongue, and then the consonants are called lingual.
When most consonants are formed, additional articulation may be added to the main method of articulation (bow, narrowing, vibration) in the form of raising the middle part of the back of the tongue to the hard palate, or the so-called palatalization(from Latin palatum - sky), the acoustic result of palatalization of consonants is their mitigation.
Classification of consonants. The classification of consonants is based on the following features: 1) participation of noise and voice; 2) method of articulation; 3) place of articulation; 4) the absence or presence of palatalization, in other words - hardness or softness.
Sonorant consonants are opposed to all other consonants, which are called noisy. Unlike sonorous sounds, they are formed with the participation of fairly strong and clearly distinguishable noises.
Noisy consonants, in turn, are divided into two groups. One group is consonants formed without the participation of the voice, using only noise. They're called deaf; when pronouncing them, the glottis is open, vocal cords don't hesitate.
Another group is consonants formed with the help of noise and accompanied by a voice. They're called voiced; most noisy consonants are pairs of voiceless and voiced (p-b, f-v, sh-f etc.). Unpaired voiceless consonants are: x, x\ c, h, sch, and unpaired voiced ones have one consonant) (yot).
According to the method of articulation, that is, according to the method of forming a barrier between the active and passive organs of pronunciation, consonants are divided into five groups.
Noisy consonants form three groups:
1. stops, or plosives: p, p", b, b", t, t", d, d", k, k", g, g";
2. slotted (slotted), or fricatives: f, f", v, v", s, s", з, з", х, х",ш, ш, j (yot);
3. octopus-frictional(fused), or affricates: ts, h. Sonorant consonants according to the method of articulation are divided into two groups:
· octopus: m, m", n, n", l, l". Among the stop-passive consonants m, m", n, n" are nasal and consonants l, l" - oral;
· trembling, or vibrant: r, r".
According to the place of articulation, consonants are primarily divided into two groups depending on the active organ of pronunciation involved in their formation, namely labial And lingual.
Labial consonants, in turn, are divided into two groups depending on the passive organ relative to which the lower lip articulates:
1. labiolabial, or bilabial: p, p", b, b", m, m"; when pronouncing these sounds, a bow is formed between the lower and upper lips;
2. labiodental: f, f", v, v"; here the lower lip articulates relative to the upper incisors, forming a gap with them.
Lingual consonants, depending on the passive organ in relation to which the tongue articulates, are divided into five groups:
1. lingual-dental: s, s", z, z", c, t, t", d, d", n, n", l, l"; when pronouncing these sounds, the front part of the tongue, together with its tip, articulates relative to the upper incisors, forming a bow or gap with them;
2. lingual-alveolar: p, p"; these consonants are formed as a result of vibration of the anterior edge of the tongue at the alveoli of the upper incisors;
3. lingual-anteropalatal: w, w, h, sch; when pronouncing these consonants, the front edge or front part of the back of the tongue forms a stop or cleft with the front part of the hard palate;
4. lingual-medial palatal: k", g", x", j; this group of consonants is formed by closing or bringing together the middle part of the back of the tongue with the middle part of the palate;
5. lingual-posterior palatal: k, g, x, When these sounds are formed, the back of the back of the tongue articulates relative to the soft palate and the back of the hard palate, forming a stop or cleft here.
Palatalized consonants (i.e., consonants formed using the additional articulation described above, which consists in raising the middle part of the back of the tongue to the hard palate) are called soft as opposed to non-palatalized, or solid consonants. Most consonants are pairs of hard and soft. Unpaired hard consonants are and And ts, unpaired soft - h And j.
The classification of consonants is presented in Table 11.
Table 11. Classification of consonants
Articulation - pronunciation of sounds when proper operation voice-speech apparatus. With correct articulation, sounds are clearly distinguished and easily distinguished. If you want to speak beautifully, and for your speech to be clear and precise, you should achieve the correct pronunciation of individual letters: consonants and vowels. Articulation emphasizes the sounds of words.
Articulation as a phenomenon
If we consider articulation as a phenomenon, then it has its disadvantages and advantages.
Advantages:
Articulation helps improve our speech and helps us understand how words actually sound. Playing important role when reading literature and poetry.
Flaws:
Articulation does not help so much to understand the meaning of the text read and to underline from it necessary information, as it slows down the reading process.
Studying the speech apparatus
Profile of articulatory organs
The teeth, palate and tongue are organs involved in the formation of intelligible sounds. Behind the hard palate, the mucous membrane forms a bend - the soft palate. The pharynx is the space between the root of the tongue and the soft palate.
Behind the pharynx is the pharyngeal cavity, which is divided into the larynx and esophagus, or in other words, the throat. The base of the larynx is the cricoid cartilage, located on the first ring of the windpipe. It is motionless, but muscles are attached to it that control the movement of other cartilages. The thyroid cartilage lies on the narrow part of the cricoid cartilage. He is movable. There is a gap between the vocal cords. The two arytenoid cartilages are found on either side of the posterior dilatation.
The arytenoid cartilages can close and open, and the thyroid cartilage can rise and fall. Therefore, the vocal cords stretch and relax. The pitch of the tone depends on the length and tension of these ligaments. Men have a lower voice than women because their cords are longer.
After the larynx are located: the throat, bronchi and lungs. The bronchi enter the lungs and divide into alveoli. The lungs are bounded by the diaphragm, a muscular septum that separates the thoracic region from the abdominal region.
Correct pronunciation of words
If a person does not have any hearing defects, then his articulation will be correct. That is, he fully hears a person’s speech and the sounds around him.
Articulation will be correct only if a person does not have hearing pathologies, and he fully hears all the sounds of the surrounding world and human speech. It is still laid in early childhood. The child hears the sounds spoken by others and repeats after people. If a person has hearing problems, articulation may be difficult.
The reasons for incorrect articulation may be:
1) If a person has a breakdown or is tired
2) A person who is timid by nature
3) He is overly self-confident
4) The person is in a sick state
5) He is indifferent to the people around him
Thus, if you want to improve your articulation, eliminate the listed reasons.
Learning to pronounce vowel sounds
When articulating vowel sounds, our exhalation should be gentle and silent.
First, let's learn to open our larynx wide. To do this, close your lips, pinch your nose with your fingers and pronounce the sound “ M" When performed correctly, you will clearly feel the expansion of the larynx and feel the lifting of the palate. You'll want to yawn.
Pronunciation of the vowel sound " A“- we open the larynx wide, the palate is raised, the mouth forms a large ring, and we close the lower teeth with the lip. The exhalation should be very warm.
Sound " U“pronounced as follows: fold your lips into a tube and exhale air through a narrow ring of lips.
Articulation of sound " ABOUT" - as when pronouncing the sound " U"Fold your mouth into a ring, but much wider. The air will come out in a wide and warm stream.
Sound " Y“—we open our lips, move our teeth apart a little, and push our lower jaw forward. The exhaled air must pass through the hole between the teeth, which will give an unpleasant sound.
Pronunciation of the sound " AND“—the tip of your little finger is the distance between the teeth. Exhale air directly into the hole between them. Make sure it doesn't hit upper teeth– this will lead to whistling.
Sound " E"-open your lips horizontally, the distance between your teeth is approximately ring finger, the larynx is wide open, the velum is raised. Exhale towards the middle of your teeth. In this case, air should not spread throughout the oral cavity.
After practicing each sound separately, let's try to pronounce them together:
A – A – U – U
A – A – O – O
A – A – S – S
A – A – I – I
A – A – E – E
Watch the smooth movement of the diaphragm (do not exhale in sudden bursts) and the accuracy of opening the mouth and opening the teeth. Make it a habit to move your aperture correctly. Increase your speed after each session. You need to bring the movement and diaphragm to immediate ease.
It is advisable to practice in front of a mirror - this way you will monitor the work of the vocal organs
Pronunciation of consonants
Like vowels, consonant sounds must be pronounced with the correct exhalation. The consonant sound should be articulated stronger and brighter than in colloquial speech. With a strong exhalation, the air should not touch the ligaments, and with a weak exhalation, it should be sent through the oral cavities.
Sound " B"formed when the lips part. Close your lips tightly and exhale, throwing them out. When doing this, do not use vowel sounds.
Articulation of sound " P"- it is also formed when the lips part. You should close your mouth, then take in air with your lower breath, bring it to your lips and break through them with an air stream.
Pronunciation of the consonant sound " T"begins with language. Make sure that the air does not touch the ligaments and is directed only towards the tongue. Otherwise, a hoarse sound will be formed. Sound " T"requires significant and persistent work. But this way your tongue will become strong and elastic.
For speed readers
It is worth considering that when we read some informational text, carefully articulating each letter, we spend much more time than during normal reading, creating visual images in our heads. This point is important for those who want to use speed reading: suppress articulation when you need it.
There are people who know how to “turn off” articulation when reading. Perhaps these people have a well-developed imagination. You yourself sometimes read with minimal articulation of speech. For example, when reading interesting book with descriptions of the characters and the events that happen to them, you focus on the sound of the words. At the same time, you read and draw pictures in your imagination, as if you were watching a movie. By concentrating on creating such images, you read much faster.
With this approach, you focus on visual images and shift the emphasis from auditory ones.
Other text
First of all, feel your perception of the text without using articulation. While reading, instead of talking to yourself readable text, try to pronounce the word order that you know well.
1. Counting numbers
A convenient option would be to count numbers from 1 to 20 to yourself, since their name contains one word. This will not interfere with your ability to speak and comprehend the text.
2. We pronounce phrases
Various proverbs, poems and songs help a lot. They make it difficult to pronounce the text you are reading.
If you have already begun to understand the text better by suppressing articulation in these ways, then move on to the next exercises.
Obstruction to articulation
These exercises are aimed at developing and consolidating the skill of non-articulate reading. They affect the voice-speech apparatus itself. And since it is physically uncomfortable, it will be difficult for the body to use articulation.
1. “Hush!”
Place your finger on your lips as if making a “quiet” gesture. Now, while reading, control your lips and tongue so that they are still. Glide through the text at one speed and then speed up.
2. Pencil in teeth
Hold the pencil between your teeth to complicate the previous exercise. Try to keep your lips and tongue from moving. If necessary, control your tongue so that it does not lean against the pencil. Or press your tongue against your teeth.
Note: alternate these exercises - this way you won’t get used to them, doing everything automatically.
Music
1. To the rhythm of the melody
This exercise is not suitable for everyone. This is explained by the characteristics of each person: some do not pay attention to music, while for others it may simply bother them.
Listen to calm music while reading. Follow the development of the melody. To enhance the effect, you can also tap the rhythm of the music or hum the melody to yourself.
The girl simultaneously reads in English and listens to Swedish
But don’t get carried away with reading “silently.” Remember: articulation has its positive sides.
All segmental units of the phonetic system, sounds, are traditionally divided into vowels and consonants. This division is universal for all languages. Depending on the role played by vowels and consonants in the phonetic system of a particular language, all languages of the world are divided into vocal (Italian, Spanish, Japanese), consonantal (Russian) and mixed (German) languages.
Consonants differ from vowels in their articulation features, acoustic characteristics and functional.
Articulatory difference: vowels are formed without the presence of an obstacle, the air stream passes quite freely through the oral or nasal cavity. When forming consonants, the presence of one or another type of obstruction is necessary, therefore V.A. Bogoroditsky called vowels “mouth openers” and consonants “mouth openers”. When forming consonants, as noted by I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay, tension occurs only in one part of the pronunciation apparatus, it is localized; when pronouncing vowels, tension is present throughout the entire sound, i.e. vowels are characterized by non-localized articulation.
Acoustic difference: vowels are formed using the tone of the voice (harmonic, periodic vibrations), and when consonants are formed, there must be noise (non-harmonic vibrations).
Functional difference: vowels are syllable-forming sounds, consonants rarely form a syllable, they are mostly adjacent to the vowel. In addition, consonants are information-laden units; they convey lexical meaning words (pr'takl, zv'kvy); vowels are considered informationally redundant; they are more associated with grammatical meaning words.
However, there is no clear opposition between these groups of sounds. So, for example, sonorant consonants were previously semivowels, transitional sounds, glides, so they can also be syllabic. Sonorant J, occupying a middle position between consonants and vowels, in weak position is a semivowel sound.
Vowels
When forming vowels, the horizontal and vertical position of the tongue, the participation of the lips, and the volume and shape of the oral cavity are important. Depending on the vertical rise of the tongue and lower jaw, vowels in the Russian language are divided into three groups: upper (I, Y, U), middle (E, O), lower (A) rise. According to the degree of horizontal advancement of the tongue, vowels of the front row (I, E), middle or mixed (I, A) and back row (O, U) are distinguished. The active participation of the lips is characteristic of labialized vowels (O, U). The remaining vowels are non-labialized (A, I, Y, E).
Non-high vowels located in unstressed positions are reduced and change their articulatory characteristics. Thus, the vowel [L] of the first pre-stressed syllable after hard consonants is characterized as the sound of the middle-low rise of the middle-back row; a vowel of the second degree of reduction, appearing in other unstressed syllables, is characterized as a vowel of the middle row of the middle rise - [ъ]. In the position after soft consonants in the first pre-stressed syllable, the front vowel of the upper row appears - [ie], and in other unstressed syllables - the vowel of the middle-upper row of the front row - [b].
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