WEAPONS OF THE ANCIENT SLAVS. It is no coincidence that our story about the contact weapons of the ancient Slavs begins with this magnificent weapon. The sword is the main offensive weapon of the Russian warrior-combatant, a symbol of princely power and the military emblem of ancient Rus'. Igor’s warriors swore by the sword, concluding an agreement with the Greeks in 944: “And not baptized Rus', let us lay down our shields and naked swords” (and not baptized Russians lay down their shields and naked swords.) The sword is a sacred weapon. He was treated as a person, considered animated. Unique swords bore names (remember King Arthur's sword - Excalibur, or more precisely - Kaledvuh: Excalibur is a corruption of the name "Caliburn", which is a corruption of "Kaledvukh", and these names were also magic spells. In Scandinavia, swords often bore names like "Flame of Odin", "Hound of Helmets", "Fire of Shields" - these names were written by ancient craftsmen in the upper third of the blade. There is no doubt that Rus' was not inferior in this to its northwestern neighbors: for example, near Brest, a spear tip was found on which the steel blade is inlaid with silver sacred signs - swastika and solar symbols and the runic inscription “Tilariths” - “Attacker” (Rune - common name Old Scandinavian and Old Slavic writing: the name was the same, but the rows of symbols were different). They swore with swords in an important dispute, they talked with them. This is how the Danish ballad “The Avenging Sword” describes it: Peder stands in the corner of the yard, It’s time for him to talk to the sword. My sword, renew your glory. Do you want to bathe in blood? You are for me, my sword, stand still, I have no other relatives. (Translated by Ivanovsky, quoted from “Scandinavian Ballad”, L, 1978) All the magical properties of a relatively new material for humanity - metal - were completely transferred to the sword. When producing a sword, the blacksmith accompanied the work with magical spells and rituals. When the blacksmith worked, he likened himself to the Creator God Svarog and felt himself participating in the creation of the world. It is clear that the sword, born in the hands of the blacksmith, had enormous magical properties. A strong magical connection arose between the sword and the owner. It was impossible to say exactly who owned whom. It is also worth mentioning that in many languages the word “sword” is feminine, there are names of feminine swords (for example, the sword of the knight Roland was called “Joyez” - “Joyful”), so the sword could be like true friend, and a beloved friend... Not always a sword was bought at the market: the best swords were not just bought for a handful of gold, not by every person. Such swords choose their owner: in order to take possession of them, the hero must perform a feat, take the sword in battle. A striking example is the well-known Treasure Sword, hidden under a heavy stone: not everyone will be able to throw away this stone and get a magnificent weapon. Swords were also called upon by the Slavs to resolve complex disputes: they were used in duels and in court. Parts of a sword from the 9th-11th centuries. It is worth saying a few words about the use of the sword in battle. The sword was born as a purely offensive weapon: warriors used their swords to cut their way to the goal. And note: they cut through it, because the sword was originally before the 11th century. - a pure cutting weapon. Often even the end of the sword was made rounded. They stabbed with it like a sword in emergency situations: either when a warrior reached a state of passion (became a “berserker”) or when stabbing an enemy was the only way to hurt him (such as, for example, a crusader knight protected by a shell). In general, the sword, being developed as a purely offensive weapon, did not imply defensive functions, so at first it did not even have a “flint” - a crosshair on the handle: blows were not parried with the sword. In view of this, in VII-X centuries the sword develops this same crosshair, or as it was called in Rus', “flint”, and the shield inextricably accompanies the sword. The Old Russian sword is a cutting weapon: “let them not defend themselves with their shields, and let them be cut with their swords” (They will not defend themselves with their shields and will be cut with swords) or “cut with a sword mercilessly.” But some expressions in the chronicle, although later, suggest that the sword was sometimes used for stabbing: “those who call to the end will be pierced with a sword.” The usual length of a sword in the 10th century. was about 80-90 CM, blade width was 5-6 cm, thickness 4 mm. Along the blade on both sides of the blade of all ancient Russian swords there are fullers, which served to lighten the weight of the blade. The end of the sword, not designed for a piercing blow, had a rather blunt point, and sometimes was even simply rounded. The pommel, hilt and crosshair of the sword were almost always decorated with bronze, silver and even gold. The sword was a weapon, first of all, of valiant warriors, boyars and princes: not every warrior possessed a sword: in addition to the highest price, the technique of wielding a sword is very complex and not everyone found it easy. The sword is the main weapon of the Russian warrior-combatant, a symbol of princely power and the military emblem of ancient Rus'. Igor’s warriors swore by the sword, concluding an agreement with the Greeks in 944: “And not baptized Rus', let them lay down their shields and naked swords” (and not baptized Russians lay down their shields and naked swords.) Russian chronicles and other written sources are replete with references to sword. Swords are no less widely represented in archaeological material. The bulk of swords, like other weapons, came to us from the 10th century. The burials of the combat warriors Igor, Svyatoslav and Vladimir Svyatoslavovich were accompanied by a rich set of weapons and various military equipment. There are many classes with subclasses of swords, but the main criterion for the size and structure of an early medieval sword is its hilt: then there were one-handed (the shortest), one-and-a-half-handed, which strong man held it with one hand, but no one forbade taking it in two hands and Bogatyrsky two-handed swords. Depending on the environment, swords became shorter and longer from century to century. In the 11th-12th centuries, due to the fact that battles were fought in close formation, swords were shortened to an average of 86 cm and became lighter, less than 1 kg, but in the 12th-13th centuries, due to the strengthening of armor, the sword became more massive: the blade extends up to 120 cm and weighs up to 2 kg. The famous Russian scientist D.N. Anuchin wrote: “Of all types of weapons, the sword, as an offensive weapon, certainly played the most significant role in ancient times. It was the privileged weapon of a free warrior, the most expensive, the one that was most valued by him and, in essence, it was it that decided the outcome of the battle." Having gone through a long path of evolution, the sword in the 9th - 13th centuries. in Kievan Rus, was widespread, although it was too expensive for ordinary townspeople and peasants and therefore inaccessible. Swords IX - X centuries. in the literature on weapons science they are usually called Carolingian, XI - XIII centuries. - Romanesque or Capetian. Samples of swords of European types came to Rus' with the Varangians - in those days, the spread of this or that weapon among European feudal lords was unusually rapid. Rus' used swords of almost all types then known in Europe, and in this it was not inferior to the main ones European countries. At the same time, already in the 10th century. Oriental swords, common since the 7th century, were well known in Rus'. among the Arabs and Persians no less than the Carolingian ones similar in form in Western Europe. However, already in the 10th century. The Russians were familiar with damask steel and made their own swords. Many Muslim authors described the swords of the Rus, calling them terrible weapons. They argued that the Russians constantly carry swords with them, see them as a means of livelihood, fight with them in court, and take them to eastern bazaars. Ibn~Dasta wrote: “If a son is born to one of them, he takes a naked sword, places it in front of the newborn and says: “I am not leaving you any property as an inheritance, but you will have only what you get for yourself with this sword.” . Swords were often depicted in miniatures by ancient Russian chroniclers. A pattern can be traced: the older the events depicted, the more often swords are depicted. More than 100 Carolingian swords and 75 Romanesque swords were found on the territory of Kievan Rus. Compared to other types of weapons, a sword is not the most common find in burials. Carolingian sword sword of Prince Dovmont Carolingian sword of the 9th-10th centuries Using the example of a reconstruction of a sword with the inscription "Lodota Koval" Sword of Dovmont of Pskov They tried to preserve the weapons of princes and famous heroes and considered them a symbol of invincibility. Memorial weapons were surrounded with special respect, such as, for example, the swords of the Pskov princes Vsevolod and Dovmont, kept in the Trinity Cathedral, or the sword of Prince Boris, which hung in the bedroom of Andrei Bogolyubsky and was later kept in one of the churches of Vladimir. Dovmont's sword has a length of 120 cm and a weight of 2 kg and is intended rather for piercing heavy armor than for chopping. Structurally, the sword consisted of a wide, double-edged, fairly heavy blade and a short handle (handle, handle). The parts of the handle were called apple, black and flint (guard or kryzh bow). Each flat side of the strip was called golomen or golomlya, and the tip was called a blade. Holomen were almost always made with one wide or several narrow grooved recesses. The first was called a dol, and the rest were called valleys. In common parlance, the valleys of bladed weapons were often called “grooves for swelling of blood”, “blood spouts”. However, this is not true. Their appearance was a big step forward in blade technology; they reduced the weight of the blade. Thanks to the fuller, the strip could be further extended without overloading the hand with excess weight. Sometimes, the dol was decorative. The tip of the sword, which was not designed for a piercing blow, was usually blunt, and sometimes even simply rounded. Later, when the sword also acquired a piercing function, its edge was sharpened. Sword making was one of the most complex branches of metalworking. Each operation of preparing the metal, drawing the strip, polishing, hardening, sharpening, fitting the handle, and making the sheath was carried out by a separate person. The blade sequentially passed from the smith-welder, who forged the strip of the sword, to the hardener, then to the grinder, from there it returned to the hardener for re-hardening and tempering, then went to the polisher and finally went to the assembler, who made the handle and set. The scabbard makers and jewelers who decorated the sword worked separately, associated with the assembler. Swords of different designs and various technologies speak of different schools and stages of development of blade making in Kievan Rus and Europe in general. We studied the technology for the production of sword blades based on metallographic analysis of 12 specimens of swords. Five swords come from the Gnezdovo burial mounds, four swords from the Mikhailovsky burial mounds, two swords from the Ladoga burial mounds and one sword from Vshchizh (an ancient Russian city on the Desna River in the Bryansk region). Based on the discovered structural diagrams of the metal of ancient Russian swords, we are reconstructing the technology of their manufacture. If you think that a sword is just a rough, sharpened piece of iron, you are deeply mistaken. In those days, there were various methods of welding iron and steel in such a way that the final product had truly amazing properties. Of course, the simplest thing was to make an all-metal sword, but this was only suitable for peasants and for training military affairs. The next level were swords welded from 2-6 strips of iron and steel: a steel blade was welded onto an iron blank. Such a blade was already suitable for a young warrior-boy or for a peasant on military service. Technological diagram of sword blades: 1-welding of the blade onto an iron base: 2-welding of the blade onto a multi-layer base; 3 – welding of the blade onto a patterned (damask) base; 4 – blade cementation. Technological diagram of sword blades: 1-welding of the blade onto an iron base: 2-welding of the blade onto a multi-layer base; 3 – welding of the blade onto a patterned (damask) base; 4 – blade cementation. However, the real military husband had a completely different sword. Everyone knows the word damask steel. What it is? This word comes from the ancient kingdom of Puluadi (the territory of modern Turkey, Armenia, Georgia and Iran), where they made the best steel in the world at that time. This is where the Persian word “puluad” and the Arabic “Al fulad” - steel came from; in Rus' it turned into damask steel. In general, steel is an alloy of iron with other elements, mainly carbon. But damask steel is not just steel: damask steel swords were capable of cutting iron and steel for many years, practically without dulling, without bending, but also without breaking. Everything is explained by the heterogeneous content of one percent of carbon in damask steel. Ancient blacksmiths achieved this by cooling molten iron with graphite - natural source carbon. The blade, forged from the resulting metal, was etched and characteristic patterns appeared on its surface: wavy, twisting dark stripes on a lighter background. This background turned out to be dark gray, golden or reddish-brown, black. Black damask steel was considered more fragile; experienced warriors preferred the golden hue of the blade. Bulat also varied in quality. It was distinguished by the type of pattern. A large pattern is a sign of good quality, with stripes of 10-12 mm; damask steel with a pattern of 4-6 mm was considered average. and very simple was damask steel with a thin pattern with a line thickness of 1-2 mm. The base of the sword blade was made of iron or welded from three strips of steel and iron. When the base of the blade was welded only from steel, low-carbon metal was used. Cementation of the surface of an all-iron sword was also used. The sword from the Mikhailovsky Mounds had a similar technology. We have before us the most typical ancient Russian technology for manufacturing a high-quality product - welding a soft viscous base with a steel blade and subsequent heat treatment of the entire blade. If we compare technological schemes production of sword blades and, for example, scythes, then you will find a lot in common: the same multi-layer welding or welding of a steel blade, fuller turning and heat treatment, the same long length and the small thickness of the blade of the sword and the blade of the scythe. The only difference is that the scythe had one blade, and the sword had two. Very interesting information about the technique of making swords by ancient Russian blacksmiths is reported by their contemporary, the above-mentioned Khorezmian scientist Al-Biruni. “The Rus made their swords from shapurkan, and the fullers in the middle from narmokhan, in order to give them strength when struck, to prevent their fragility. Al-fulad (steel) does not tolerate the cold of their winters and breaks when struck. When they met the farand (i.e. i.e. with patterned damask steel.-Leg.), then they invented weaving for the fullers from long wires (made) from both types of iron - shapurkan and female (i.e. iron). And they began to produce welded weaving when immersed (in etcher) things amazing and rare, such as they desired and intended to receive. Al-farand (drawing) does not turn out according to the intention when making (the sword) and does not come at will, but it is accidental." This text is interesting on two levels. Firstly, it confirms the conclusions about the production technology of sword blades that we made based on the study of only 12 swords. The technology of welding steel (“from shapurkan”) blades onto an iron (“from normokhan”) blade base is all-Russian. Secondly, Al-Biruni speaks about the superiority of the technique of making patterns on sword blades among Russian gunsmiths. With the appropriate combination of iron and steel strips on the base of the blade, the ancient Russian blacksmith could obtain any given pattern with the same rhythm throughout the entire strip, which especially surprised Biruni. The damask pattern, as is known from the experiments of P.P. Anosov, is random, since during the crystallization of crucible steel, in each individual case a different pattern of structural heterogeneity is obtained. But, as always, there was one “but”: damask swords were afraid of northern frosts: the steel became brittle and broke easily. But the blacksmiths found a way out of this situation. In Rus' they produced “welding” damask steel. This type of damask steel was called “Damascus”. To obtain damask steel in this way, they took pieces of wire or strips of iron or steel, folded them one by one (iron-steel-iron-steel, etc.) and then forged them many times, scrolled and twisted these strips many times, and folded them like an accordion. In short, the more time a blacksmith spends on forging metal, the better the blade will turn out. Pattern welding was also used quite widely. In this case, the base of the blade was welded from the middle iron and two outer specially welded strips. The latter, in turn, were welded from several rods with different carbon contents, then twisted several times and forged into a strip. To the pre-welded and prepared block of the base of the blade, steel strips were welded into the end - future blades. After welding, the blade was forged so that the steel strips extended onto the blade. Having forged a blade of a given size, the handle handle was pulled out. The next mechanical operation was planing the dales. Then the blade was ground and heat treated. After this, the blade was polished, and if a patterned weld was made on the base of the blade, it was etched. The blacksmith also made the base of the crosshair and the pommel of the handle. Sometimes welded steel blades were subjected to additional carburization before heat treatment. hilts of swords and sabers 1. Sword from Karabichev. The handle is of the European-Russian type, the ornament is of the Byzantine type. 1st half XI century 2. Sword from Foschevataya. The handle is of the Scandinavian type, on the blade there is a Russian inscription - “Lyudota Koval”. X century 3. Sword from the burial of a warrior on Vladimirskaya Street. in Kyiv. X century 4. Scandinavian type sword from the Dnieper rapids. X century 5. Magyar type saber. Gočevo. X century Damask steel also differed in the nature of the pattern: if the pattern was straight (“striped”), it was a bad damask steel, if among the lines there were curved ones, this was a good damask damask (“streamy”), a “wavy” pattern was highly valued, a “mesh” pattern was highly valued pattern, and if among the patterns there was an ornament, human or animal figures were visible - such damask steel had no price. Naturally, a good damask sword was very, very expensive - they bought it for an amount of gold equal to the weight of the sword (1.5-2 kg - this is for extremely rare exclusive products), so there were a lot of supposedly damask swords on the market, but in reality fake ones - they were only covered on top with a thin layer of damask steel, and there was iron inside. To avoid a bad purchase, the sword was tested: first, by ringing: the longer, higher and purer the blade’s ringing, the better the metal, and also, as mentioned above, they were tested for elasticity. The masters themselves also cared about their authority, and every good blacksmith had a mark that guaranteed the quality of the sword. The hilt of the sword deserves a separate discussion. Then the handle was not just a “handle for holding a weapon”, but a work of art. The good swords had beautiful handles with a floral pattern, repeating the shape of the World Tree. An indispensable attribute of the handle of a Slavic sword was the so-called “apple” - a knob at the end of it. It is there not just for beauty: it acts as a balancer: to bring the center of gravity of the weapon closer to the handle - it is much more convenient to work with such a weapon than a weapon without a counterweight. The sword was worn in a sheath. Bronze and silver finials and other scabbard decorations are sometimes found among archaeological material. In the chronicles there are expressions “draw your sword,” etc. The scabbard was made of wood, covered with leather on top, and metal overlays were made along the edges. With the help of two rings, near the mouth of the scabbard, the sword was suspended, sometimes at the belt, and more often to a sling, which was worn over the left shoulder. The sword lay next to the person in the burial. They have been found in burials since the 9th century - before that the sword was considered the property of the family and was not placed in burials. It is interesting that when the owner of the sword died and the sword was buried with him, they tried to “kill” the sword (after all, it was a living creature!) - to bend it, break it. The tactical and technical characteristics of swords differ depending on the time and place of their manufacture and their type. They often depended on the individual tastes of buyers, as well as their physical characteristics. So, if the length of the sword of the senior adult warrior buried in the Chernigov mound Chernaya Mogila is 105 cm, then the length of the sword of his youth partner is 82 cm. The average length of ancient Russian swords is 80 - 105 cm, the width of the blade is 4 - 6 cm, the thickness of the middle part of the blade 2.5 - 6 mm, weight 1 - 1.5 kg. The value of the sword was great. If a spear and shield were valued at 2 solids, then a sword and helmet were valued at 6 solids. This price corresponded to the price of 6 bulls, 12 cows, 3 stallions or 4 mares. The sword in Rus' has always been a subject of the arms business. Old Russian traders bought and sold both their own and foreign products. An interesting message from eastern writers is that they brought amazing swords from Artania (as they called Rus') that could be bent in half, after which the blade returned to its original shape. However, this is, of course, an exaggeration. Neither the West nor the East had such weapons at that time. Battle ax The earthly embodiment of the glorious weapon of the great Perun was no less widespread in Rus' than the sword. One often hears that an ax is a purely gangster weapon (remember the children's song: “knife and ax workers, romantics from the high road”) and in ancient Rus' it was wielded only by robbers. It's a delusion. In fact, the ax, along with the sword, was in service with the princely squads. The ax was also an indispensable tool for erecting military mechanical devices, fortification barriers, and for clearing roads in the forest. The fact that this weapon is rarely found in the epic heroic epic is extremely simple: the ax was the weapon of an exclusively foot warrior, while the Bogatyr from the epic has an obligatory companion - a faithful horse (for the same reason, many Bogatyrs in the epics have a saber instead of a sword). Foot soldiers revered and loved the axe, especially since the cult of the great God of War is associated with it (see the section “Warrior in the Slavic World”). The ax was convenient in battle with heavily armed warriors; in good hands it could easily split a shield or tear chain mail. There is an opinion that a battle ax, compared to a working ax, was huge size. For example, there are many paintings where in the hands of a Slav or a Viking there is a huge ax, with a blade almost as long as a warrior’s elbow. This is a delusion, an exaggeration of artists. In fact, the weight of the battle ax did not exceed 500 grams and only real Bogatyrs could afford a larger ax. Of course, the larger the ax, the more destructive force, but is it worth neglecting speed for the sake of the monstrous force of the blow, because while the warrior is swinging his huge weapon, a nimble opponent will be able to cut off his head three times, for example, with a light saber. Battle axes resembled workers in shape, but were somewhat smaller. Slavic warriors were familiar with a huge number of forms and designs of the battle ax. Among them there are those that came from the east, for example, hammered axes, more similar to a pickaxe than an axe, the Scandinavians gave the Slavs a wide-bladed axe, and in those days an ax was mainly called a working, carpenter's axe. However, their proportions are somewhat unusual. Large Old Russian working ax of the 12th century Large Old Russian working ax of the 12th century more photos Slavic battle ax bearded Slavic battle ax more photos braydox Large working ax. In English terminology “Broad axe”, that is, “broad axe” Battle axes: chased and bearded Two-handed Danish battle ax Breidox (Breidox), also known as a battle axe, an example We are used to seeing in movies and in paintings in the hands of a half-wild a warrior has a huge ax on a short ax handle - everything is just the opposite. The ax handle sometimes exceeded a meter in length, while the ax blade was 17-18 cm long and weighed on average 200-450 g, while the weight of a peasant ax (axe) was 600-800 g. Such axes spread throughout the Northern Europe at the turn of the 10th and 11th centuries. Another interesting type of ax is one with a straight top edge and a blade pulled down. Such axes spread to Norway, Sweden and Finland in the 7th-8th centuries. In Rus' and Finland they appeared in the 10th-12th centuries and found great popularity here: such an ax not only chopped, but also cut. So, by the 11th century there were several main varieties of the battle ax: the bearded ax (skeggox among the Scandinavians) - it is easily recognized by the blade with a beard beveled down, the weight of the hatchet is 300-400 grams + shaft. klevtsy - axes with a triangular blade, vaguely reminiscent of a dagger, often with a ribbed surface. The wounds they inflicted practically did not heal; mints - a kind of pickaxe, axes with a narrow elongated blade, designed for piercing armor due to the small area of the striking surface; since the 14th century, the narrow end is made blunt and the mint becomes a battle hammer; axes (close in use to a halberd, among the Scandinavians Breidox) - axes with a wide blade mounted on a handle up to 1.8 meters long. Often it also had a xiphoid pommel. In Europe, this was called “poleaxe” or “bardishe”; it is possible that it was the presence of the tip at the bottom of the shaft that distinguished it from the workers’ and peasants’ axe. Antique dealers often sell large working axes, calling them "Heroic Ax" or "Halberd". Later, in the 16th-17th centuries, the halberd turned into a berdysh, a rifle weapon. The name probably comes from the German word “barda” (options: “brada”\ “barta”\”helmbarte”) meaning “wide-bladed axe” - by the way, another argument in favor of the name “halberd”. anatomy of an ax 1. piece of iron 2. ax handle 3. toe 4. blade 5. beard 6. canvas 7. neck 8. eye 9. butt Battle axes were used mainly in the north, in the forest zone, where cavalry could not turn around. By the way, battle axes were also used by horsemen - even a small hatchet on a meter-long shaft has great penetrating power. They carried axes in their belts, in special leather cases, or fastened them to the saddle. Klevtsy and minted hatchets were the traditional weapons of nomads, but from the 11th century, after the victory over the Khazar Khaganate and the development of cavalry in Kievan Rus, our ancestors began to use small but very lethal hatchets. The technique of working with battle axes varied for individual types. According to the official combat classification, this weapon belongs to the one-and-a-half weapon, i.e. axes were held with one or two hands, everything depended on the size of the butt, the ax handle and the strength of the warrior. Wide-bladed axes like halberds had long handle and were strictly two-handed, since they weighed decently. At the end of the handle there was often a knob designed for better grip in the hand. None of the warriors would even dream of cutting down trees or chopping wood with a battle ax, as is depicted in feature films and literature. The authors clearly confuse a working ax (here again there is confusion in terminology, since a woodcutter’s tool was often called an ax) with a combat one. In an ax intended for combat, the shape of the blade has undergone significant changes (of course, not to the point of simulating wings bat, pretentiousness is a privilege of ceremonial regalia) and was not suitable for everyday work. A purely national type of ax - as if with a beard. It is ideal for combat and combines all the best qualities of a weapon. Its blade is curved towards the bottom (so it could also cut), and the slope of the blade is such that the efficiency of the blow tends to unity: all the force applied by the warrior goes directly to the blow and is concentrated in its upper part, which gave the blow enormous force. “Cheeks” were placed on the sides of the butt, the back part was strengthened with “toes”, both of which were intended for urgently securing the ax to the ax handle (wooden handle), moreover, they protected it when a deeply embedded ax had to be rocked in order to be pulled out. Axes of this shape were used both for combat and for work. Since the 10th century, they have spread to Rus' and become the most widespread type of ax. Other nations, of course, also appreciated Russian invention : archaeologists find such axes all over Europe (however, these finds date back no earlier than the 11th-11th centuries, which proves the Slavic origin of such an ax). A feature of the Russian ax is the mysterious hole on the blade of the axes. Scientists have put forward various hypotheses - from the fact that this is the mark of a master to the fact that a rod was inserted there so that the ax would not get deeply stuck upon impact. In fact, everything turned out to be much simpler: a leather case for the ax was fastened to this hole for safe transportation, and the ax was also used to hang the ax from the saddle or on the wall. Saber On the territory of Ancient Rus', the saber appears at the end of the 9th - beginning of the 10th centuries. – and in some places later competes with the sword. This type of weapon entered the country along with nomads, presumably the Khazars. The saber, like the sword, is of the long-bladed type. The blade, as a rule, has a one-sided sharpening, since this makes it possible to increase strength by thickening the spine. A saber differs from a sword, first of all, in the shape of the working part; moreover, it can (theoretically) be bent at an angle of 90 degrees without the risk of breaking. Since a saber blade is lighter than a sword blade, to maintain the same impact force, the end of the blade expands, and the angle between the sides forming the tip is made in such a way that the blade does not chip, and is usually about 15 degrees. The flexibility of the blade is also determined by the angle of the blade. The length of the saber is about 90 cm, weight is 800-1300 g. This weapon was especially widespread in the south, where the bulk of the troops were cavalry. As mentioned above, the sword was extremely inconvenient for the rider due to its heaviness, lacking sufficient flexibility of the blade and the center of gravity applied to the guard; there was a need to find a replacement. This is where the saber, adopted from the nomads, peoples who spend half their lives in the saddle, came in handy. The fact is that, due to the curvature of the blade, the center of the strike of a saber weapon is directed toward the front combat end, which makes it possible to deliver vertical blows from top to bottom, with a pullback that increases the length and depth of the wound. Even if the enemy did not fail immediately, he soon weakened from blood loss and pain shock. In addition, a fairly wide blade allows you to effectively block an opponent’s attacks. The guard of the saber, unlike the sword, had a round shape. Later, it is reduced so as not to interfere with the removal of weapons from the scabbard, not to cling to the saddle, and subsequently, around the 12th century, disappears completely. The saber hilt was usually made of tanned leather in several layers. Since the weapon came from the steppe and was not recognized as “ours” from the beginning, it was not accompanied by such a magical aura as a sword. Therefore, Russian sabers, unlike eastern ones, could not boast of a special richness of decoration. Here, first of all, they cared not about beauty, but about ease of use. In frequent small skirmishes with detachments of nomads, speed was everything; the warriors simply could not lose precious seconds, and with them their heads, due to the fact that the finish of the handle clings to everything. There were two types of saber blades in Rus': Khazar-Polovtsian and Turkish (scimitar). Presumably, the synthesis of these types was the third - Yaloman, which was widespread only in the eastern principalities. Yalomani is characterized by a sharp leaf-shaped expansion of the front combat end.
It is no coincidence that our story about the contact weapons of the ancient Slavs begins with this magnificent weapon. The sword is the main offensive weapon of the Russian warrior-combatant, a symbol of princely power and the military emblem of ancient Rus'. Igor’s warriors swore by the sword, concluding an agreement with the Greeks in 944: “And not baptized Rus', let us lay down our shields and naked swords” (and not baptized Russians lay down their shields and naked swords.) The sword is a sacred weapon. He was treated as a person, considered animated. Unique swords had names (remember the sword of King Arthur - Excalibur, or more precisely - Kaledvukh: Excalibur is a distortion of the name “Caliburn”, which is a distortion of “Kaledvukh”), and these names were also magic spells. In Scandinavia, swords often bore names such as "Odin's Flame", "Hound of Helmets", "Shields' Fire", - these names were written by ancient craftsmen in the upper third of the blade. There is no doubt that Rus' was not inferior in this to its northwestern neighbors: for example, near Brest, a spear tip was found, on which sacred signs were inlaid with silver along the steel blade - a swastika and solar symbols and the runic inscription “Tilariths” - “Attacker” (Rune - general the name of the Old Scandinavian and Old Slavic writing: the name was the same, but the rows of symbols were different). They swore with swords in an important dispute, they talked with them. This is how the Danish ballad “The Avenging Sword” describes it:
Peder stands in the corner of the yard,
It's time for him to talk to the sword.
My sword, renew your glory
Do you want to bathe in blood?
Stand for me, my sword,
I have no other relatives.
(Translated by Ivanovsky, quoted from “Scandinavian Ballad”, Leningrad, 1978)
All the magical properties of a relatively new material for humanity - metal - were completely transferred to the sword. When producing a sword, the blacksmith accompanied the work with magical spells and rituals. When the blacksmith worked, he likened himself to the Creator God Svarog and felt himself participating in the creation of the world. It is clear that the sword, born in the hands of the blacksmith, had enormous magical properties. A strong magical connection arose between the sword and the owner. It was impossible to say exactly who owned whom. It is worth mentioning that in many languages the word “sword” is feminine, there are names of feminine swords (for example, the sword of the knight Roland was called “Joyez” - “Joyful”), so the sword could be both a faithful friend and beloved friend... Not always a sword was bought at the market: the best swords were not just bought for a handful of gold, not by every person. Such swords choose their owner: in order to take possession of them, the hero must perform a feat, take the sword in battle. A striking example is the well-known Treasure Sword, hidden under a heavy stone: not everyone will be able to throw away this stone and get a magnificent weapon. Swords were also called upon by the Slavs to resolve complex disputes: they were used in duels and in court.
The Russian sword is the most difficult weapon to make. If you think that a sword is just a big knife, you are mistaken. He has come a long way in improvements. The history of the sword begins with a large combat knife called a “sax,” a weapon common to all Europeans. However, such knives were not effective in war, and as soon as the opportunity arose to forge a longer blade, skilled blacksmiths immediately took advantage of it. As a result of this, the “langsax” is becoming widespread among the Germanic tribes - a rather long chopping weapon, with a blade sharpened on one side and having 3.5-4 cm in width and 40-60 cm in length. The Langsax was already quite suitable for use in battle, however, for mounted warriors who had to deliver blows while sitting in the saddle, it was somewhat short. As a result, a terrible weapon arose - the “skarmasax”, the blade of which, while 6.5 cm wide, had a length of 41-76 cm. Also, sometimes truly “heroic” skarmasaxes come across, for example, those discovered in the Fronnenstett burial grounds. Their length was 120 cm, with a handle length of 30 cm. This design had great lethality, and the long handle allowed the ancient German to chop while grasping the skarmasax with both hands. Later, the scarmasax in Europe was replaced by the invention of the Gauls - spatha, which is a double-edged steel blade. It was from spatha that the type of weapon that we used to call a sword developed. We can say that by the 8th century, in Europe and Rus', the double-edged sword was already in full use. This sword was from 70 to 130 cm in length, 7 cm near the hilt, smoothly tapering towards the end, it weighed between 1-2 kg.
Many classes are divided into subclasses of swords, but the main criterion for the size and structure of an early medieval sword is its hilt: then there were one-handed (the shortest), one-and-a-half-handed ones, which a strong man held with one hand, but no one forbade taking it in two hands and Bogatyr two-handed swords. Depending on the environment, swords became shorter and longer from century to century. In the 11th-12th centuries, due to the fact that battles were fought in close formation, swords were shortened to an average of 86 cm and became lighter, less than 1 kg, but in the 12th-13th centuries, due to the strengthening of armor, the sword became more massive: the blade extends up to 120 cm and weighs up to 2 kg.
During the period of dominance in Russian historical science of Normanism, the theory according to which the Vikings brought civilization to the “wild lands of the Slavs,” it was believed that the Slavs first appeared with a sword in the 9th century, and even then it was not Russian at all, but Scandinavian. But history, to the glory of the Gods, put everything in its place. It turned out that all those swords that were supposedly imported from foreign Europe turned out to be made by Russian blacksmiths, and that it is not yet known who influenced whom more: the Scandinavians on the Slavs or vice versa. For example, for a long time a beautiful sword with an intricate pattern on the hilt, found in the Poltava region (Ukraine), was considered “purely Scandinavian,” however, after special processing of the blade, the Cyrillic inscription appeared on it: “Lyudota Koval.” And how many simpler swords, without such a “quality mark,” were considered imported to Rus'?..
Making a sword is an extremely complex matter, requiring the blacksmith to have an incredibly deep knowledge of the properties of the metal. For reference: choosing a good sword, a reliable friend and assistant in battles in Rus' was a difficult matter: the sword was tested many times. For example, it was placed on the head, and the hilt and end of the sword were pulled to the ears: a good sword immediately straightened after being removed from the head, and he also had to easily and without dullness chop through a thick nail and cut the fabric thrown onto the blade.
And this is in an era when, according to the chronicles, darkness, lawlessness and ignorance reigned in Rus'! So, the production of a sword began with the blacksmith choosing the design of the blade - not only the shape, but also the material.
If you think that a sword is just a rough, sharpened piece of iron, you are deeply mistaken. In those days, there were various methods of welding iron and steel in such a way that the final product had truly amazing properties. Of course, the simplest thing was to make an all-metal sword, but this was only suitable for peasants and for training in warfare. The next level were swords welded from 2-6 strips of iron and steel: a steel blade was welded onto an iron blank. Such a blade was already suitable for a young warrior-boy or for a peasant in military service.
However, the real military husband had a completely different sword. Everyone knows the word damask steel. What it is? This word comes from the ancient kingdom of Puluadi (the territory of modern Turkey, Armenia, Georgia and Iran), where they made the best steel in the world at that time.
This is where the Persian word “puluad” comes from - steel; in Rus' it turned into damask steel. In general, steel is an alloy of iron with other elements, mainly carbon. But damask steel is not just steel: damask swords were capable of cutting for many years, practically without becoming dull, cutting iron and steel without becoming dull, not bending, but not breaking either. Everything is explained by the heterogeneous content of one percent of carbon in damask steel. Ancient blacksmiths achieved this by cooling molten iron with graphite, a natural source of carbon. The blade, forged from the resulting metal, was etched and characteristic patterns appeared on its surface: wavy, twisting dark stripes on a lighter background. This background turned out to be dark gray, golden or reddish-brown, black. Black damask steel was considered more fragile; experienced warriors preferred the golden hue of the blade.
But, as always, there was one “but”: damask swords were afraid of northern frosts: the steel became brittle and broke easily. But Russian blacksmiths found a way out of this situation. In Rus' they produced “welding” damask steel. This type of damask steel was called “Damascus”. To obtain damask steel in this way, they took pieces of wire or strips of iron or steel, folded them one by one (iron-steel-iron-steel, etc.) and then forged them many times, scrolled and twisted these strips many times, and folded them like an accordion. In short, the more time a blacksmith spends on forging metal, the better the blade will turn out.
Bulat also varied in quality. It was distinguished by the type of pattern. A large pattern is a sign of good quality, with stripes of 10-12 mm; damask steel with a pattern of 4-6 mm was considered average. and very simple was damask steel with a thin pattern with a line thickness of 1-2 mm.
Damask steel also differed in the nature of the pattern: if the pattern was straight (“striped”), it was a bad damask steel, if among the lines there were curved ones, this was a good damask damask (“streamy”), a “wavy” pattern was highly valued, a “mesh” pattern was highly valued pattern, and if among the patterns there was an ornament, human or animal figures were visible - such damask steel had no price. Naturally, a good damask sword was very, very expensive - they bought it for the amount of gold equal to the weight of the sword (1.5-2 kg), so there were a lot of supposedly damask swords on the market, but in fact they were fake - they were only covered on top with a thin a layer of damask steel, and inside there was iron. To avoid an unsuccessful purchase, the sword was tested: first of all, by ringing: the longer, higher and purer the ringing of the blade, the better the metal, also, as mentioned above, they were tested for elasticity, some samples were tested by folding in half: that is, the end of the blade was applied by Bogatyrsky through the efforts of the buyer to the handle, after which the good damask steel was accepted initial position. The masters themselves also cared about their authority, and every good blacksmith had a mark that guaranteed the quality of the sword.
The sword has one tricky design feature- dol, or, in simple terms, a groove in the middle of the blade. It serves not at all to drain blood from the sword, but to lighten the weight of the product - this is a very important indicator for a sword, because often the speed of the strike decides a lot, if not everything.
The hilt of the sword deserves a separate discussion. Then the handle was not just a “handle for holding a weapon”, but a work of art. The good swords had beautiful handles with a floral pattern, repeating the shape of the World Tree. An indispensable attribute of the handle of a Slavic sword was the so-called “apple” - a knob at the end of it. It is there not just for beauty: it acts as a balancer: to bring the center of gravity of the weapon closer to the handle - it is much more convenient to work with such a weapon than a weapon without a counterweight.
The sword was a weapon, first of all, of valiant warriors, boyars and princes: not every warrior possessed a sword: in addition to the highest price, the technique of wielding a sword is very complex and not everyone found it easy.
The sword was worn in a sheath made of wood, covered with leather on top, and metal plates were made along the edges. Swords were worn on the belt or behind the back, and heavily armed warriors most often wore them near the belt: a bow, a shield, sometimes a tul (case for arrows) or a quiver dangled behind the back, while behind the back, where a more reliable fastening was provided, those warriors who Greater mobility was needed. The sword lay next to the person in the burial. They have been found in burials since the 9th century - before that the sword was considered the property of the family and was not placed in burials. It is interesting that when the owner of the sword died and the sword was buried with him, they tried to “kill” the sword (after all, it was a living creature!) - to bend it, break it.
It is worth saying a few words about the use of the sword in battle. The sword was born as a purely offensive weapon: warriors used their swords to cut their way to the goal. And note: they cut through, because the sword is a purely chopping weapon. Often even the end of the sword was made rounded. They stabbed with it like a sword in emergency situations: either when a warrior reached a state of passion (became a “berserker”) or when stabbing an enemy was the only way to hurt him (such as, for example, a crusader knight protected by a shell). In general, the sword, being developed as a purely offensive weapon, did not imply defensive functions, so at first it did not even have a “flint” - a crosshair on the handle: blows were not parried with the sword. In view of this, in the 7th-10th centuries the sword developed this same crosshair, or as it was called in Rus', “flint”, and a shield inextricably accompanies the sword.
The earthly embodiment of the glorious weapon of the great Perun was widespread in Rus' no less than the sword. One often hears that an ax is a purely gangster weapon (remember the children's song: “knife and ax workers, romantics from the high road”) and in ancient Rus' it was wielded only by robbers. It's a delusion. In fact, the ax, along with the sword, was in service with the princely squads. The ax was also an indispensable tool for erecting military mechanical devices, fortification barriers, and for clearing roads in the forest. The fact that this weapon is rarely found in the epic heroic epic is extremely simple: the ax was the weapon of an exclusively foot warrior, while the Bogatyr from the epic has an obligatory companion - a faithful horse (for the same reason, many Bogatyrs in the epics have a saber instead of a sword). Foot soldiers revered and loved the axe, especially since the cult of the great God of War is associated with it (see the section “Warrior in the Slavic World”). The ax was convenient in battle with heavily armed warriors; in good hands it could easily split a shield or tear chain mail.
There is an opinion that the battle ax was enormous in size compared to the working one. For example, there are many paintings where in the hands of a Slav or a Viking there is a huge ax, with a blade almost as long as a warrior’s elbow. This is a delusion, an exaggeration of artists. In fact, the weight of the battle ax did not exceed 500 grams and only real Bogatyrs could afford a larger ax. Of course, the larger the ax, the greater its destructive power, but is it worth neglecting speed for the sake of the monstrous force of the blow, because while the warrior is swinging his huge weapon, a nimble opponent will be able to blow off his head three times, for example, with a light saber. Battle axes resembled workers in shape, but were somewhat smaller. Slavic warriors were familiar with a huge number of forms and designs of the battle ax. Among them there are those who came from the east, for example, hammered axes, more similar to a pickaxe than an ax, Scandinavians
The Slavs were given the same ax or wide-bladed axe, and in those days the ax was mainly called a working, carpenter's ax. However, their proportions are somewhat unusual.
We are used to seeing in movies and paintings a semi-wild warrior holding a huge ax on a short ax handle - everything is just the opposite. The ax handle sometimes exceeded a meter in length, while the ax blade was 17-18 cm long and weighed on average 200-450 g, while the weight of a peasant poleaxe (axe) was 600-800 g. Such axes spread throughout the Northern Europe at the turn of the 10th and 11th centuries. Another interesting type of ax is one with a straight top edge and a blade pulled down. Such axes spread to Norway, Sweden and Finland in the 7th-8th centuries. In Rus' and Finland they appeared in the 10th-12th centuries and found great popularity here: such an ax not only chopped, but also cut.
The purely national type of ax, ideal for combat and combining all the best qualities of a weapon, was as follows: its blade is curved towards the bottom (so it could also cut), and the inclination of the blade is such that the efficiency of the blow tends to unity: all the force, applied by the warrior, goes precisely to the blow and is concentrated in its middle part, which gave the blow enormous power. “Cheeks” were placed on the sides of the butt, the back part was strengthened with “toes”, both of which were intended for urgently securing the ax to the ax handle (wooden handle), moreover, they protected it when a deeply embedded ax had to be rocked in order to be pulled out. Axes of this shape were used both for combat and for work. Since the 10th century, they have spread to Rus' and become the most widespread type of ax. Other nations, of course, also appreciated the Russian invention: archaeologists find such axes all over Europe (however, these finds date back no earlier than the 11th-11th centuries, which proves the Slavic origin of such an ax).
A characteristic feature of the Russian ax is a mysterious hole on the blade of the axes. Scientists have put forward various hypotheses - from the fact that this is the mark of a master to the fact that a rod was inserted there so that the ax would not get deeply stuck upon impact. In fact, everything turned out to be much simpler: a leather case for the ax was fastened to this hole for safe transportation, and the ax was also used to hang the ax from the saddle or on the wall.
The fundamental difference between a sword and a saber is that a sword is a cutting weapon, while a saber is a cutting weapon. Although it is believed that a saber is typical eastern weapon However, from the 7th to the 14th centuries, the straight sword prevailed among the Arabs and Persians, as in Europe. The saber was loved by nomads - the Pechenegs and Khazars. Light horsemen armed with sabers inflicted many losses on Russian border towns and fortresses. It first appears in the Eurasian steppes around the 7th-8th centuries. The homeland of the saber extends from Hungary, the Czech Republic and North Sea to Altai and Southern Siberia. From this territory the saber began to spread among neighboring tribes. In chronicles there is often a contrast between the Khazar saber and the Russian straight sword. However, in the territories bordering with nomads, warriors also preferred the saber: since they had to confront horsemen, the saber was respected by the mounted border guards, because it is very convenient for a mounted warrior. But still, the saber cannot displace the straight sword, which had centuries-old traditions behind it; it was convenient for both foot and horse warriors.
The sabers of the 10th-13th centuries are curved slightly and evenly - approximately like the Cossack sabers of the late 19th century. The production of sabers was not fundamentally different from the production of swords. However, they had much less decoration. This is due to the fact that the sword was decorated for magical purposes: they had magical ornaments and patterns, precious stones as a reward for good service in battle. In the 10th-11th centuries, the length of the saber blade was about 1 m with a width of 3 - 3.7 cm; in the 12th century it lengthened by 10-17 cm and reached a width of 4.5 cm. The reason for this is the weight of the armor. They wore a saber, like a sword: either at the belt or behind the back.
The Slavs, who adopted the saber from the steppe people, advanced its distribution further - to Western Europe. According to historians, it was Slavic and Hungarian craftsmen who made the legendary saber of Charlemagne, which later became a ceremonial symbol of the Roman Empire.
The faithful companion of every warrior. It can help both with housework and in battle. Strictly speaking, a “combat” knife is any knife exceeding 20 cm in length. However, as already mentioned, these knives were more of a universal tool than a weapon in the full sense of the word. In the chronicles, the combat use of a knife ends with finishing off the enemy in a duel, as well as during particularly brutal battles. The wearing of boot knives, which are mentioned in the Lay, has not been archaeologically confirmed. The knife was used in battle both as a chopping weapon and as a piercing weapon. cutting weapon. Sometimes a knife was thrown at the enemy, and the Slavic warriors were distinguished by very good accuracy in this matter. The knife was worn at the belt in a short sheath or simply tucked into the belt.
Also interesting is the eerie custom that existed in the wilderness. northern villages up to the 19th century. Village boys, armed with knives, gathered at night in a hut, where they put out all the lights and staged a knife fight “all against all”, and they hit with full force.. What is surprising is that there were almost no casualties, counting minor cuts and abrasions. Scientists in this capture an echo of the ancient discipline of training young warriors: the hero must not only see, but also feel the blow coming at him, be able to parry it without the help of his eyes and correctly strike back.
Also, the knife was an indispensable hunting tool. Armed with a good bow and a good knife, the hunter was not afraid of anyone in the forest, not even a bear. The knife helped, if necessary, to cut up the prey right on the spot, in the forest and take it home in parts.
A spear, like a knife, is a universal, military-hunting weapon. An ancient Slav, armed with a spear, could single-handedly kill a large bear. Spearheads are a common find for archaeologists, second in number only to arrowheads.
In the chronicles, the expression “break the spear” is almost synonymous with battle. Think about how powerful the blows of the Russian knights were, breaking spear shafts 3 cm thick on their opponents.
A spear is a piercing weapon of a Russian warrior, focused primarily on defense (remember the Greco-Roman “phalanx”). Spear X-XI was somewhat taller than its owner. For spears, the usual length is 1.8-2.2 m. The shaft (“wood”, “shaving”, “oskepisch”) was made from such types of wood as birch, oak, ash, maple. It was 2.5-3.5 cm in diameter. Sometimes the shaft was bound with metal so that the enemy would not cut it. A tip with a sleeve was placed on top of it (where the shaft was inserted). The tips reached half a meter in length. There were cases of using entire “swords” on a stick, which could not only stab, but also chop quite well. The shapes of the tips were varied, but elongated triangular tips still predominated. The thickness of the tip reached 1 cm, and the width - up to five cm. Both cutting edges were sharpened. Both all-steel tips and composite ones were made: two iron plates were placed on a steel strip in the center - such a tip turned out to be self-sharpening.
Horsemen also used spears, but not like medieval European knights in tournaments. The ram strike appeared in Rus' only in the 12th century due to the heavier armor. Until the 12th century, horsemen struck with a spear from top to bottom, having previously swung their hand. First of all, such a spear was distinguished by its length - 3-4 m - and its tip. Since the 10th century, an elongated tetrahedral tip has been spreading.
There was also an interesting type of spear with a tip length of 30 cm, and their weight was about 1 kg. And the inner diameter of the sleeve is about 5 cm. The tip is shaped like a bay leaf. Its width is up to 6 cm, thickness - 1.5 cm. This formidable weapon is called a spear. It has been known in Rus' since ancient times, but in the 7th-10th centuries it lost its relevance, giving way to other types of weapons. I remember the spear in the 12th century, when, as already mentioned, there was a significant increase in armor. Only an experienced warrior could handle a spear well. He could easily pierce the armor of a crusader knight with it. Hunters boldly went with a spear to hunt bears and wild boars.
Later, in the 15th-16th centuries, the owl appears, a hybrid of a knife and a spear. It was a blade, sharpened on one side, with a characteristic knife-like shape on the shaft of a spear. The owl was “stuck” into the body of a lightly armed warrior.
All these types of spears are not intended for throwing. Of course, there are exceptions when, at all costs, it is necessary to take revenge on the enemy in the thick of battle. Special light spears called sulitsa were intended for throwing (again, no one forbade stabbing with it in exceptional cases). The word “sulitsa” comes from the verb “to promise,” which originally meant “to throw.” We can say that a sulitsa is something between a spear and an arrow. The length of its shaft is 1.2-1.5 m. Due to the fact that the spears were thrown around and most of them were lost after the battle, they were not decorated in the same way as spears and spears. Also, for the sake of economy, the tips were made not socketed, but stalked, and they were attached to the side, driven into the tree with the hook-shaped end of the petiole and wound with thread, rope, birch bark or leather to the shaft. Sulitsa were hunting, with wider tips, designed to create a large wound, but could not penetrate strong armor, and military, on the contrary, with narrow, armor-piercing tips.
This section is less about lethal weapons and more about demoralizing ones. Anyone who believes that ancient wars were characterized by a huge number of casualties is sorely mistaken. The main task of the army was not to completely destroy the enemy, as many are now trying to do, but only to break his resistance, collect tribute, drive people into slavery and thereby ensure prosperity for his people. There were few killed, while more than three quarters of the army were wounded (as confirmed by chronicle sources). Remember how they said about the victorious army: “it beat so-and-so.” It didn’t chop, it didn’t cut, it just beat! In such battles, the warriors did not shred each other like cabbage, but simply incapacitated them: they wounded, maimed, and stunned. The weapons of this group are ideal for this. Despite the fact that it does not inflict bloody wounds, it can stun the enemy and break his bones. Moreover, the armor did not in any way save from a skillful blow with a club or even a club: the soft chain mail sagged under the blows of such blows, allowing the weapon to inflict a severe bruise or fracture on the enemy. It was also possible for the wave to hit the head while wearing a helmet, stunning the enemy, or even breaking the helmet. So this weapon was quite functional.
Both the club and the mace evolved from a simple club. However, its simplicity did not prevent it from being an excellent weapon. Militias and rebellious people often armed themselves with clubs. Even in the army of Emelyan Pugachev there were people armed only with clubs. Despite his primitive look, the club can cause enormous damage to the enemy, even breaking bones, and if we remember the enormous strength of our ancestors, there is no doubt that the club in their hands was a truly deadly weapon. The very word “club” indicates the material from which it was made. The best club comes from oak (excuse the pun), or, at worst, from elm or birch. Moreover, a club as a weapon is not just some kind of snag. The butt part of the specified tree species is best suited for a club, and the place where the trunk meets the roots is the knotty, strongest part in the tree, which was used to beat in battle. On the other hand, the club was hewn for some lightness and ease of holding in the hands. There was also a practice of stuffing nails into such clubs, which further increased the crushing ability of the club.
However, the line between a club and a club with a mace is very thin: in the epic “The Heroic Word”:
...And their clubs [kalik] are elm,
Lead is poured from end to end...
As a rule, a mace with a club was mounted on a wooden handle, and the pommels of the simplest ones, as in this epic, were made of copper, and lead was poured inside. More powerful clubs were made of iron and steel. Damask clubs and maces are also mentioned in epics. There are also solid cast tools, that is, with an iron handle rather than a wooden one. The fundamental difference between a club and a mace is the design of the pommel. The club is that pear-shaped spiked weapon that we are used to seeing in the hands of the Bogatyrs - they have no more fundamental differences. The mace is even somewhat cubic in shape.
The word mace means “bump”, “knob”
As already mentioned, the Old Russian mace was, as a rule, an iron or bronze top, weighing 200-300 g, filled with lead with a wooden handle 50-60 cm long and 2-6 cm thick. Sometimes, in order to the enemy did not cut off the hilt of the club; it was lined with copper sheet. The mace was used mainly by mounted warriors to deliver a surprise blow to the helmet or shoulder. The club of the X-XI years is characterized by a cubic shape with four to six pyramidal spikes. This design served as a prototype for the appearance in the 12th-13th centuries of the so-called klevtsy maces, a mass weapon of peasants; the pommel was a cube with one long claw-shaped spike. Another, this time more complicated form of the mace is the multi-spike mace. It was made in such a way that no matter how the warrior hit it, at least one thorn was sure to pierce the enemy. Such devices were cast mainly from bronze.
Since the 14th century, the shestoper has been spreading in Rus' - a mace with six sawn blades, located approximately the same as the feathers of an arrow.
Like other weapons, the mace was decorated with an intricate pattern: between the spikes, ancient craftsmen created intricate script.
The mold for the maces was made like this: first the master took wax and made a dummy of the future weapon from it, then the wax was covered with clay on top. The clay mold was heated and wax flowed out. The form is ready.
In Rus' there were both simple mass maces and luxurious gilded clubs designed specifically for a noble warrior.
At the end, we’ll tell you about an interesting stamp. Many artists (the same ones who paint huge, heavy-lifting axes) provide their epic heroes with huge all-metal “stopud” clubs.
In fact, as mentioned above, the club weighed only 200-300 grams - this was quite enough for good hit. Stopudov clubs are the lot of real Bogatyrs, for example, Svyatogor:
Like far, far away in pure poly,
Here the smoke rose,
And there the dust rose in a column, -
Turned out to be a good fellow,
Russian mighty Svyatogor-Bogatyr.
Svyatogor’s horse is like a fierce beast,
And the Bogatyr sat and sat in a braid of fathoms,
He goes to the poly, makes fun,
He throws a damask club
Higher than the standing forest,
Below the cloud and the walker,
This club flies away
High and in the sky;
When the club goes down,
He picks it up with one hand.
The flail was the weapon of the robber of Ancient Rus'. An ideal tool for beating people who are practically impossible to kill, and also easy to transport. Generally speaking, the flail good weapon not only for the robber, but also for the traveler - to drive away these same robbers: “a fist is as big as a fist, and with it is good,” says the proverb. Unlike the mace, this weapon is universal - it can equally hit the enemy on foot and on horseback. However, the flail requires the owner to have great skill in handling himself - otherwise you will more often hit yourself with the weight on your forehead or back than the enemy. The flail also served as a weapon for the warrior. Sometimes the following technique was used: the same weights were tied to a rope and the warrior, winding the end of it around his hand, launched the weight at the enemy.
The flail is a pear-shaped weight weighing 100-500 g, attached to a chain or belt, which, in turn, is attached to the handle. It can be argued that the flail is a purely Russian invention, which was used by the Slavs back in the 6th century. The word “flail” most likely does not come from the word “brush”, from a Turkic word that sounds the same, but means “stick”, “club”, although there can be debate on this matter.
In the 10th century, kistenems were used throughout Rus'. The weight was made from very durable and heavy elk antler. A hole was drilled in a pear-shaped bone blank into which a metal rod with a loop was inserted, to which a chain or belt was attached. Flails were also decorated like any other weapon; on some of them you can see princely signs, intricate patterns, silver and gold inlay. In the same 10th century, they began to make metal ones - iron and bronze weights. The technology for their manufacture was no different from the production of knobs for maces.
Old Russian troops are the armed forces of Kievan Rus, covering the time period from the 9th century to the mid-13th century. These are the troops that defended the country before the Mongol-Tatar invasion. Warriors guarded the borders of Rus' from raids by nomads and from attacks by the Byzantine Empire. The princes resorted to the help of warriors to resolve internal political issues and during internecine wars.
The troops in the first half of the 9th century were tribal unions of Slavic tribes (Drevlyans, Krivichi, Northerners). Gradually, a small army (druzhina) was formed, which was kept in constant combat readiness. These were trained warriors who were engaged only in military matters. This policy helped to regularly defend the borders of the state; the prince gathered a large army to carry out long campaigns.
Old Russian troops repeatedly repelled the attacks of nomads and warriors of the Byzantine Empire. In this they were helped not only by the strength and courage of the defenders, the tactics and strategy of the commanders, but also by weapons. In the 5th and 6th centuries, the Slavic tribes were poorly armed, but over time the weapons were modified and improved. In the 9th – 13th centuries, the squad was well prepared and equipped.
Warriors used edged weapons, which include four types: chopping, piercing, impact and small arms. The term itself refers to the hand weapons of ancient Russian defenders, which were used in the 9th -13th centuries. This weapon was intended for battle with the enemy. Craftsmen used iron and wood to make weapons. The infantry used heavy throwing vehicles.
A common type of bladed weapon. The blade was made from steel blades, which were welded onto a metal frame. Two steel plates were connected to an iron base. The length of the sword was within 95 centimeters, but in the 12th - 13th centuries the blade became shorter (80 - 85 centimeters). The weight of the weapon rarely exceeded 1.5 kilograms. The handle of the sword consisted of several elements: a crosshair, a pommel and a rod. The sword was sharpened equally on both sides, this made it possible to cut the enemy from any side.
Cold bladed weapon. The saber was sharpened on one side and had a characteristic bend towards the butt. It was usually used by mounted warriors. The saber began to be used in the army in the 10th century. Weapons were found among warriors in the southern regions of Rus'. It was made from one, solid piece of steel. The hilt was decorated depending on the warrior’s birth. Noble and wealthy warriors encrusted the handles with precious stones.
Type of slashing weapon ancient Russian warriors. Slavic battle axes were practically no different from Scandinavian axes. They were used in battle by foot soldiers. The cavalry used hatchets - these are shortened axes. One part of the weapon was sharpened, it was called the blade, the second was flat, it was called the butt. The iron ax was placed on a wooden handle.
A convenient but auxiliary type of knight's melee weapon. It rarely exceeded 20 centimeters, although there were special combat knives(scramasaxes) up to 50 centimeters long. The handle of the weapon could be made of copper, wood, or bone. It was decorated with silver or stones. The blade itself was made like a sword. Two steel plates were welded onto an iron base.
Main view piercing weapon in Ancient Rus'. The spear tips were forged in such a way that they pierced enemy armor. Spears played a dominant role in the battle of 1378 - the harbinger of the Battle of Kulikovo. When the Slavic troops defeated the Tatar-Mongols. The spear consisted of a long, two-meter shaft and an iron blade mounted on it.
An important weapon used in any battle. Allowed you to hit the enemy from a distance. The most common type of bow consisted of two limbs attached to the handle. The bow was drawn and an arrow was released from it. An iron or steel tip was put on it. The average length of arrows is from 70 to 90 centimeters.
One of the first types of weapons. It is considered an impact weapon. Its development began from the club. The mace consisted of a wooden or metal handle. A spherical head equipped with spikes was placed on it. Such weapons hit the enemy, helping to crush him. The length of the mace did not exceed 80 centimeters.
A light weapon that allowed you to deliver a quick and crushing blow in the thick of battle. In the Old Russian army, flails began to be used from the 10th century. An iron weight (often equipped with spikes) was attached to the wooden handle using a leather hanger or an iron chain. The flail was an affordable and effective weapon, therefore it was used in Rus', Europe and Asia.
The first mention of the use of throwing machines by the Slavs dates back to the 6th century. They were used during the siege of Thessaloniki. Machines were actively used in the 9th - 10th centuries, but by the beginning of the 11th century, when the campaigns against Byzantium ceased, the Slavs began to use siege devices less and less. The fortress was taken in two ways: a long siege or a surprise attack. In the 13th century the use of throwing machines increased again.
The device was a simple mechanism. Stones or cannonballs were applied to the long arm of the lever, and people pulled the short arm of the lever. The result was a sharp throw of a large projectile. In order to strike with a 2-3 kilogram cannonball, 8 people were required; to strike with large, multi-kilogram projectiles, the help of dozens of soldiers was needed. Siege engines were used in military operations in Ancient Rus' and in the Middle Ages, before the widespread spread of firearms.
The equipment helped warriors protect themselves from enemy attacks. The main elements of equipment of ancient Russian warriors are chain mail, shield, helmet and lamellar armor. The uniforms were made in special workshops. The main materials used are iron, leather and wood. Over time, armor changed, became lighter and more comfortable, and its protective function improved.
The body of the ancient Russian warrior was protected by chain mail. The term appeared during the Principality of Moscow, and in the 9th – 12th centuries chain mail was called armor. It consisted of woven small iron rings. The thickness of the suit ranged from 1.5 to 2 millimeters. To make chain mail, both whole rings and rings with rivets were used. Subsequently, they were connected with rivets or pins. Sometimes chain mail was made from iron plates, which were fastened with leather straps. After production, the armor was polished to a shine.
The chain mail was a short-sleeved shirt that reached mid-thigh. The clothes perfectly protected warriors from blows from cold weapons. It appeared in Rus' two hundred years earlier than in Western Europe. So in the 12th century, most French soldiers could not afford chain mail due to the high price of uniforms. At the end of the 12th century, chain mail changed. It became like a shirt with long sleeves and a hem that reached to the knees. Additionally, hoods, protective stockings and mittens were made in the workshops.
One armor weighed no less than 6.5 kilograms. Despite the heavy weight, the chain mail was comfortable, and the defenders could make quick maneuvers. About 600 meters of wire were required to make the armor. Weaving took a long time; 20 thousand iron rings were needed to make the chain mail. In the 12th century, when chain mail changed, the production of one armor began to take up to 30 thousand rings.
Helmets began to come into widespread use in the 10th century, and they were used not only by combatants, but by ordinary soldiers. According to archaeological statistics, several times more helmets are found in Ancient Rus' than in other Western European countries. Two types of helmets were common in the ancient Russian army.
- Norman type. It was an “egg-shaped” or conical helmet. The nose was protected by an iron nasal plate (nasal plate). It could be made with or without aventail (chain mail mesh protecting the neck). The helmet was worn on the head like a hat. But it did not become widespread among ancient Russian warriors.
- Helmets of the Chernigov type are uniforms of a spheroconic shape. They were most often used in Rus'. To make them, it was necessary to rivet four metal parts, and the segments were tied together with a hoop from below. Helmets were convenient during horse battles, as they protected against blows from above. The aventail was always attached to it. The top of the helmet was often decorated with feather trim.
In the 12th century, sheloms began to appear. This is a type of helmet with a nosepiece, aventail, and a half-cutout for the eyes. The shelom was crowned with an iron spire. These helmets were common in Rus' for several centuries. At the end of the 12th century, helmets with a half mask could also be found; they protected the upper part of the face from light blows. But only rich and noble warriors could afford them.
The shield is the very first armor invented by warriors for protection. High shields were used even before the time of the Rurikovichs and the maintenance of a permanent squad. They were human height, protected from blows, but were extremely uncomfortable. Subsequently, the shields were modified and became lighter. According to archaeological excavations, about twenty types of shields were found on the territory of Ancient Rus'.
In the 10th century, craftsmen made round shields - flat wooden planks connected to each other. The diameter did not exceed 80 - 100 centimeters. Thickness – up to seven millimeters. The shields were covered with leather or upholstered with iron. A hole was made in the center, and on the outside it was covered with an umbon - an iron hemisphere. And with inside a handle was attached to it.
The first ranks of infantry closed their shields with each other. This created a strong wall. The enemy could not get through to the rear of the ancient Russian troops. After the appearance of mounted troops, the shields began to change. They acquired an almond-shaped, oblong shape. This helped keep the enemy in battle.
Uniforms appeared in the 9th – 10th centuries. These are plate-like elements that are woven together with leather cord. In appearance they resembled a corset with a long hem. The plates were rectangles with several holes along the edges through which they were connected.
In the old days, lamellar armor was much less common than chain mail; it was worn on top of the armor. They were mainly distributed in Veliky Novgorod and the northern regions of Kievan Rus. In the 12th - 14th centuries, bracers were added to lamellar armor - armor protecting the hands, elbows, forearms and mirrors - round and iron plaques, amplifiers of the main protection.
The structural principle of organization was called "decimal" or "thousandth". All the warriors were united into dozens, then hundreds and thousands of defenders. The leaders of each structural unit were tens, sots and thousand. They were always chosen by the warriors themselves, giving preference to the most experienced and brave defender.
Army in the 9th – 11th centuries
The basis of the ancient Russian army was the princely squad. It was subordinate to the prince and consisted of specially trained professional warriors. The squad was small, numbering several hundred people. The largest squad was that of Prince Svyatopolk Izyaslavovich, it included 800 people. It consisted of several parts:
- the oldest squad - it included the social elite, governors, wise men, sorcerers;
- junior squad - squires, bodyguards, young military servants;
- best squad;
- front squad.
But the bulk of the army were warriors. They were replenished as a result of irregular military recruitment from the tribes subject to the prince. Hired warriors were invited for long campaigns. The Old Russian army reached impressive numbers, reaching up to 10 thousand soldiers.
Army of the 12th – 13th centuries
At this time, changes took place in the organization of warriors. The place of the senior squad was taken by the princely court - this is the prototype of the standing army. And the junior squad was transformed into a regiment - a militia of landowner boyars. The formation of the army took place as follows: one warrior on horseback and in full uniform with 4 - 10 sokh (taxation unit) entered service. The princes also resorted to the services of the Pechenegs, Torks, Berendeys and other tribes. They were in constant combat readiness, which helped respond to raids by nomads.
In Ancient Rus' there were three types of troops: infantry, cavalry, and navy. Initially, infantry troops appeared. The bulk of them are “voi”. Already under Prince Svyatoslav Igorevich, soldiers used pack horses instead of convoys. This accelerated the movement of the army. The infantry took part in the capture of cities and covered the rear. Carried out different types of work: engineering or transport in nature.
Later cavalry appeared, but the mounted troops were few in number. In the tenth century, they preferred to fight on foot, and gradually the warriors became more and more sophisticated. The cavalry helped repel the attacks of the nomads. Since the 11th century it has occupied an important place, becoming on a par with infantry, and later superior to foot troops. The cavalry, like the infantry, had heavily armed warriors. These are defenders with swords, sabers, axes, and maces. Fast, lightly armed warriors also stood out. They were armed with a bow and arrows, an iron mace or battle axes. Only infantry troops used heavy weapons and mortars.
The fleet played an important, but not a key role. It was used only on large sea voyages. In the ninth century in Rus' there were flotillas, which included up to two thousand ships. Their main role was transport; soldiers were transported on ships. But there were also special military ships designed for combat. The warriors were transported on boats, which could accommodate up to 50 people. Later, the boats were equipped with throwing machines and rams. Decks intended for archers were built on them.
These are warriors who could consciously cause a battle frenzy. The wolf-knights showed spiritual strength due to the fact that they dedicated their lives to the god Odin. Usually berserkers stood in front of ordinary warriors and began the battle. They were not on the field for long while the trance state continued. Afterwards they left the battle, and the remaining warriors completed the battle.
In order to become a knight, it was necessary to defeat an animal with bare hands: a bear or a wolf. After the victory, the warrior became a berserker, everyone was afraid of him. Such a warrior cannot be defeated, because the spirit of the animal lives in him. The berserker dealt 3 - 4 blows to defeat the enemy. The knight had an instant reaction, several steps ahead of an ordinary warrior. In many ancient texts, berserkers are called werewolves.
The Kyiv princes rarely split up their army and consistently attacked their opponents with all their might. Although there were known cases when warriors of Ancient Rus' fought on several fronts at the same time. In medieval times, troops were divided into parts.
The main tactical maneuver of the infantry was the "wall". But this was possible in the 9th - 10th centuries, when the cavalry was poorly developed and small in number. The army was lined up in even rows of 10–12 ranks. The first warriors put their weapons forward and covered themselves with shields. Thus, they walked in a dense “wall” towards the enemy. The flanks were covered by cavalry.
The second tactical maneuver was the wedge. The warriors lined up in a sharp wedge and rammed the enemy wall. But this method revealed many shortcomings, since the enemy’s cavalry entered from the rear and phalanxes and hit vulnerable areas.
The cavalry performed tactical maneuvers, depending on the course of the battle. The warriors pursued the fleeing troops, launched counter strikes or went out on reconnaissance. The horsemen made a roundabout maneuver to strike at the poorly protected enemy forces.
In the centuries-long struggle, military organization Slavs, their military art arose and developed, which influenced the state of the troops of neighboring peoples and states. Emperor Mauritius, for example, recommended that the Byzantine army widely use the methods of warfare used by the Slavs...
Russian soldiers were skilled in using these weapons and, under the command of brave military leaders, more than once won victories over the enemy.
For 800 years, the Slavic tribes, in the struggle with numerous peoples of Europe and Asia and with the powerful Roman Empire - Western and Eastern, and then with the Khazar Khaganate and the Franks, defended their independence and united.
The flail is a short belt whip with an iron ball suspended at the end. Sometimes spikes were also attached to the ball. They dealt terrible blows with flails. With minimal effort, the effect was stunning. By the way, the word “stun” used to mean “to hit the enemy’s skull hard.”
The head of the shestoper consisted of metal plates - “feathers” (hence its name). The shestoper, widespread mainly in the 15th-17th centuries, could serve as a sign of the power of military leaders, while remaining at the same time a serious weapon.
Both the mace and the shestoper originate from the club - a massive club with a thickened end, usually bound in iron or studded with large iron nails - which was also in service with Russian soldiers for a long time.
A very common chopping weapon in the ancient Russian army was the ax, which was used by princes, princely warriors, and militias, both on foot and on horseback. However, there was a difference: those on foot more often used large axes, while those on horseback used axes, that is, short axes.
For both of them, the ax was put on a wooden ax handle with a metal tip. The back flat part of the ax was called the butt, and the hatchet was called the butt. The blades of the axes were trapezoidal in shape.
A large wide ax was called a berdysh. Its blade, made of iron, was long and mounted on a long axe, which had an iron frame, or thread, at the lower end. Berdysh were used only by infantrymen. In the 16th century, berdysh were widely used in the Streltsy army.
Later, halberds appeared in the Russian army - modified axes of various shapes, ending in a spear. The blade was mounted on a long shaft (axe) and was often decorated with gilding or embossing.
A type of metal hammer, pointed at the butt side, was called a mint or klevets. The coin was mounted on an ax with a tip. There were coins with an unscrewing, hidden dagger. The coin served not only as a weapon, it was a distinctive accessory of military leaders.
Piercing weapons - spears and spears - were no less important than the sword as part of the armament of the ancient Russian troops. Spears and spears often decided the success of a battle, as was the case in the battle of 1378 on the Vozha River in the Ryazan land, where Moscow cavalry regiments, with a simultaneous blow “on spears” from three sides, overturned the Mongol army and defeated it.
The spear tips were perfectly suited for piercing armor. To do this, they were made narrow, massive and elongated, usually tetrahedral.
The tips, diamond-shaped, laurel-leaved or wide wedge-shaped, could be used against the enemy in places not protected by armor. A two-meter spear with such a tip inflicted dangerous lacerations and caused the rapid death of the enemy or his horse.
The spear consisted of a shaft and a blade with a special sleeve, which was mounted on the shaft. In Ancient Rus', shafts were called oskepische (hunting) or ratovishche (battle). They were made from oak, birch or maple, sometimes using metal.
The blade (the tip of the spear) was called a feather, and its sleeve was called a vtok. It was often all-steel, but welding technologies from iron and steel strips, as well as all-iron ones, were also used.
The rods had a tip in the form of a bay leaf, 5-6.5 centimeters wide and up to 60 centimeters long. To make it easier for a warrior to hold a weapon, two or three metal knots were attached to the shaft of the spear.
A type of spear was the sovnya (owl), which had a curved stripe with one blade, slightly curved at the end, which was mounted on a long shaft.
The first Novgorod chronicle records how the defeated army “... ran into the forest, throwing away weapons, shields, owls, and everything from themselves.”
Sulitsa was a throwing spear with a light and thin shaft up to 1.5 meters long. The tips of the sulits are petiolate and socketed.
Old Russian warriors defended themselves against bladed and thrown weapons with the help of shields. Even the words “shield” and “protection” have the same root. Shields have been used since ancient times until the spread of firearms.
At first, shields served as the only means of protection in battle; chain mail and helmets appeared later. The earliest written evidence of Slavic shields was found in Byzantine manuscripts of the 6th century.
According to the definition of the degenerate Romans: “Each man is armed with two small spears, and some of them with shields, strong, but difficult to carry.”
An original feature of the design of heavy shields of this period was the embrasures sometimes made in their upper part - windows for viewing. In the early Middle Ages, militiamen often did not have helmets, so they preferred to hide behind a shield “with their heads.”
According to legends, berserkers gnawed their shields in a battle frenzy. Reports of this custom of theirs are most likely fiction. But it is not difficult to guess what exactly formed its basis.
In the Middle Ages, strong warriors preferred not to bind their shield with iron on top. The ax would still not break from hitting the steel strip, but it could get stuck in the tree. It is clear that the axe-catcher shield had to be very durable and heavy. And its top edge looked “gnawed”.
Another original aspect of the relationship between berserkers and their shields was that the “warriors in bearskins” often had no other weapons. The berserker could fight with only one shield, striking with its edges or simply throwing enemies to the ground. This style of fighting was known back in Rome.
The earliest finds of shield elements date back to the 10th century. Of course, only metal parts were preserved - umbons (an iron hemisphere in the center of the shield, which served to repel a blow) and fittings (fasteners along the edge of the shield) - but from them it was possible to restore the appearance of the shield as a whole.
According to reconstructions by archaeologists, the shields of the 8th – 10th centuries had a round shape. Later, almond-shaped shields appeared, and from the 13th century, triangular-shaped shields were also known.
The Old Russian round shield is of Scandinavian origin. This makes it possible to use materials from Scandinavian burial grounds, for example, the Swedish Birka burial ground, to reconstruct the Old Russian shield. Only there the remains of 68 shields were found. They had a round shape and a diameter of up to 95 cm. Three samples had possible definition The tree species of the shield field are maple, fir and yew.
The species for some wooden handles was also established - juniper, alder, poplar. In some cases, metal handles made of iron with bronze overlays were found. A similar overlay was found on our territory - in Staraya Ladoga, and is now kept in a private collection. Also, among the remains of both Old Russian and Scandinavian shields, rings and brackets for belt fastening the shield on the shoulder were found.
Helmets (or helmets) are a type of combat headgear. In Rus', the first helmets appeared in the 9th – 10th centuries. At this time, they became widespread in Western Asia and Kievan Rus, but were rare in Western Europe.
The helmets that appeared later in Western Europe were lower and tailored to the head, in contrast to the conical helmets of ancient Russian warriors. By the way, the conical shape gave great advantages, since the high conical tip prevented a direct blow, which is important in areas of horse-saber combat.
Norman type helmet
Helmets found in burials of the 9th – 10th centuries. have several types. Thus, one of the helmets from the Gnezdovo burial mounds (Smolensk region) was hemispherical in shape, tied along the sides and along the ridge (from the forehead to the back of the head) with iron strips. Another helmet from the same burials had a typical Asian uniform- made of four riveted triangular parts. The seams were covered with iron strips. A pommel and lower rim were present.
The conical shape of the helmet came to us from Asia and is called the “Norman type”. But she was soon supplanted by the “Chernigov type.” It is more spherical - it has a spheroconic shape. On top there are pommels with bushings for plumes. In the middle they are reinforced with spiked linings.
Helmet "Chernigov type"
According to ancient Russian concepts, the combat attire itself, without a helmet, was called armor; later this word came to refer to all the protective equipment of a warrior. For a long time, chain mail held undisputed primacy. It was used throughout the X-XVII centuries.
In addition to chain mail, protective clothing made of plates was adopted in Rus', but did not prevail until the 13th century. Lamellar armor existed in Rus' from the 9th to the 15th centuries, and scale armor - from the 11th to the 17th centuries. Last view armor was particularly elastic. In the 13th century, a number of items enhancing body protection, such as leggings, knee pads, breast plates (Mirror), and handcuffs, became widespread.
To strengthen the chain mail or shell in the 16th-17th centuries in Russia, additional armor was used, which was worn over the armor. These armors were called mirrors. They consisted in most cases of four large plates - front, back and two side ones.
The plates, whose weight rarely exceeded 2 kilograms, were connected to each other and fastened on the shoulders and sides with belts with buckles (shoulder pads and amices).
A mirror, polished and polished to a mirror shine (hence the name of the armor), often covered with gilding, decorated with engraving and chasing, in the 17th century most often had a purely decorative character.
In the 16th century in Rus', ringed armor and breast armor made of rings and plates connected together, arranged like fish scales, became widespread. Such armor was called bakhterets.
Bakhterets was assembled from oblong plates arranged in vertical rows, connected by rings on the short sides. The side and shoulder slits were connected using straps and buckles. A chain mail hem was added to the bakhterts, and sometimes collars and sleeves were added.
The average weight of such armor reached 10-12 kilograms. At the same time, the shield, having lost its combat significance, becomes a ceremonial item. This also applied to the tarch - a shield, the top of which was metal hand with a blade. Such a shield was used in the defense of fortresses, but was extremely rare.
Bakhterets and shield-tarch with a metal “arm”
In the 9th-10th centuries, helmets were made from several metal plates connected to each other with rivets. After assembly, the helmet was decorated with silver, gold and iron plates with ornaments, inscriptions or images.
In those days, a smoothly curved, elongated helmet with a rod at the top was common. Helmets of this shape Western Europe I didn’t know at all, but they were widespread both in Western Asia and in Rus'.
In the 11th-13th centuries, domed and spheroconic helmets were common in Rus'. At the top, helmets often ended with a sleeve, which was sometimes equipped with a flag - a yalovets. IN early time helmets were made from several (two or four) parts riveted together. There were helmets made from one piece of metal.
Need for reinforcement protective properties helmet led to the appearance of steep-sided dome-shaped helmets with a nose or a face mask (visor). The warrior's neck was covered with a net-barmitsa, made of the same rings as the chain mail. It was attached to the helmet from the back and sides. The helmets of noble warriors were trimmed with silver, and sometimes were entirely gilded.
The earliest appearance in Rus' of headgear with a circular chainmail aventail hung from the crown of the helmet, and a steel half-mask laced in front to the lower edge, can be assumed no later than the 10th century.
At the end of the 12th - beginning of the 13th century, in connection with the pan-European tendency to make defensive armor heavier, helmets appeared in Rus', equipped with a mask-mask that protected the warrior’s face from both chopping and piercing blows. Face masks were equipped with slits for the eyes and nasal openings and covered the face either half (half mask) or entirely.
The helmet with the mask was put on a balaclava and worn with the aventail. Face masks, in addition to their direct purpose - to protect the warrior’s face, were also supposed to intimidate the enemy with their appearance. Instead of a straight sword, a saber appeared - a curved sword. The saber is very convenient for the conning tower. In skillful hands, the saber is a terrible weapon.
Around 1380, firearms appeared in Rus'. However, traditional melee and ranged weapons have retained their importance. Pikes, spears, maces, flails, pole-toppers, helmets, armor, round shields were in service for 200 years with virtually no significant changes, and even with the advent of firearms.
From the 12th century, the weapons of both horsemen and infantry gradually became heavier. A massive long saber appears, heavy sword with a long crosshair and sometimes a one-and-a-half handle. The strengthening of defensive weapons is evidenced by the technique of ramming with a spear, which became widespread in the 12th century.
The weighting of the equipment was not significant, because it would have made the Russian warrior clumsy and turned him into a sure target for the steppe nomad.
The number of troops of the Old Russian state reached a significant figure. According to the chronicler Leo the Deacon, an army of 88 thousand people took part in Oleg’s campaign against Byzantium; in the campaign to Bulgaria, Svyatoslav had 60 thousand people. Sources name the voivode and the thousand as the commanding staff of the Russian army. The army had a certain organization associated with the structure of Russian cities.
The city exhibited a “thousand”, divided into hundreds and tens (by “ends” and streets). The “thousand” was commanded by the tysyatsky, who was elected by the veche; subsequently, the tysyatsky was appointed by the prince. The “hundreds” and “tens” were commanded by elected sotskys and tens. Cities fielded infantry, which at that time was the main branch of the army and was divided into archers and spearmen. The core of the army was the princely squads.
In the 10th century, the term “regiment” was first used as the name of a separately operating army. In the “Tale of Bygone Years” for 1093, regiments are called military detachments brought to the battlefield by individual princes.
The numerical composition of the regiment was not determined, or, in other words, the regiment was not a specific unit of organizational division, although in battle, when placing troops in battle formation, the division of troops into regiments was important.
A system of penalties and rewards was gradually developed. According to later data, gold hryvnias (neck hoops) were awarded for military distinctions and services.
Gold hryvnia and gold plates-upholstery of a wooden bowl with the image of a fish
The main tools of labor of the Slavs appeared along with agriculture. To cultivate the land and harvest crops, special equipment was needed. However, other household spheres of life also had their own tools. Of course, the tools of the ancient Slavs were quite primitive. But later, with the development of peoples, they were replaced by more modern instruments.
What tools did the Slavs have? Tools Eastern Slavs, their names:
- Sokha. It was one of the most popular instruments, especially in the middle forest zone. There were many varieties of plows. For example, with one, two or many teeth. They could also differ in the shape of the vomer: narrow, wide, feather. The main part of the plow was the so-called rassokha. The latter was a long wooden board, forked downwards. Another part of the plow was the opener. It was usually made of iron. The coulter was necessary for cutting the soil layer.
- Saban. This is a more advanced plow. It differed from its predecessor in greater stability.
- Roe. It was also an analogue of the plow.
- Hoe. It consists of a long wooden handle, at the end of which there is a metal plate similar to a shoulder blade. The weeds were cut down to the roots with a hoe.
- Plowshare. Used for plowing. Thanks to it, the soil was crushed more strongly, which meant it was easier to harrow it. In general, the plowshare was much more convenient than the plow.
- Ralo. One of the oldest tools of the ancient Slavs, used for plowing. It was a hook that was cut from a piece of wood with roots. Depending on the type, it could have one, two or several teeth.
- Plow. Considered suitable for cultivating heavy soils. It didn't take much effort to work with it. Being wooden, it had an iron knife and ploughshare. The plow became most widespread in the southern regions, where steppes predominated. The main function of the plow was to turn over the top layer of earth. As soon as the plow appeared, it was driven by the man himself. But later they decided to bet horses for him.
- Harrow. This tool was used after the soil was plowed. Initially, a wooden knot harrow (made from logs with knots) appeared. Later, iron harrows with teeth also appeared. The harrow was used in slash-and-burn farming to collect weeds and prevent the soil from drying out.
- Sickle. It consisted of two parts: a wooden handle and an iron plate curved in the shape of a crescent. WITH inner surface The last one contained teeth or a sharp blade. A sickle was used to harvest crops by cutting off crops. This process was called the harvest. And it was mostly women who did it.
- Scythe. This is a long wooden handle with an iron plate with a blade. The scythe had many different modifications. For example, a scythe with rakes. We used this tool for haymaking.
- Rake. Probably don't require a description. Since then they have not changed their appearance. Used for harvesting hay and removing weeds from plowed soil.
- Pitchfork. They had a long wooden handle, and at the end of it there were sharp, powerful iron teeth (in the shape of the letter “E”). But the pitchfork could also have two teeth (in the shape of the letter “P” or “L”). Their main use was removing manure and hauling hay. Sometimes they pierced the soil with a pitchfork to enrich it with oxygen.
- Axe. Also self-explanatory. Woodcutters had axes; they were larger in size and had more powerful parts. But the carpenters also had axes. They were more “graceful” and light.
- Shovel. Needs no introduction. Initially, shovels, like hoes, were solid wood. That is, there were no iron elements yet.
- Spade. Appeared before the shovel and was its prototype. The first spades were made entirely of wood. And later their tip became metal.
- Flail Consisted of two elements. The first was a long (one and a half to two meters) handle (wooden), and the second was a short (half a meter) part. The latter was called a thresher. The flail was used for threshing grains.
Depending on the type of agriculture and the region of residence, the Slavs had different tools. For example, the southern Slavs, whose main type of agriculture was fallow land, initially used a wooden plow, and later a plow with an iron share. This greatly increased labor productivity and the speed of land cultivation. And in the northern regions, slash-and-burn agriculture prevailed. And, accordingly, the Slavs’ tools of labor were represented by a hoe, as well as a plow and a harrow. The harvest had to be collected with a sickle.
Now we have looked at the main agricultural tools of the Slavs. But our ancestors also had other occupations, each of which required its own tools and devices.
What tools did the Eastern Slavs have?
The weapons of the Eastern Slavs were approximately the same as those of other Slavs. There could only be some distinctive nuances. What kind of tools did the Slavs use in other crafts?
For example, tools were also needed to process flax; they were called grinders. A grinder is a long and tall wooden board with a groove along its entire length, inside of which there is another board (corresponding in size) with a handle. This design was installed on special legs.
The Slavs also had ruffles. In appearance it looked like a large knife made of wood. Don't forget about spinning wheels and spindles.
In blacksmithing, special hammers and chisels were used. But the potters had a special potter's wheel.
Many of the labor tools of the Eastern Slavs have survived to this day. They are used with great success in modern agriculture.
Tools and weapons of the Slavs
In addition to tools, the Slavs also had weapons. We know that they often suffered from raids by neighboring tribes. In any case, protective equipment was very important at that time. They also played an important role when meeting wild animals.
According to written sources from foreign authors, in the fifth to seventh centuries the Slavs had nothing but protective shields. Then darts (another name for them were sulitsa) and bows and arrows appeared.
Shields were first made from rods covered with leather. And only then boards became the material for them. It’s hard to imagine, but the length of the shield reached human height. Of course, it was very difficult to carry such a bulky means of protection.
From the second half of the ninth century, military affairs began to develop rapidly. Of course, with this comes more advanced weapons. For example, sword, spears, battle axes. Shields were used for defense different types, shells. The body was protected from enemy attacks by chain mail - this is a metal shirt up to the level of the knees. Making chain mail was a very complex, long (up to several months) and painstaking process. And she weighed about seven kilograms.
Closer to the thirteenth century, armor (plate or scale) began to appear among the Slavs. Around the same time, helmets became widespread. They protected not only the head (frontal, parietal parts), but also the upper part of the face.
The most popular weapon from the ninth to tenth centuries there was a sword. There were many varieties of this bladed weapon. They differed in width, length of blades, and handles. Often the elements of the sword were decorated with carvings. Warriors wore swords first on their shoulders and later on their belts.
In the southern regions, the saber became very famous. However, in written sources it is mentioned much less frequently compared to the sword. Axes, long or short, were also used in battle.
As for melee weapons (impact weapons), there were quite a lot of them.
- The mace, which flourished in the twelfth century, was a sphere of bronze with lead inside the cauldron. They used it both in mounted combat and in infantry. Its weight was about two hundred to three hundred grams. The mace first appeared in the sixth century.
- Flail. This is something like a weight (usually made of iron or other metal). The shape could be different: circle, star, oval. It was attached to a belt, the length of which was about half a meter. It was used in the following way: a belt was wound around the hand, and then the weight was sharply directed towards the enemy. This blow was quite strong. The very first primitive flails appeared in the third century.
- Mace. It became most widespread in the thirteenth century. It was like a stick with a thickening at the end.
In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, the spear became the main weapon of infantrymen. It was a handle with a sharp tip. The latter could have different lengths and shapes.
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