JK started his workshop like. Economical, but for / yam about ophv Ilu Eshi progression, sone that she is too Fnpyyna.
Max Plank (1858-1947),founder of quantum physics
E / Yo Ohrano. L threw an economic gayoria because she was too propa.
Bertrand Russell (1872-1970),english philosopher, founder of modern mathematical logic
Economy - charming science, she is driemented that her funa-feudal principles are very prosai, they can be recorded on a piece of paper, GNOM not Lening them to a few.
Milton Friedmen (1912-2006),english economist laureate Nobel Prize
DO NIEX NOFT, as long as the life is not refined (PAY (PA of his national economy, based on individual. The features of the Russian pear, we will be in the process of icy between various fashionable teachings, getting taking place alternately (by one, TNO to others.
Sergey Yulievich Witte (1849-1915),vidny State Worker of Russia
Preface
The question of the role of economic theory in higher economic education can hardly be attributed to the discussion. It is generally recognized that economic theory is a fundamental, initial and leading educational economic discipline. Mastering its material creates a reliable theoretical base for studying industry-wide economic sciences. Therefore, a clear, in a modern sense and a compressed statement of complex and most controversial provisions of economic theory is a necessary condition for the assimilation of the conceptual-categorical apparatus of the economy. There is such a task in the textbook.
The proposed textbook was written in the first decade of the XXI century., In which humanity entered, relying on the potential, trends and traditions formed in the XX century. This is the era of new, cardinal changes in all spheres of human life, and above all in the economic. Economic theory as a science associated with practice reflects these processes.
Modern economic theory is a certain synthesis of ideas of various economic schools and trends: it is a classic political economy, and Marxism, and Neoclassica, and Keynesianism, and institutionalism. And it is natural. Economic science is developing rapidly, as well as the entire economic world. In Russia at the end of the XX century. A decisive breakthrough was carried out into a huge world of economic ideas accumulated by world science after the work of K. Marx. There was no need for mandatory condemnation of all bourgeois economic theories, on the contrary, they began to study deeply, and sometimes even extol. However, the disadvantages of the new approach to the study of the economy as science are also quickly revealed, because Western textbooks were written in relation to the conditions of a developed market economy, which did not meet the economy of the country with a huge reform. Based on the experience of the past, the authors seek to reveal the modern concept of economic theory, taking into account the Russian specifics, the peculiarities of the perception of the market mechanism by people who have grown in the rejection of the western ideology of market relations.
In addition, it is impossible to ignore the fact that the beginning of the XXI century. It is characterized by new processes of the widespread transformation of economic systems, the emergence of a post-industrial, non-reformation society, the economy of knowledge, education, transition economy. Such processes include globalization, informatization, computerization, technological explosion, etc., they have not yet received sufficient lighting in the newest economic theory. These transformation changes in economics are accompanied by the concentration of research on human problem, the process of producing human knowledge, skills, intelligence and creative abilities to the center of the economic system. These aspects of the authors reviewed in this textbook.
At the same time, it was focused on the need to change the thinking of people, thinking, rooted by several generations in the idea of \u200b\u200bplanned economy, the formation of a new economic thinking inherent in a non-simply market economy, and the economy of a new type that has absorbed the signs of the above global global transformations. In the conditions of the "new economy" the ability is not just creative thinking, but to non-standard vision, extraordinary solutions and actions, innovations, leadership - these are the main requirements for specialists. After all, it is not for nothing that the main characteristic of the "new economy", which distinguishes it from the already existing, is called "the power of geniuses", "the power of the brain", i.e. The power of new ideas. In this case, theoretical knowledge contributing to the development of the thought apparatus is first. To teach to reflect yourself on the basis of the analysis of various teachings, theories and views of theoretical scientists becomes the first task in learning and teaching a course of economic theory.
One of the objectives of writing this textbook is the popularization of economic science in society. The textbook is intended not only for students and teachers of economic universities, it is useful to everyone who is interested in the economy. After all, the purpose of this science is to expand the range of possibilities and choices available to each person in everyday life, in helping as much as possible of people in achieving well-being. The economy seeks to ensure high quality of life in all aspects, and not just financially. After all, the economic image of thought is a special approach to understanding the world, which can be used in almost any situation affecting both individuals and companies, industries, states. Each active citizen must master the skills of economic thinking. The more people can make decisions in everyday activity, the higher the standard of living of each and the more richer will be our country.
The authors continue to improve the tutorial and will be grateful to everyone who considers it possible to express their opinions, wishes and comments to the address: This e-mail address is protected from spam bots. To see it, you need to be enabled Java-script
Topic 1.1 Economy and its role in society:
1) Economy: concept and function. Subject of economic theory;
2) major economic concepts;
3) methods of scientific knowledge of the economy.
Economy: concept and function. The subject of economic theory.It is necessary to distinguish between 3 approaches to the concept of "economy".
The first approach is considering the economy as economic activities, a special scope of people's vital activity.
The second is considering the economy as a government science.
The third considers the economy as a relationship between people arising in the management process.
Economic theory is a social science that studies the behavior of people and groups in the production, distribution, exchange and consumption of material goods in order to meet the needs for limited resources, which creates competition for their use.
The economy is a complex system of economic relations of various kinds.
Three groups of relationships distinguish:
1) technical and economic relations due to equipment and production technology;
2) organizational and economic, which depend on the organization and management of production, the institutional structure of the economy;
3) Socio - economic relations (property relations and income distribution).
Major economic concepts.Consider the main concepts used in the characterization of the content of economic activity.
Economic relations are the relationship between people arising in the process of production, distribution, exchange and consumption of material goods and services.
Economic relations manifest themselves through economic interests. Economic interests are different from different subjects, social groups. In turn, economic interests are needed by their material basis.
Needs - the driving force for the development of the economy.
Needs are an objective need of people in anything, objectively necessary to maintain the livelihoods and development of the body, the development of the personality, requiring satisfaction. Man's needs are diverse. The theory of American scientist A. Mashloou received the greatest distribution. All needs are divided into 5 groups:
1) physiological (in food, drink, sex, etc.);
2) safe (protection against pain, wrath, fear, etc.);
3) in social connections (love, tenderness, involvement in any group, etc.);
4) in self-esteem (in achieving the goal, recognition, approval);
5) in self-actualization (implementation of abilities, understanding, understanding, etc.).
Needs are satisfied with the help of material goods and services.
Fortunately, this is all that concludes a certain positive meaning (subject, phenomenon, work product), satisfying a certain human need and in the interests of the interests, goals, aspirations of people.
Services are expedient human activity, the result that has a useful effect that satisfies any needs. "The service" is characterized by such signs as intangipating and non-snacks, inseparable from a person providing it.
The volume and degree of reserves of stocks of various goods characterize their limitations relative to each other and are expressed in the category of rarity benefits. A rarity is a characteristic of economic benefits, meaning that the reserves of these goods are less than the need for them. Such limited benefits regarding needs in them is expressed in the category of failure of goods. As a result, rarity and insufficiency act as various parties limited benefits.
Good benefits and value.
The usefulness of the good is a comprehensive subjective assessment of the natural properties of products in this individual at the moment.
The value of good is a positive or negative significance for a good person, the benefit ability to exchange to other benefits in some proportion.
The alternative value of good is the number of other goods that must be sacrificed to get this benefit.
Resources are needed for the production of material goods and services.
Resources are prepared for the use of the benefit necessary for human economic activities in the production of goods and services.
All types of resources at the disposal of the person are limited in the quantitative, and in qualitative terms. Therefore, a person decides the problem of choosing the use of rare resources to achieve competing purposes. Economic processes in society govern the laws of public actions of people or economic laws.
Economic laws are stable, repeated repeating, expressing the inner essence, causal and investigative relations of economic phenomena and processes.
Economic relations and laws are characterized by economic categories.
Methods of scientific knowledge of the economy.Methods are how, how, with the help of which tools, economic phenomena and processes are being studied.
The general and local methods should be distinguished.
General methods express the existence of general approaches to the scientific development of economic reality as a whole.
Local methods are specific tools, techniques, means of which are investigated by certain parties and aspects of the economic system. Among them are specific (which are tied to one or another methodology) and universal - (which can be used in the implementation of any methodology). Universal include:
Analysis (dismemberment of the object of study into individual elements) and synthesis (the compound of individual elements into a single integer);
Induction (elimination of common from private facts) and deduction (movement from total to private);
Abstraction (allocating the essential properties of the subject when distracting from other properties).
Topic 1.2 Subject and method of economic theory:
1) the subject of economic theory;
2) the main features of the method of scientific knowledge of economic processes.
The subject of economic theory.In all the definitions of economic science, the thoughts about the economic vital activity of a person or society as a whole, its organizational and management foundations, which determine the effectiveness of production as the basis of the subject of this science, undergoes red thread.
However, the extended interpretation of the specified subject leads to the fact that economic science includes the entire set of functioning as a separate production link - enterprises, firms (micro level) and all national or international economy (macro level).
The same product, which has a constant value (labor costs - production costs) in different markets and at different times, will have a different, different price, since the manufacturer and the consumer enters into economic relations in various conditions, having different positions and various interests . Under these conditions, economic science is of paramount interest not only to identify certain laws, but also the manifestation of these laws in a certain system of relations between participants in producing and consuming material benefits. That is why the subject of scientific research is the law and the object of research, economic relations are in organic communications with each other.
However, all the diversity of relations and laws. reflecting certain facets of these relationships, have their own foundation. Find this basis, it means to find the beginning, the general principle of the beginning and development of the diversity of relations, laws of patterns in the study of the relevant sphere of knowledge, in this case the sphere of economic vital activity of human society as a whole or in individual parts, structures, etc.
Find this principle is one of the most important tasks of any science, including economics, economic theory. This is known to the statements of many prominent scientists. This is how K. Marx treated this issue: "Every start is difficult, - this truth is valid for each science .... Why is it so? Because the developed body is easier to study than a cell cell. In addition, when analyzing economic forms it is impossible to use a microscope, Neither chemical reagents. And the other should notice the power of abstraction. "
For the thing we buy and call the product (TV, car), we do not see the production process of this thing, nor the features of costs for the creation of this thing, neither the process of movement of this thing from the manufacturer to the trade organization, and then to the consumer. However, this thing all this "knows", and our task is to know this thing in its content as a product that includes all the variety of relationships between the creators of this thing from the beginning of its origin before purchasing a complete type in the form of this product, the goods.
The main features of the method of scientific knowledge of economic processes.The general approach to the study of natural and public sciences is reduced to the following principles:
1) the study is subject to objective facts, phenomena;
2) the study process involves the dismemberment of complex processes into parts, consideration of each of which makes it possible to learn the properties and special features of the parts of their interaction with each other;
3) the method of penetration into the characteristic features of the subjects studied, phenomena, processes are the movement of thought from a simple, separate, complex, universal (induction) or vice versa from the total to separate (deduction).
However, in addition to general research methods, social sciences, including economic theory, is characterized by special features. These features of Western economists see that the identified principles of research are used in different ways, depending on whether they include macroeconomics or microeconomics.
"Macroeconomic studies of various economic problems cover the analysis of such values \u200b\u200bas the total volume of products, the overall level of employment, the total income volume, total costs, the overall level of prices, etc.
In microeconomic studies, operate with terms: a separate industry, a company and a household, and focus on such quantities such as the production or price of a particular product, or the income of a separate company or a separate household, the expenditures of this company or family, etc. ", so characterizes the peculiarity Methodology Economist Campbell R. Macconell and Stanley L. M.
When considering the peculiarities of the methodology of economic theory, scientists widely use the so-called historical approach in the characterization of economic systems.
The economic systems themselves are characterized by a set of production relations that correspond to the level of development of productive forces, since the company's productive forces are in constant change. These changes most often occur under the influence of the requirements and needs of the development of the material conditions of society.
If the organizational and technical bases of production are changed, and socio-economic conditions are changed. Under these conditions, many economic relations of people in the process of production, distribution, exchange and consumption of material goods are also changed. This is due to the weakening of durable, traditional economic ties and relations and the emergence of new ones. Based on these changes, it is possible to identify the development trend of certain economic relations, on the basis of which it is possible with a greater or less likelihood to predict measures to successfully overcome difficulties or problems in public, economic, social development programs.
Elements of economic knowledge accumulated with deep antiquity. In the works of the Ancient Chinese thinkers: Confucius (551 - 479 BC), Philosopher Xun Tzu (III century BC). Old Indian "Laws Manu" (IV - III century BC). Ancient Greek thinners xenophon (approx. 430 - 355 BC), Plato (428 - 348 BC), Aristotle (384 - 322 BC). The term "economy" in the scientific turnover was introduced by representatives of an ancient Greek economic thought (xenophon) in the IV century BC. The literal translation of the term means: art, knowledge, set of household rules. Under the household understood private economy. The economic knowledge of the ancient thinkers contained ideas about the economic device, the management methods of the economy in the context of private economy. But the emergence of the economy as science, i.e. Systematized knowledge of the essence, objectives and objectives of economic systems belong to the XVII - XVIII century, the period of the formation of capitalism, which was characterized by:
- - the emergence of manufactory, deepening public division of labor and the evolution of private property, which led to the dynamic development of commodity-money, i.e. market relations;
- - expansion of domestic and foreign markets in the intensification of money circulation;
- - the formation of national states that have become one of the main subjects of the economy, which led to qualitative changes in the development of the economic life of society;
- - the complication of economic processes and the formation of a new social structure of society with characteristic of economic interests.
These processes led to the formation of a market management system, the formation of a national economy, which required a scientific research and a systematic description of the economic activities of people, caused the emergence of the first scientific economic schools, to which: mercantilism, a school of physiocrats, a classic school, Marxism, margins.
Mercantilism- First Economic School (representatives of A. Monsnovn, T. Men, J.B. Kolber, J. Locke). The theory arose during the emerging capitalism, the early stage of the initial capital accumulation. Starting with the XIV century. Before the beginning of the XVII century. In the economy there was a gradual displacement of natural economy in commodity. The trade capital acquires crucial importance. Mercantilists (XV - XIX centuries) expressed the interests of merchants.
Antoine Monkeyen introduced the term "political economy" to scientific circulation with the release of his book "Treatise of political economy" in 1615. Political savings are literally translated as laws of management within the state (NA in a separate slave-owned or urban economy, like Aristotle, namely state). The emergence of this term at the time is due to the growing role of the state in the initial accumulation of capital and in foreign trade. Mercantilists substantiated the need for the protectionist role of the state in relation to domestic merchant. The influx of money into the country on the basis of non-equivalent metabolism, in their opinion, requested the promotion and support from the state, and their outflow from the country is limitations. The main objects of the study of mercantlers were the sphere of appeal, trade, and the economy, the economy was considered as an object of government. The source of richness in mercantistists is foreign trade, due to non-equivalent foreign trade exchange, i.e. Sphere appeal. The richness itself was identified with gold and silver money. Hence the name of this teaching, for the mercantile in translation means money. Mercantilists - CateCap category discovers. Trade capital was the first separate free form of capital, bringing goods and income. They are identified money and capital.
Late mercantlers have already understood the importance of the internal production (manufacturing industry) for the prosperity of the country: the incentive of national production activates foreign trade.
With the development of capitalism, trade capital has ceased to be predominant in society, and trade has ceased to be considered the main source of wealth. Her place was taken by the sphere of production. From the middle of the XVII century, the capitalist economy moves with manufacturing on the machine basis of development. Not all thinkers-economists considered money the only form of wealth, and their source - the sphere of circulation, trade. Economic thought began to turn to the analysis of production.
PhysiCrats(F. Kene, A. Turgo, V. Mirabo, P. Buagilber). "Fiction" is the power of nature. The school of physiocrats was formed in France in the middle of the XVIII century. The founder of this direction of Francois Kene (1694 - 1774), the main work "Economic Table" (1758). The source of wealth physiocrats consider production, not exchange. But they were identified by the sphere of production only with agriculture and suffered a study on the origin of profits from the sphere of appeal to the scope of agricultural production. The strength of nature and the work of a free peasant is the creators of wealth. True wealth is the National Assembly money, and raw products suitable for the use of man. Money for them was performed only by the function of the appeal, they themselves are "fruitless". Artisans and industrialists they considered the unproductive class, because The vehicle was only transformed by agriculture and NA products participated in the creation of a "pure product", TS new wealth. The views of the physiocrats on the capital reflected the era of early small-handed production with the decisive role of the Earth and Agricultural Labor: these are funds in the agricultural production.
Classical political economyfinally, and comprehensively transferred research to the sphere of production, marked the beginning of the labor theory of value. The subject of research becomes material production and increase its effectiveness. The most vivid representatives are William Petty (1623 - 1687), Adam Smith (1723 - 1790), David Ricardo (1772 - 1823). Their main works - W. Petty "Treatise on taxes and fees" (1662), "Something about money", "political arithmetic"; A. Smith "Research on the nature and causes of the wealth of peoples" (1776); D. Ricardo "The Beginning of Political Savings and Tax Cover" (1817) - formed the economy as science, laid the foundations of modern economic theory.
William Petty's teaching is a transitional bridge from mercantilism to classic science. In the second half of the XVII century, William Petty expressed the idea that the source of public wealth is the work and land that the wealth of the people may increase and without increasing money. He first put forward the labor theory of value.
Adam Smith entered the story as the founder of classical political economy. He turned this science into a slim knowledge system: developed the most important categories of labor theory of value, showed the importance of the division of labor, as the conditions for increasing its productivity, created income exercises, principles for constructing a tax system. Entered the division of society into classes - hired workers, capitalists, land owners. A. Smith interpreted the profit as "deduction from the work of the workers' work." Capital A. Smith characterized as accumulated work as stock of things or money. Production capital is capital engaged in material production in general, and not only in agriculture. He considered wealth the set of objects that satisfy the needs of people, the main source of wealth - human labor, and capital is a significant condition for the "application of labor". The main engine of economic life A. Smith did not consider not money, not the forces of nature, but the human work attached to the materials delivered by nature.
David Riccardo showed that the income of various classes (wages, profits, percentage, rent) is the work of the worker, revealed the mechanism of differential rent. They are proposed to the exercises on the good, cost, production costs, pricing, distribution of income, comparative advantages of international division of labor. D. Ricardo defined the capital as follows: "Capital has that part of the country's wealth that is consumed in production and consists of food, clothing, tools, raw materials, machinery and other things. Necessary to bring in the work of work. " From the point of view of the classics of the English political economy, capital is interpreted as the category of eternal, inherent in all times and peoples.
In the works of classics, the economic and social aspects of social development are combined: the studies of production relations were carried out in close connection with the productive forces - the development of agriculture, manufactory, industry.
In the second half of the XIX century, political savings broke into two directions: Marxist (proletarian) and bourgeois.
Proletarian political economyshe became a continuation of classical political economy. Karl Marx (1818 - 1883), together with Friedrich Engels (1820 - 1895), created theoretical concept, which received the generalized name of Marxism or the theory of scientific socialism (communism). The main work of K.Marks "Capital" (T.1 - 1867) made it one of the greatest economists of the world, along with A. Smith. K. Marx formulated the doctrine of public economic formations, the reasons for their shift, revealed the laws of development of capitalism, its internal source of self-duration (contradiction). Marx assigned a decisive role to economic relations in the formation of society and the state. He discovered the decisive role of material production in their development, investigated the essence of wage labor. Developed the theory of reproduction and economic crises, production prices, the doctrine of the dual character of labor embodied in the product; Entities of waged labor, revealed the essence of absolute rent.
K. Marx examined the capitalist method of production and the corresponding relationship of production and exchange, the economic laws of capitalism. Theory of surplus value is the main thing in the teaching of Marx. Its production is achieved by operating the proletariat. Profit is the transfused form of surplus value, considered as the deportation of all advanced capital. Assignment of part of the unpaid labor of hired workers is one of the most important laws of the functioning of the market economy, a source of increasing the richness of capitalists. Marxist theory interprets the cost as a result of only labor in its abstract expression.
K. Marx in the work "Capital" so determines the wealth of capitalist formation: "The wealth of societies in which the capitalist production method dominates is a huge accumulation of goods, and a separate product - its elementary form. The goods have an external thing - a thing that satisfies any human needs, by virtue of the properties. "
Capital is inseparable from those public relations in which entrepreneurial activities are carried out. K. Marx approached the capital interpretation as a social character category. By Marx capital is the value that brings the surplus value, TS It is a self-expressive cost by assigning the unpaid part of the working time of hired workers. No value is in itself capital. To become them, it should serve as a means of self-exploration of wealth in one form or another. The main criterion for saving wealth is its growth of NA based on the personal labor of the owner.
The process of capital accumulation will end in the death of capitalism as a result of the aggravation of class struggle, because Contradictions of capitalism are so serious (between the proletariat and capitalists, accumulation and consumption, the organization of labor at a separate enterprise and anarchy on the scale of society) that the market mechanism cannot cope with them. The economic teaching of K. Marx is classified, defending and protecting the interests of workers.
Economy is a special sphere of public life. The main purpose of the economy is to create wealth capable of satisfying the material needs of people. People not only participate in economic relations, but also send their efforts to understand the nature of these relations and the laws of their development. Therefore, economic science arose.
The definition of the subject of economic theory or "economy" as a scientific discipline has undergone significant changes during historical development. Initially, having emerged in an antique society as "savings" - the science of housekeeping or household, in the medieval period, the economy became largely in the science of wealth, to the science of activities related to the exchange and monetary transactions between people.
But, of course, neither an antique world nor a medieval society had an economic theory in the strict sense of the word: economic knowledge was the nature of the regulatory (that is, we prescribe a certain line of behavior) of ideas about individual parties to human activity.
Only the XVIII century was marked by the appearance of the first holistic economic concept, not only prescribing, but also analytic. However, the transformation of the economy over the centuries from this moment in the mature scientific discipline has not led to the complete unification of points of view on what is the subject of economic theory.
In the XVIII century A number of economists, including Coklen, expressed the idea that the subject of political economy (economic theory) is the public relations created by labor, and the laws that this work is subordinated. She received the greatest distribution among the Russian economists of the beginning of the XX century. Much for this did G.V. Plekhanov. He not only determined the subject of political economy as a science on the development of production relations, but also made a significant refinement, distinguishing actual production relations - socio-economic, property, property relations, and relations production and organizational, relating to the public organization of productive forces, and highlighting contradictions Inside the system of public production relations.
Representatives of the first school of political economy - mercantilists reflecting the interests of the era of the initial accumulation of capital, the subject of scientific research was wealth. Trade was announced source of wealth, the richness itself was identified by them more often with money.
The school of physiocrats suffered a subject of political economy. National wealth from the sphere of appeal to the sphere of production. It was the greatest achievement of economic science, although they mistakenly considered the source of "wealth" only agriculture.
Representatives of the English classical political economy school expanded its subject to study the terms of production and accumulation (A. Smith), as well as the distribution (D. Ricardo) of the national wealth created in all sectors of material production, which included: industry, construction, agriculture, forestry farm, etc.
A similar opinion on the subject of political economy is also adhered to individual modern Western economists, considering it as a science on the production, distribution and consumption of national wealth. But the understanding of the latter in the process of historical development of economic thoughts has changed. Initially, national wealth was represented in the form of money, then in the form of the result of production, and today the human intelligence, information as the sources of the future society, are also included in national wealth.
In the famous textbook P. Samuelson "Economics" among many definitions of the subject of economic theory, it is indicated that the economy is the science of everyday business life and activities of people.
Even earlier, A. Marshall determined the subject of economic theory, or political economy as a study of the normal life of human society: the study of wealth and partly man, more precisely, incentives for the action and motives of opposition. This definition emphasizes the role of a person in the economy.
In modern economic literature, an understanding of the subject of economic theory as the study of "rarity", limited resources is common. So, J. Robinson writes that political economy is a science that studies the behavior of people as a relationship between goals and limited means of alternative ways of application.
All definitions of economic theory as science reveal its subject from different sides, because various aspects of human activity are taken as a basis, including economic, which does not allow him to give it a brief and at the same time a comprehensive definition.
However, if we take into account that most modern economists recognize the economic theory of universal science on the problems of choosing resources and the economic behavior of a person, the most common and correct can be considered the definition of economic theory, this A.I. Dobrynin.
General economic theory- This is a social science that studies the behavior of people and groups in the production, distribution and consumption of material benefits to meet the needs for limited resources, which generates competition for their use.
Economic theoryhe studies the interaction of people in the process of finding effective ways to use limited production resources in order to meet the material needs of society. This definition contains features, inevitably contained almost in any similar definition:
Indication on the public, humanitarian nature of the economy as a scientific discipline (people or society decide on the use of these limited resources);
Indication of limited resources with which society has;
An indication of the fact that under the solution of this kind of question, it is understood that the definition of what, as for whom to produce.
Economic theory structurally includes microeconomics(the behavior of individual economic entities) and macroeconomic(behavior or functioning of the national economic system as a whole). It can also select mesoeconomic(the behavior of certain subsystems of the national economy or sectors of the national economy) and super Macroeconomics(The behavior of the global economy as a whole).
When studying the subject of economic theory, it is advisable to allocate its more clear understanding:
1) the scope of research - economic life or environment in which economic activity is carried out;
2) the object of research - economic phenomena;
3) the subject of the study is a person, a group of people, the state;
4) The subject of research is the vital activity of the "economic person", groups of people and the state and their behavior in the economic environment.
It is important to emphasize that the main taskeconomic theory - not only a description of economic phenomena, but show their relationship and interdependence, i.e., to reveal the system of economic phenomena, processes and laws. This is its difference from specific economic disciplines.
The regulatory economy is a direction in economic science, based on appraisal judgments as to which the economy should be, the goals of economic development and economic policy.
A positive economy means an analysis of the facts on the basis of which the principles of economic behavior are formulated.
The specifics of the economy as social science manifests itself in the fact that, in contrast to accurate (natural) disciplines, an experiment confirming or refuting theoretical constructions is impossible in it. The reason for this is the impossibility of accurate accounting of the whole manifold of national, geographical, historical, psychological features, determining, ultimately, the result of a particular economic impact. The impossibility of accounting for all factors defining the result makes the easiest of the possibility of playing them.
But with all this, the economy gives an understanding of the general dependencies of the functioning of the economic system, allows you to answer a number of questions:
1) What is preferable: the introduction of quantitative restrictions on imports to protect internal manufacturers or an increase in customs tariffs;
2) as reflected at the price level, the introduction of taxes or the selection of subsidies;
3) As the activities of trade unions affect the labor market, to change the production technology, etc.
At the same time, the wording of the answers will be less rigid than in the natural sciences, but they will characterize the general direction of economic processes quite fully. The tool for obtaining this kind of results in economic studies is economic models.
The theoretical economy teaches to understand the complex economic world, produces an economic type of thinking. Economic thinking means making rational solutions based on costs of costs and benefits.
Economic theory is a methodological foundation of a whole complex of sciences: sectoral (trade economics, industry, transport, construction, etc.); functional (finance, credit, marketing, management, forecasting, etc.); inter-sectoral (economic geography, demography, statistics, etc.).
Economic theory is one of the social sciences, along with history, philosophy, right, etc. It is designed to reveal one part of social phenomena in human activity, and only a combination of theoretical, social and historical sciences is able to explain the functioning of public life.
Economic theory takes into account the knowledge embedded in specific economic sciences, as well as sociology, psychologists, history, etc., without taking into account the conclusions obtained by it may be erroneous.
The connection of economic theory with other economic sciences in the most general form can be represented as the following scheme (Fig. 1.1).
Fig.1.1. Communication of economic theory with economic sciences
Practical significanceeconomic theory (Famous formula O. Control) is that knowledge leads to anticipation, and the foresight is to action. Economic theory should underlie the economic policy, and through it - to permeate the area of \u200b\u200beconomic practice. The action (practice) leads to knowledge, knowledge - to anticipation, foresight - to the right action. The course of economic theory is a guide to the knowledge of economic reality without the proclamation of a monopoly on the truth.
In the economy, as in any other area of \u200b\u200bpublic life, and in nature, through the external chaos and the rag of chance, the path of development is lagging. Economic processes in society are managed by the internal, laws inherent in them - the laws of public actions of people, or economic laws. The law and the essence are homogeneous and express an in-depth knowledge of the man of phenomena occurring in the world. The phenomenon is wider, richer law, but the law catches the inner essence of the phenomenon.
The law is a steady, durable, repeated phenomenon and expression of the internal, substantial, necessary, causal, permanent, universal, qualitative and quantitative relationship (relationship) characteristic of this phenomenon or process.
Economic laws in their aggregate form system of Economic Laws of the Company's Developmentwhich includes various groups and types of laws.
Economic laws are classified according to the following groups (depending on their historical sustainability):
1) Specific Economic Laws - These are the laws of development of specific, historically defined forms of management. For example, distribution laws in slavery, serfdom, etc.;
2) Special Economic Laws - These are laws peculiar to those historical epochs where conditions are preserved for their action. For example, the law of value (valuable);
3) General Economic Laws - Laws peculiar to everyone without exception to historical epochs. They express the progressive process of the development of social production. For example, the law of saving time, the law of elevation (ascending) needs, the law of distribution of social labor.
Economic laws themselves, however, do not work, economic progress is not automatically implemented. This requires the actions of people, and they are given in motion by their needs and interests.
Economic theory (political economy) studies not only objective, but also subjective forms of manifestation of existing objective socio-production relations, not only the specific forms of manifestation of economic interests, but also their clash, reflecting the internal contradictions and the struggle of opposites, as well as the ability of their permission.
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by discipline: Introduction to economic theory
1. The subject and methods of economic theory
1.1 Economy and Economic Theory
1.2 Main directions and schools of economic theory
1.3 Subject of Economic Theory
1.4 Methods for studying economic phenomena
1.5 Functions of economic theory
2. Public economy as an object of economic theory
2.1. Economy as a economic system
2.2. Needs - People's Economic Activities
2.3 benefits, their usefulness and types
2.4. Production. Distribution, exchange and consumption of production results
3. Production factors and their use
3.1 Earth as a factor of production
3.2 Work as a factor of production
3.3 Capital as a factor of production
3.4 Production capabilities of societies and their implementation
4. Economic relations in the public economy
4.1 Types of ties and relations in the economic system
4.2. Property and its place in the system of economic relations
4.3 Economic interests and economic mechanism
5. Types of public farms
1. The subject and methods of economic theory
1.1 Economics and Economic Theory
For studying economic disciplines, the word "economy" is key. In the frequency of mention at lectures, practical classes, in the educational literature it is an undisputed leader. And in everyday life, this word is consumed quite often, which is quite explained. After all, the economy largely determines the life of each person and the state of the whole society.
History indicates that for the first time this concept used the ancient Greek scientist Xenophon (OK.430-355 BC). It was derived from two Greek words; "Okos" - house, economy and "nomos" law, rule. Under the economy, Xenophon understood the science of laws, or the rules, the management of the economy, which in those days was presented as homemade. Xenophon in the works "about income" and "economy" gave the start of the scientific economy. In his research, the economy is divided into branches with the allocation of agriculture, handicrafts, trade, the idea of \u200b\u200bthe feasibility of labor separation is expressed.
Plato develops an idea of \u200b\u200bthe division of labor. Expressing a number of considerations about the specialization of labor and the peculiarities of different types of work, analyzes the circle of key professions in the farm and employment by professional labor.
The genuine titanium of economic u3 of antiquity can be called Aristotle (384-322 BC). In his famous treatises, "politics" and "ethics", for the first time in the history of mankind, he examines economic processes and phenomena abstractly, that is, in order to detect general patterns in them. In the approach of Aristotle, the economy is considered as a combination of universal rules, following which, you can achieve the increase in wealth. The ideal of the farm in Aristotle was natural economic systems, on which the work of slaves was applied ("talking instruments of labor"). Wealth was perceived as a totality of products, products produced in these farms. Upon other way of equal terms, one natural economic education was richer than another, depending on how much land and slaves it included. Therefore, the optimal way to achieve wealth was, first of all, the seizure of new territories and slaves with the subsequent rational organization of their labor.
At the same time, Aristotle understood that modern farm was developing only thanks to the exchange, trade, acquiring the traits of the cash economy. To describe these specific problems associated with money and trade, Aristotle proposed a new scientific direction - "Hrematics" - the art of making money.
The Great Greek believed that the development of exchange, trade contrary to the ideal type of development, and precisely - natural economy. Aristotle believed that naturalization of economic life should be the aspen direction of economic development. Trading should be carried out only to obtain missing products by "fair exchange" with neighbors.
Aristotle under the economy began to mean not only science, but also the economy as an object of study by the economy as a science.
The economy today includes the activities of the government, consumers, households, enterprises and other economic entities that make decisions about the production, consumption, exchange and distribution
The evolutionary development of human society imposed a fingerprint to the interpretation of the concept of the term "economy".
The economy is a combination of funds, items, things of the material and spiritual world used by people in order to ensure the living conditions and customer satisfaction.
This definition represents the economy as a created livestock system, aimed at maintaining and improving the conditions of existence.
The economy is a science, a totality of knowledge about the economy and activities of people to ensure everything necessary in the context of resources limited.
The economy is a relationship arising between people in connection with the processes of production, distribution, exchange and consumption of goods and services.
The conditions of globalization presenting new requirements for the conditions of economic entities of the economy, formulated a new definition of the economy.
It seems like a science of household and relationships between people in the process of economic management, aimed at obtaining and using means of existence and satisfying vital needs.
Thus, the economy is represented not only as the types of economic activity of people who allow them to provide themselves to material conditions for life on Earth, but also as a science of household and management and relations between people in the process of management, as well as, as a discipline that studies in Just a society with limited resources decides that, as for whom to produce.
The first concept expresses the essence, goals and objectives of a specific applied economy.
The second concept expresses the essence, goals and objectives of human relations in the economy.
All other concepts of "economy" are derived from the main. For example, "Economics of the industry", "Economics of the enterprise", "Education Economics", "Family Economics", etc. Derivative concepts in differentiated form reflect the essence of the main and have a targeted nature indicating their specificity. That is, the economy includes the activities of the government, households, enterprises.
Essentially, economic science appears as a totality of sciences studying both the economy as a whole and its individual and component parts.
Any science form two components: theory and practice. These components mutually determine each other - the theory without practicing is dead, practice without the theory of blind.
Theory as such is a knowledge system that gives a holistic idea of \u200b\u200bsome object or phenomenon. Economic theory is a system of knowledge of the economy as a farm. These knowledge is scientific, as they are clothed in certain ideas, positions, formulas, categories and concepts. So, starting to study the economic theory, the student thus sets the task: to master the economic theory as the basis of all economic science, which gives a general idea of \u200b\u200bthe economy as a human activity.
It would be better to call our course of "general economic theory", as more private, specific economic sciences have their theory; dealing with finance issues, loan, accounting, banking. General economic theory is the basis of specific economic theories. The latter is difficult to learn without knowledge of the general theory. An important feature of specific economic disciplines is their close relationship with practice, since their main purpose is to teach working in a certain field of economics: in the banking sector, in the field of management, accounting, etc. That is why these sciences are also called applied.
General economic theory is also associated with practice. This connection is carried out primarily through specific economic disciplines, as they are based on a common economic theory. In addition, she gives knowledge that can come in handy in life. Say, economic theory does not teach specific ways with which you can have a lot of money, but it explains what money is as used in the economy, as they can increase their number - in a word, gives knowledge, useful for those who are someone or another A way will have to "make" money.
Economic theory is necessary for those who make economic decisions, conducts economic policies at the micro level - the level of a separate enterprise or on the macro level - the level of the entire national economy. At the same time, it helps to make the right decisions not only from the point of view of the interests of a separate person, but also the entire economy as a whole, the interests of most people. This suggests that economic theory is social science.
1.2 Main directions and schools of economic theory
Once economic science is related to practice, with life, then changes in this life require appropriate reflection in science. This kind of change shows well the history of the development of society and economic science.
Although economic science arose in ancient times, she did not stand out in an independent discipline for a long time and only at the beginning of the XV century, with the beginning of the formation in Europe of the capitalist economy, it began to stand out in a separate science. The fact is that the capitalist economy is based on market relations, which at that time began to develop intensively, destroying feudal differences, complicating economic ties.
The feudal system is characterized by private property on the means of production and partial on the products of labor and man. The level of development of productive forces is determined by the use of simple mechanisms that make it wider to use the forces of nature and animals (water wheel with drive, windmills, etc.).
Capitalist system is initially characterized mainly by private property on the means of production and labor products and by the end of the 20th century by the combination of public and private ownership with a significant proportion of state. The level of development of productive forces is determined by the widespread use of machinery and the forces of nature and the relevant knowledge and skills of people.
The complexity of economic phenomena demanded the development of economic science to the level on which it could understand and explain these phenomena, to give answers to the issues liftedly.
The first scientific school of economic theory was mercantilism. The term mercantilism (from the Italian word "Mercante" - a merchant, merchant) introduced into appeal to the XVII English economist Adam Smith. Binding at the end of the 15th century, this school reached a heyday in the era of the late Middle Ages, during the decomposition of feudalism and the origin of capitalism (in the XVII century), undermining the natural economy and the rapid growth of trade and commercial capital. Before the Renaissance of the European Culture, the view of the hero-conqueror as an incarnation of virtues, an ideal for imitation, was widespread. Successful raid on someone else's territory, robbery and ruin on the morality of that time was considered as an acceptable and legal method of enrichment. This tradition, released from antiquity, successfully operated in the Middle Ages. The Renaissance spoke new approaches to many socio-economic processes, including the idea of \u200b\u200bwealth and sources of its origin. Social ideals changed: no longer a warrior conqueror, but a lucky merchant, artisan, artist. The theoretical concept, which later substantiated the shift in the public consciousness, became mercantilism. Mercantilism reflected some of the social consciousness of that era that fixes money as the main and often the only component of material well-being and wealth.
The main feature of the mercantilism school is to limit the research object of the scope. Essentially, economic activity has reduced it to trade, trade activities. We presented the mercantilism schools - the British of U. Stafford (1554-1612) and T.men (1571-1641), the Frenchman Antoine de Monkeyen (1519-1584), Scotland D. Sheau (1677-1729), Italians Skaruffy (1575- 1621) and A.Jiewonese (1712-1769).
A similar limitation of mercantilism is not accidental, since this school has developed during the period of intensive trading, especially international. At the same time, the formation of capitalism and the dominant public idea was the idea of \u200b\u200benrichment, so the economic theory should have answered questions: what is wealth? Where does it come from? What are its sources?
Mercantilists gave these questions regarding ordinary answers: wealth is embodied in money (the role of which at that time was performed) and its source is trade. Of course, this approach to wealth and its sources was superficial. Modern economic theory says that wealth is embodied in various benefits and through their buy-selling wealth is not created, but redistributed. The main ideas of the theory and politicians of mercantilism: the need for state regulation of the economy, the policy of protectionism and ensuring the accumulation of money in the country due to the active balance of payments. Protectionism - the economic policy of the state contributing to the development of the national economy through its fencing from foreign competition (import restriction)
Two forms of mercantilism are distinguished: early XV - XVI century and late XVI - XVII century
Early mercantilism was subsequently the name of monetarism (or monetary system), since it was based on the theory of "Monetary Balance". Monetarism is the theory, exaggerating the role of money in the economy. During this period there was a process of creating centralized states, the elimination of feudal fragmentation in Europe. Frequent wars demanded regular armies and led to the need for a constant replenishment of the state treasury. Therefore, the economic policy of governments during this period wore a pronounced fiscal character. Successful taxation of taxes could be ensured only by creating such a system in which individuals were forbidden to export precious metals beyond the state. Foreign merchants were obliged to spend all the revenue received from the sale of their goods to acquire local goods, the emission of money was indicated by the state monopoly.
In accordance with the theory of "Monetary Balance" to increase money in the country, administrative measures were offered: a ban on the export of money from the country, the restriction of imports to save money, high duties for the import of goods, enhancing gold mining. Such a policy of harsh regulation, restrictions and prohibitions have dragged the development of international trade and generated non-propulsive economic nationalism among countries. Noting this circumstance, the German Socialist Engels wrote: "The nation was stood against each other, as the souls, clasping the money bag dear to them, with envy and suspiciously looking at their neighbors" (Т.1 644)
Late mercantilism was built on the theory of "Trade Balance". Representatives of this school argued that the wealth of society is gold and silver. But the paths of this wealth were already looking for not in the primitive accumulation of treasures, but in the development of foreign trade and the active trade balance due to export over imports. It was believed that the state becomes richer than the difference between the cost of exported and imported goods. This situation could be provided in two ways. First, the removal of finished products is encouraged and the export of raw materials is limited and imported luxury goods. Secondly, the development of intermediary activities was stimulated for which the export of money abroad was allowed. At the same time, it was considered necessary to buy as much as possible in some fear and sell as expensive as possible in others.
The main direction of the economic policy of late Merkitilists is to determine the indirect role of the state in the development of industry and trade. That is, the use is not administrative, but economic management methods.
Administrative methods suggest a direct impact on all economic processes occurring in the activities of business entities (legislation and regulations, the state system of social security and insurance, employment regulation, government planning).
Administrative techniques significantly limit the freedom of economic selection, reducing it to zero. At the same time, administrative methods, suppressing individual economic freedom, are fully justified if they are used in cases where the maximum freedom of some subjects turns into severe losses for other subjects and market economy.
Areas in which the use of administrative methods is considered necessary: \u200b\u200bharsh monopoly markets, regulation of external effects and their consequences, developing environmental standards, identifying and maintaining the minimum permissible parameters of the well-being of the population, protection of national interests in the system of world economy.
Economic methods are expressed in indirect impact on the activities of business entities, due to prone, the freedom of choice remains the regime of market mechanisms. (state order, sale by state-owned enterprises of their goods and services, budget policy, credit policy, monetary policy, tax levers). The mercantlers of this period realized that "Capital, motionlessly lying in the chest dead, whereas in circulation he is constantly increasing" (Engels T.1 Article 544).
The most reliable way to attract money to the country is the active development of foreign trade, that is, the development of the production of export goods and the course to excess their export over the importation.
Vulnerable places of representatives of mercantilism is that:
The core of the economy, they considered the appeal, and the wealth of the nation is money.
Production was considered as "necessary evil" as the expansion of trade and ensure the inflow of money into the country,
Appeal - the secondary and without production does not make sense of its implementation,
The genuine material wealth of society is the abundance and variety of consumption products, which can only be produced. The source of wealth is the production,
The slowdown and decay of the production-oriented industries.
The merit - for the first time marked the essence and formulated the source of obtaining surplus value by implementing the non-equivalent exchange in the field of circulation to obtain an additional profit.
Mantilism developed the ideology of commercial capital. Meanwhile, as capital is not just an economic resource in the form of funds, but as the amount of material and intellectual agents used to carry out entrepreneurial activities.
In general, the mercantilistic policy of the states was quite productive for many centers, but gradually led to serious confrontation between the countries competing in the foreign market led to mutual restrictions on trade.
Capitalism, developing, "grown in industry." Therefore, mercantilistic theories soon began to interfere with strengthening the positions of industrial bourgeoisie and the development of industry as a whole. New ideas that are based on the primary importance of production for society were required.
It was at that time noted in the XVIII century a school of economic theory of the school of physiocrats (from the Greek words "F-ZIO" - Nature and "Short" - power, power). PhysiCrats are representatives of the French school of classical political economy, who spent for the power of nature, for the priority of agriculture in the economy of P. Biagilber (1623-1687), F. Cane (1694-1774).
Perfectly indicating the production as a source of wealth, physiocirates, at the same time, limited the sphere of production by agriculture, taken away all other sectors of the economy to unproductive, that is, not creating wealth. The limitations of physiocrats was due to the fact that wealth they were identified with the substance of nature: if it increases, it means that wealth increases. So, if one wheat grain planted to the ground gives a spacing with 100 grains, it means that wealth increases 100 times. If you make flour from the grain, and then bake bread, then wealth will not increase - it simply changes its real form. Obviously, physiocrats did not separate economic phenomena from natural processes, believing that society is managed by the same "natural" laws as natural communities.
F. Beneh argued that "among all means for acquiring property there is no one that would be better for a person, more profitable, more pleasant and more profitable, even more decent to a free person than agriculture." The main work of F.Kene "Economic Table" (1758) contains a scheme of separation of society into three main classes:
Productive class of farmers;
Class of land owners;
Proflity class - people employed in agriculture.
The school of physiocrats laid the beginning of solving the problem of economic laws. Economic laws express sustainable, constantly repeating links and relationships of economic phenomena.
The objective nature of economic laws is manifested in their independent of the will and consciousness of a person's impact.
Economic laws are divided into general and specific.
General economic laws operate in all or several methods of production (law saving time and law of value)
Specific economic laws are valid within one method of production. After his replacement, they stop existence (the law of competition, the law of anarchy of production).
For the development of the economy, it is important to know which laws in which directions and how to act. It is important to know which activities of people require these laws, and act according to their requirements. If the requirements of economic laws are complied with, the economy will successfully develop, if not being observed, the economy will not develop and can even collapse,
An integral part of the economic theory of physiocrats is the idea of \u200b\u200bgovernment non-interference in the natural course of economic life.
J.Turgo in writing "Reflections on the creation and distribution of wealth" (1776) argues that a pure product (the difference between the products that agriculture gives and products that are used to produce this product during the year) is made not only in agriculture , but also in industry. Class structure of society according to Keeurgo is more complicated than in Kene, since inside each class there is differentiation: "Berenchard Class" is divided into a class of entrepreneurs and hired workers. J.Turgo is laid by the scientific basis for analyzing wages of employees, which minimizes the means of existence as a result of competition between employees of employees in the labor market. The formulation of the "Law of the Reduction of Land Product" was a major contribution of J.Turgo to the development of economic science, according to which an increase in the application of labor to the Earth leads to the fact that each subsequent labor costs turns out to be less productive, that is, the law of decreasing soil fertility is operating in modern economic Theories are interpreted as a law of decreasing performance.
The second half of the XVIII century - the period of the formation of capitalism and the first half of the XIX century - the transition to engine production has created prerequisites for the appearance of the next school - school of classical political economy associated with the names of English economists A.Purgo (1727-1781), A. Smita (1723-1790 GG.) And D.Rikardo (1772-1823), made it possible to derive production as a source of wealth beyond agriculture. The greatest merit of classics is that they put in the center of the economy and economic research work as creative strength and costs as an embodiment of value, thereby putting the beginning of the labor theory of value.
According to this theory, wealth has a real embodiment and is measured by the value of the cost generated by labor. Wealth is created there, labor converts the substance of nature into the goods you need.
A. Smith, formed a system of arguments that substantiate the need to limit the role of the state as a "night guard" for an economic jerk that uses the effect of free competition.
From the middle of the nineteenth century, the development of political economy went in two directions: one can be called political economy of capital, and the other - the political economy of labor.
The first direction of political economy moved from the idea of \u200b\u200blabor as the only source of value and wealth. Along with him, the role of capital and land was distinguished. The political economy of capital was named bourgeois, because it reflected the interests of the bourgeoisie as the owner of capital and land.
In the conditions of exacerbation of the classic struggle between labor and capital, philosophical and economic theories arose on the side of the working class. The most common of them in the middle of the XIX century was the doctrine of society, which entered the story as Marxism called.
The second direction of political economy remains in the positions of the labor theory of value. Since its development is associated with the works of K. Marks (1818-1883), F. Enteles (1820-1895), V.I. Lenin (1870-1924). This direction began to be called Marxist political economy. She reflected the interests of the working class, the only source of the existence of which is labor,
Marxists argued that the basis of capitalist private society is the growing operation of hired labor. The school of classical political economy of labor has identified as a source of receiving the surplus value of the unpaid part of the labor of employees.
In fact, in a market and developed economy, the interests of capital and labor owners are consistent with the operation, the mutually beneficial partnership is conserved.
At the end of the XIX century, the development of this direction led to the emergence of a new economic discipline, called the "Economics". This name is associated with the name of the English economist A. Marshalla (1842-1924), which issued a book in 1890 under the name "Principles of Economics".
An important feature of the economics is that it concentrated on the study of phenomena and processes occurring in a market economy, which is considered "natural", which meets the laws of nature. All other forms appear as a deviation from the "natural" state of affairs. Political economy is distinguished from the economy and the fact that the market economy is considered as one of the forms of the farm, which is transient and at a certain stage of its development inferior to the planned economy.
It is quite clear that when in the early 90s. In Russia, there was a refusal of planning and transition to a market economy, the political economy began to be crowded out by the economy. However, the complete displacement of the political economy did not happen, as it was discovered by the narrowness of the economy, which was not able to answer the answers to their questions, first of all, questions about the reasons for the deterioration of the economic and social status of the population with the transition to a market economy. Only political economy indicated on the inevitability of such a deterioration. The need for the synthesis of the provisions of the economy, which reveal the content of the market economy, with the provisions of political economy explaining the phenomena that go beyond the understanding of the economics.
Objectively, such a need is due to the fact that in modern conditions there is no country where the economy would be purely market. Therefore, the main object of research of economic theory is a mixed economy in which the market has an important, but comprehensive value. The main ideas of the mixed economy were reflected in the school of neoclassicism (70s of the XIX century).
Basic ideas: a private-winning system is capable of self-regulating and maintaining economic equilibrium; The state should not interfere in the competitive market mechanism, it should only create favorable conditions for its action. For example, one of the neoclassical modifications is the theory of "rational expectations" - justifies the ineffectiveness of state regulation of the economy as follows: Economic entities acting as participants in economic processes are able to rather accurately "calculate" the course of changing economic conditions and rationally foresee the possible regulatory activities of the state. Based on the "rational expectations" thus obtained, they take appropriate countermeasures, thereby neutralizing the economic policies of the state, and sometimes disorganizing the country's economy as a whole. This neoclassical direction dominated until the 30s of the XX century.
Wars, crisis, depressed, demanding direct control of the state over the economy, caused the emergence of theoretical concepts of opponents. And the neoclassical direction was changed by Keynesianism named by the English economist J.Kanes (1883-1946).
The synthesis of the main directions of economic theory was particularly clearly manifested in the 40th century, when the neoclassical and Keynesian directions of modern Western economic thought were connected.
The destructive global crisis of 1929-1933. He brought a number of economists to the conclusion that the market is unable to ensure the stability of economic growth and successful solutions to social problems. Therefore, the state should regulate the economy, eliminating crises, providing full employment and high production growth, effective demand,
As a result of active discussions, most economists agreed that the main neoclassical thesis on the sustainability of the market economy as a natural regulator of supply and demand for economic benefits in principle is faithful, but also Keynesian regulation is also necessary in the conditions of violation of economic equilibrium.
1.3 Subject of Economic Theory
Each science takes the other area of \u200b\u200bobjective reality and makes it an object of his research. The economy as science has its own object economy as the area of \u200b\u200bthe economic activity of people. But in the given1 object, different directions of economic science are interested in different directions and sections. This means that they have different research objects.
The economics considers the behavior of people in the economy, determined by their unlimited needs and the limited opportunities to meet these needs. Stating the unlimited needs of people, the economy means people living in a market economy, whose development itself determines the growth of human needs, and the market economy does not just respond to this growth, it provokes it, creating such things in which people have no It was necessary. However, to acquire a huge variety of things that appear on the market is not a single person, even very rich. So each person in the market has to make a choice with regard to its limited opportunities.
In the situation of choice there are those who produce things. Such a choice is again due to the limited resource capabilities of manufacturers. Based on these features, they produce only some types of things in a certain amount. Before each manufacturer, questions arise: what? How many? How to produce? These issues of the economics calls fundamental and the answers refer to the subject of their research. In the future, we learn that these answers are determined by the action of a market mechanism. It turns out that the subject of the economy is the behavior of people as subjects of a market economy.
As for political economy, it considers economic relations with its subject, which arise between people about the production, distribution, exchange and consumption required in society of goods.
Political economy proceeds from the fact that life puts people as social vessels not only before the possibility of choice, but also a necessity at which it does not have to choose. So, to satisfy your needs, people must create the necessary good for this. There is no other choice and they differ from animals that consume that they give them the environment.
This means that people are forced to make production and enter into appropriate relations with each other - relationships about the production of necessary goods. They produced should be distributed among themselves, and if necessary and exchange production results. So between them the distribution and exchange relationship arise. Finally, they must consume produced to satisfy their needs. There are already consumption relationships. The combination of all these relationships is the subject of political economy. Moreover, these relations are considered as objective, subordinate to laws, not dependent on the will and desire of people. The effect of these laws is also the subject of political economy.
The subject of political economy turns out to be wider than the subject of the economy, since relations on the production, distribution, exchange and consumption and the governing laws arise not only in a market economy. After all, the market economy is a stage of the development of society, and political economy considers economic relations at different stages of human history.
Economics analyzes mainly developed market economies, the main attention to the functional relationships and relationships arising between people in the course of their economic functions existing in it. The broad approach of political economy to the system of economic relations determine the allocation of relations between people as representatives of various classes and social groups.
Economic theory, reflecting approaches and provisions, both economics and political economics, has economic relations, which arise between people about limited goods and which determine their behavior of both business entities in the production, distribution, exchange and consumption of these goods,
From this definition, it follows that economic relations are examined by themselves, but in close connection with the benefits, about which they arise, first of all, those that make up the material and technical basis of the Company's productive forces. Since the behavior of people as economic entities is determined not only by economic relations in which they enter, but also ineconomic factors, for example, moralization, level of culture, legislation, the economic theory does not bypass the party and these factors. So her subject turns out to be wider than the economic relations themselves.
The features of the subject of economic theory were reflected in the maintenance of the heads of this manual. It has sufficient attention and benefits that form the material basis of the economy, and phenomena relating to the public superstructure.
1.4 Methods for studying economic phenomena
Each science studies its subject using various methods.
General scientific research methods is a way of knowledge, disclosure of the entity of the object being studied. The system of rules and receptions to the study of economic phenomena, market laws, society and thinking.
The following methods are widely used in economic theory: dialectical materialism; observations; comparison; generalization; experiment; measurement; description; study; analytical and systematic methods: analysis and synthesis; induction; deduction; Mathematical: formalized, axiomatic method, analogy; abstraction (abstraction), modeling; Mathematical modeling method; computer simulation method; foresight; Logical method, historical, dialectical method.
The formation of almost all sciences, including economic, began with the method of observation.
Observation is a method for studying objects and phenomena of objective reality in the form in which they exist and occur in nature and society in natural conditions and are affordable direct perception of man. Observation is a system of fixing and registration of properties and bonds of the object being studied in natural conditions (or in artificial in the experiment). This is the perception of an external objective world, the cognitive capabilities of the observation method depend on the nature and intensity of the sensual perception of the observation facility. Under favorable conditions, this method provides sufficiently extensive and versatile information forming the study base. The functions of this method are as follows: fixation and registration of information; Preliminary classification of scientific facts (volume, novelty, properties); Comparison with what is already known; Comparison with similar facts. Based on the implementation of these functions, guesses first can be formulated, then working hypotheses. Observation is always actively, it is targeted, for what is observed what is practical interest. Watch - it means to notice without affecting the course of events. With the admission of devices, observation is increasingly targeted. If it is necessary to monitor all the volume, and it is small, it will be a general aggregate.
What affects the quality of surveillance, as a result of which information is obtained for conducting research - this is: - accumulated preceding knowledge on the object of study; - mixed devices; - the presence of the monitoring methodology; -these correctly interpret, those. Explain the results of the study.
Comparison is a logical acquaintance of knowledge, which is included in the daily practical life of people. Comparison is the establishment of similarities or differences in phenomena as a whole or in some signs. It is aimed at discovering general and excellent. This is a method that allows you to detect the trends in the overall development of the development process, it is successfully applied in biology, paleontology, history, sociology, economic theory. The objective basis of the comparison method are: one-order entity; general laws; structures of the functioning and development of objects and processes. When using the comparison method, the role of quantitative characteristics is especially large, while a very significant point is the choice of quantitative characteristics so that they are more fully characterized by the essence of compared objects and phenomena. Comparisons allow you to identify, by what features compared concepts are similar and by which different, allow to identify the unreasonableness of identifying phenomena and processes, items. Comparison is the basis of a comparative analysis method. There is an expression "Everything is known in comparison" - it means that the necessary scientific technique. The abundance of facts is not the basis for the conclusions, the facts must be compared, compare, see the general and excellent.
There are two main conditions in order to compare:
1) You can compare only homogeneous concepts that reflect homogeneous items and phenomena - there is a saying "Horses and Ryabchiki", "Pinds and Arches";
2) Compare items need to be compared to such signs that are important.
Each science produces its criteria for comparison, their techniques, for everywhere different research object.
Although this is the most common logical reception, it does not give scientific answers, it is not only to understand the similarity and the difference of it with other phenomena, the essence of the phenomenon should also be understood. The German proverb says "any comparison is lame." If children need to be built in terms of growth and this is not very important, the error in i cm does not play the role-cool and arrange. But if two control style compares, even if both criteria are fulfilled, the answer will always be approximate.
Generalization is a mental allocation of any properties belonging to some class of objects, items and formulating such an output that extends to each individual subject of this class. There is an expression "Even the simplest generalization means the knowledge of the person has an increasingly deeper objective communication of the world." When we are dealing with single objects, there is enough one most essential feature to understand the essence of the concept.
It is more difficult for the situation when it is necessary to obtain the concept of the class of objects. In this case, first finding general features that unite individual representatives of this class, then only those that are substantial for them are selected from these common signs - there is a mental generalization. So, to summarize is to determine the general concept in which the main thing should be reflected. Examples of generalizations: What sciences are you studying now? What is the weather in the Urals in June? Dear dairy products in the city? What teachers are you taught?
To summarize - for some group of concepts to find a more general, widespread concept reflecting the community of these properties. Any generalization should have the basis, those. Properties for which there is a generalization.
The experiment is a system of cognitive operations, which is carried out in relation to objects set in conditions (specially created), which should contribute to detecting, comparison, measure the objective properties, connections, relationships. Experiment is a development base for analysis. There is a laboratory, production and social experiment.
The laboratory experiment is the basis for the formation of the hypotheses and the criteria for the truth of a number of theoretical knowledge.
The economy has an economic experiment (reforms) and sociological. The effectiveness of the experiment in a decisive degree is determined by the depth and comprehensiveness of the substantiation of the conditions for its conduct.
So, the experiment is the study of objects or phenomena by creating artificial, but the conditions close to the reality of their manifestation. The experiment can be model, thought and real.
The model experiment is carried out on a specially developed model reflecting the objective dependencies that exist in the object of the study. This model is specified by separate parameters, and it shows the object changes when they are changed. Different options for such behavior allow you to explain the phenomena, to establish new dependencies, predict trends, especially if it is a computer option. However, the model hides many realities.
A mental experiment is experimenting in thinking, building thinking on the basis of "And what if." Its effectiveness depends on the knowledge, creative abilities of a person, the ability to carry out such an experiment. Here some knowledge give other knowledge, but to a certain limit. This is the essence of a mental experiment.
Measurement as a method is a system of fixation and registration of quantitative characteristics. For technical and biological systems, the measurement is associated with the measurement benchmark, units of measurement, devices. For social systems, the measurement procedure is associated with statistical reporting and planned indicators and units of their measurement. The use of the measurement method requires a comprehensive accounting of the unity of quantitatively and qualitatively aspect of the system being studied, while the knowledge of the qualitative side is possible through the knowledge of quantitative characteristics. For the most efficient use of the measurement method, it is paramount to understand that the measured properties and communication are in motion and the ability to more accurately describe socio-economic processes.
Description - a specific method for obtaining empirical and theoretical knowledge. Its essence is to systematize the data obtained as a result of observation, experiment, measurements. Data is expressed in the language of certain science in the form of tables, schemes, graphs. Systematization of facts allows you to describe the subject as a whole, describing its dependence: which goes consistently, which is simultaneously for what reason that is interconnected, which is mutually exclusive, and so on. Such generalized, systematic, classified, described facts is a basis for further logical operations. At the description level, various dependencies are established, patterns in the form of formulas, graphs, etc., coefficients and charts.
The study method is applied when one person takes as an example.
This method allows us to understand the mechanism of rational economic behavior of a person.
Analytical and systematic methods
Analytical research method, or analysis is a mental dismemberment of the subject, phenomenon, the process to parts, which are then investigated as part of the whole. In the process of development, humanity accumulated these techniques and improved the analysis mechanism, applying it always together with comparison, abstraction, generalization, synthesis. Look at the tree - what is it? And you immediately look at the trunk, branches, bark, fruit and is made a generalization, what is a tree. Over time, these analytical abilities in humanity have increasingly developed. In the process of analysis, the researcher comes from a specific sensual to abstract, from one to diverse. This is the beginning of the process of knowledge,
The analysis form depends on the object being analyzed and on the goals that are put in front of the researcher. The logical analysis of the analysis has a centuries-old history. M. Lomonosov and Pavlov and a huge number of other scientists have contributed to the theory of analysis, the essence of which is that the analysis is a chain process and we go from the analysis of external reasons to the analysis of internal content, internal contradiction, if it is random.
Scientific analysis cannot begin with zero, it is necessary to know the internal structure of the object: the filmmaker does not work - a specialist to correct the subject should mean that and how it should be ideally, and then look for inconsistencies, discrepancy, problem. So it is possible to submit not only the subject, but also a phenomenon.
Many types of analysis differs:
Automatic analysis is associated with text analysis to extract the necessary information from it;
Grammar analysis determines the role of a word in the proposal;
Statistical analysis is based on the meaning of the values \u200b\u200band patterns of measuring statistical indicators;
Mathematical analysis begins with determining what is required to prove; -Economic analysis is a set of ways and techniques for the accumulation and processing of information about the activities of the enterprise, this is an analysis of the composition, properties and structures of the object; - I still can be listed.
Synthesis as a method of knowledge is that the components of the subject studying, phenomena, properties, dissected during the analysis, mentally connected into a single integer. Synthesizing is a process that reveals the place and the role of each element in the system. We have already said that the knowledge of parts is not yet knowledge of the subject.
It is possible to oppose and solve synthesis and the analysis can be only logically, in order to thoroughly disclose the entity of the phenomenon. Really, the analysis and synthesis exist in unity, as the reason and the consequence are intertwined with each other, the analysis can go after synthesis, those. After working hypothesis.
For example, studying the main properties of money (money as a measure of cost, as a means of circulation, payment, savings), we can try to add them together on this basis, to summarize (synthesize) and conclude that money is a special product that serves as a universal equivalent. Combining analysis and synthesis, we provide a systemic (integrated) approach to complex (multi-element) phenomena of economic life.
Inductive and deductive method
Induction - (guidance) is a form of thinking, through which the thought is inherent in any general rule, the overall position inherent in all single objects of any class.
The induction method is a movement of thought from the private to the general, during which, based on the allocation of individual, externally disparate facts, the general conclusion unites these facts. For example, from a variety of scattered sales facts, it is concluded that the objects of all these actions are goods.
Inductive conclusion was developed as a result of the lengthy centuries-old practitioners of humanity. The man noticed, fixed in memory, and then came to general conclusions - how to keep the fire? Knowing more always begins with the knowledge of its parts - what metal is suitable for a knife? How did Mendeleev make general conclusions? The first began to explore the inductive reception of thinking ancient Greek philosopher Socrates, then Aristotle.
This method allows you to predict and predict possible changes in processes, it allows you to search. Induction as a research method is most fully implemented by a system of statistical methods.
In the narrow sense of the word, the term "induction" has three of the following values:
a) inductive conclusion when, on the basis of data on individual objects of this class, a general conclusion is obtained, containing knowledge of all subjects to the passage: the circle intersects the straight line at two points. The ellipse intersects the direct in two points of Parabola crosses the direct in two points of the hyperbole intersects the direct in two points.
b) Induction is a research method, which is as follows: In order to receive general knowledge of any class of items, it is necessary to explore the delometries of this class, find significant signs in them, which will serve as a basis for knowledge of general. The main thing is that it goes from knowledge of less general provisions to know more common.
c) inductive reception as a method of presenting material in the artistic book, scientific report.
Two typical errors in inductive conclusion are possible:
Sensity arising from the fact that all circumstances are not taken into account, all causes of phenomena;
Displacement of concepts due to alternation in time: after that, this does not mean that because of this.
Deduction (per. With a lat. Blossoming) In the broad sense of the word, this is such a form of thinking when a new thought is displayed in a purely logical pathway from some of the prerequisites. The method of deduction involves the movement of thought from the common to particularly through a whole chain of conclusions. For example, with the help of this method, factor goods are allocated from the general concept of "goods", and among the latter, such goods such as labor, land and capital. In the narrow sense of the word it is:
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