The Epoch of Enlightenment (the end of the XVII - XVIII) time of great social shocks, on the one hand, the rapid development of material culture, the emergence of machine production, on the other - exacerbation of social injustice. Enlightenment for its basis is democratic, the main task is to encourage the knowledge of the entire people, every person.
The XVII century is the source of modernity, the period of the new time. The time of awareness that the ideal of a man of Renaissance not only remained unattainable, but also crashed. It leads, on the one hand, to strengthen the ordered, measured lifestyle and thinking, on the other - to the rebellious moods in various segments of the population.
Features of the Epoch of Enlightenment, "Mind Century":
1) the origin and formation of bourgeois economic relations;
2) the liberation of public consciousness from religious pressure;
3) the spread of the ideals of Protestantism;
4) the development of natural science, an increase in interest in scientific and philosophical knowledge;
5) a new understanding of human being (the attitude towards God, society, the state, other people) has changed;
6) a new understanding of a person (the subject of attention of nature is studied by its laws, as well as the patterns of development of society, the state);
7) historical optimism (stream century);
8) the triumph of the mind;
9) the ideas of equality of all people.
Enlightenment considered nature as the highest reality, the identity of peace and nature; Developed political and legal norms, aesthetic and ethical codes of an old estate society; Created a positive, facing person, regardless of its social affiliation, the value system of Western civilization. Man XVII. Feels "citizen of the world" (great geographical discoveries). The interaction of society and the state takes the form of the contract, the idea of \u200b\u200bunity under the influence of the strong power of the monarch becomes dominant. Absolute monarchy as a form of state can combine disparate peoples and land.
For thinkers, the Epoch of Enlightenment is characterized by the universalism of creative and life interests ("Encyclopedia of Arts, Sciences and Crafts" in 28 volumes; offered new ethical and aesthetic norms, socio-political ideals and moral values; in the publication, all outstanding education figures from France participated in the publication, Germany, Holland, England and other countries; organizer of Didro's publication).
Literary schools:
classicism - Voltaire (reflected the challenges of time, complexity and inconsistency, the decisions of the state of state, the hypocrisy of the official church, wrote more than 70 works);
romanticism - Rousseau (rejected the formal excesses, defended the simplicity and naturalness of the language, appeal to the vital truth, the positive heroes always bring themselves to the moral principles of themselves and their lives, the person is great, the literature should reflect them and influence personality);
realism - Didro (the task of art is to serve advanced ideas of the era, the principle of ideologicalness).
Features of painting the Epoch of Enlightenment:
Secular art nature;
Everyday, reflection of the real life of real people;
The appearance of "Landscapes of the mood" (Watto, Gainesboro, Guard);
Attention to the sketch (personal, individual perception, the mood reflected in it causes a greater emotional and aesthetic effect than the completed work);
The priority of the drawing and engraving (they establish a more direct relationship between the audience and the artist than the pictures);
Strengthening the role of color, multi-time, brightness (the picture not only to express and reflect something, but also decorates the place where it is).
In the Epoch of Enlightenment in Europe, the first public exhibitions are arranged - Salons (new type of communication of art and society).
Theater turned out to be a close spirit of the epoch. Stormy social life prompted him interesting stories, filling the old forms with new content. The theater entered the lives of people, because he performed the tasks of time.
The music of the Epoch of Enlightenment strikes a person with the scale and depth of analysis of the most hidden corners of the human soul. The attitude towards music, which is still in the XVII century. It was just an applied tool for influence both in secular and in the religious spheres of culture. In France and in Italy, in the second half of the century, a new secular type of music is reaches a heyday - Opera. In Germany, Austria developed the most "serious" forms of musical works - Oratoria and Mesia (in church culture) and a concert (in secular culture). The top of the musical culture of the Epoch of Enlightenment is the creativity of Bach and Mozart. The mind, the cult of light, the idea of \u200b\u200ba person as the wedge of the Universe in the Mozart Opera "Magic Flute" are combined with the main ideas of Utopy XVIII century.
The visible embodiment of the "best worlds" for people of the Epoch of Enlightenment were gardens and parks . As in utopians, the world was constructed in them alternative to the existing one. The world that answered the ideas of time about ethical ideals, a happy life, harmony of nature and man, people among themselves, freedom and self-sufficiency of the human person. Like nature as a whole, the garden or the park became the place of philosophical conversations and reflections. The Epoch of Enlightenment Age was created for an elevated and noble goal - to serve as a perfect medium for a perfect person. The composition of parks and gardens included libraries, art galleries, museums, theaters, temples. The garden is a reflection of educational ideas about happiness as a "natural state" of a "natural person", the main condition of which was the return to nature.
European art of the XVIII century combined two different starts: classicism and romanticism.
Classicism included the idea of \u200b\u200bhuman submission to the public system. Classicism XVIII century. Unlike XVII included elements of romanticism. Classicism connects the ordering of the world with humanity, with wisdom, which should lead people to a reasonable understanding, to kindness, to the highest justice.
Romanticism emphasized the individual and personal beginning. Romanticism (from Franz. - Roman) - representatives of the artistic direction, from the end of the XVIII century. Nominated the requirement of emotional, free and, above all, the individual attitude of the artist for life. New in the art of the XVIII century. There was a direction of sentimentalism. Sentimentalism illuminated the inner, intimate world of human feelings and thoughts, and did not require special stylistic design.
In this wayThe cultural heritage of the new time is distinguished by the wealth of genres and styles, the depth of the comprehension of human passions, the greatest optimism and faith in the person and his mind.
Culture XIX century.
At its base, the culture of the XIX century. It is based on the values \u200b\u200bof the culture of the new time - rationalism, anthropocentrism, science, europecentrism, etc. by the XIX century. The world became qualitatively different and culture elects the path of reassessing values. The main focus of culture is to search for the place and role of a person in the world, justice measures. In the XIX century The crisis of Christian cosmology, the organization develops into the crisis of the whole Christian worldview, morality.
The idea of \u200b\u200bprogress is the main thing in public thought (various views were made: CONT, Hegel, Marx regarding the driving forces of public progress, criteria that determine its direction, the laws of history, which determine its move and the sequence of successive states of society and culture).
General features of progress ideas:
There are objective laws of history that determine the development of human society - humanity goes along the path of historical progress, which is an important component of which is cultural progress;
Historical progress ONNOLINEEN;
Further progress should raise the culture of the entire non-European world to the level of European culture.
The set of ideas related to the last of the listed provisions is called eurocentrism. He is the source of European (Western) civilization and expresses its own self-esteem. Eurocentrism is an apologetics of Western culture, Western values, a western lifestyle. The ideologist of europecentrism, the German philosopher and the theologue E. Treillach (1865-1923: Only the European Spirit, who inherited the Great Antichny culture and knew the "Holy Truths of Christianity", is able to understand the unity of the human race and his historical path.
However, in the XIX century, the study of cultures of various peoples generates doubts about the possibility of laying them in one rank "for growth" of their level of development. Historical and ethnographic data indicate that even in primitive cultures of backward peoples, there are achievements, the assimilation of which can enrich European culture (for example, musical forms, medical art). A disgusting attitude towards "uncivilized" nations meets the condemnation by the humanistic intelligentsia.
Art of the XIX century.
No single aesthetic dominant - Generic, species, genre. Asynchrony and multiple, the struggle of opposing areas in the development of art. Latest attempts to overcome the brokenness of art at the beginning of the century, romanticism ("dynamic synthesis of arts"), and at the end - neoromantism, or modern. There is a peculiar "redeployment" of species and genre forms of artistic development of reality. Some go to the background (architecture), others are nominated for an advancement: in romanticism - music and poetry, in realism - social novel, etc.
In the XIX century There is a classic model of artistic culture institutions. In the world of art, along with professional creativity, folklore, applied art and art industry. In the XIX century The "Industry of the Literature", the "Entertainment Industry", etc., are born, etc. - these are "mass culture".
Stages of the development of the art of the XIX W:
1) the era of romanticism (first half of the XIX century);
2) the era of realism (40th XIX century);
3) the era of decadence (from the late 50s to the beginning of the First World War).
1) The flight for the spatial limits of the bourgeois society performed in three forms:
The first direction is to care in nature (hence the interest in the village, criticism of the city, interest in the spirituality of the people expressed in folklore).
Second direction – care from reality in a different time (not finding supports in the present, romanticism breaks the natural connection of times, idealizes the past, its morals, patriarchal lifestyle (Kolridge, J. Sand), craft construction (Novovis, Hoffman), Knight Code of Honor (V. Scott), etc.).
Third direction - care to your own inner world, in its "I" (Tales of Hoffman, Gauga, a romantic portrait).
The inherent culture of the new time recognition of the high value rank of personality is poured into romanticism in the idea of \u200b\u200bits uniqueness and uniqueness. In romanticism, the aesthetization of the whole worldview occurs, appears the idea of \u200b\u200b"synthesis of arts".
2) Realism as a type of culture of the product of the new time, critical realism is the highest point of realism. Realism united with romanticism not only disappointment in the results of the revolution, a negative attitude towards the established bourgeois reality, but also the concerned to the spiritual world of man, the struggle for self-affirmation of the person. Realism is close to romantic theme of nation. Realism is interested in the exact picture of characters in typical circumstances (Maupassan, Balzac, F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy, etc.).
3) Decadence (from Fr. - "decline") - in its genesis, the phenomenon is complex and contradictory, associated with various directions in artistic culture. It means crisis phenomena in the spiritual culture of the late XIX-beginning of the XX century., Noted by moods of hopelessness, pessimism, decline.
Transformation of the main ideological plants in the XIX W:
Understanding the nature of the mother, the nature of the prison is inferior to a purely utilitarian understanding of it as a universal storeroom, an inexhaustible source of materials and energies, universal workshop.
The development of science deprives a person of the status of the "Crown of the Universe", "measures of all things", the image and similarity of God. A person appears as a carrier of a subconscious libido, a variety of relations in the type "Stimulus-reaction", "Animal in close relationship with a monkey", etc.
Ahead of the pace of technical development of the world of the pace of humanistic awareness of the consequences of decisions made.
In this wayThe culture of the XIX century inherited all the problems of the past: the desire for the transformation of society, the development of the capitalist economy; Developed under the influence of a variety of political, social, religious, national factors. The new ideas of the Great French Revolution (freedom, equality, fraternity) were significantly dismissed with the practice of their incarnation in life. A feature of the development of culture becomes criticism and search for new artistic directions and styles.
The age of enlightenment is one of the most important eras in the history of European culture, characterized by the development of public, philosophical and scientific thought. The basis of this powerful ideological movement was freedomity and rationalism, and the enlightenment figures have seen a powerful engine of the progress of all mankind in knowledge.
Years of century enlightenment
Enlightenment is a significant period in the history of the European Society Development, which has become a continuation of the humanistic ideas of the Renaissance. Enlighteners are outstanding scientists, thinkers and writers of their time, which in every way contributed to the spread of educational ideas in the people.
Enlightenment ideas originated at the end of the XVII century in England, under the influence of the scientific revolution. The founder of this flow was the English thinker John Locke, who in his writings covered human rights to life, freedom, private property. Being a teacher, he attached great importance to education and education of each person.
Fig. 1. John Locke.
The greatest flourishing of the Epoch of Enlightenment reached in France in the 18th century, and its ideas spread very quickly through Europe and in Russia. This course has become a response to the deepening crisis of absolute monarchy and feudalism, which could no longer meet the needs of society.
In each country, the movement of the enlightenment had its own characteristics, but his tasks were for all universities:
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- Fight against feudalism and its main concept.
- The struggle against the church is the most important support of the feudal system.
- The creation of an ideal model of society, which was based on the principles of the bourgeoisie.
The recovery response of Tsarist Russia for educational ideas was the creation of the Ministry of Folk Enlightenment in 1802. The main task was to conduct reforms in the educational system, updating all stages of the educational process.
Fig. 2. Ministry of Folk Enlightenment.
FEATURES OF CULTURE ERACE OF EDUCATION
The main difference between the culture of the Education of Education is the availability of knowledge for all sectors of society. Leading thinkers believed that only with the help of dissemination of education could be cope with many social problems. In this is rationalism - the dominance of the mind in the behavior of people.
Educational ideas were reflected in culture and science. Biology, chemistry, mathematics received special development. A distinctive feature of scientific knowledge of the Epoch of Enlightenment was the focus of their practical use in industrial and social development.
In the 18th century, music, literature and theater reached their highest heyday. The best thinkers of the Epoch of Enlightenment - Voltaire, Rousseau, Didro, Alamber, Montesquieu - left behind literary works devoted to the ideas of humanism, freedom and equality.
The theater became an incredibly popular view of art. Theatrical frames became the arena, on which there was a struggle of modern progressive thought with casocculating old stands.
Fig. 3. Theater of the Epoch of Enlightenment.
The most popular comedy of the 18th century was the work of Boualersch "Marriage Figaro". In this play, there were reflections of the society, which was extremely negative in the absolute monarchy.
The Epoch of Enlightenment had a huge impact on the development of society, creating all prerequisites for scientific and technological progress. This period entered the story as a silver age.
Cheat sheet on philosophy: Answers to exam tickets Zavonkova Alexandra Sergeevna
19. Epoch of Enlightenment and Reason Cult
XVIII century It is customary to call the Epoch of Enlightenment. Education began in England, then in France, Germany and Russia.
Rodonarchors of educational ideas - F. Bacon, T. Gobbs, R. Descart, J. Locke.
The initial ideas of the Epoch of Enlightenment: the cult of science; the cult of mind; Progress of mankind.
All the works of the enlightenment figures are imbued with the idea of \u200b\u200bthe apology of the mind, his luminous strength, permeating MGLU and chaos. Epoch of Enlightenment characterize a huge amount: ideological quest; scientific creative feats; Shaking political events society.
The enlighteners fought for ensuring that the society did not have the abyss between the poor and rich people, they cared for the spread of education among the masses.
Outstanding philosophers of the Epoch of Enlightenment were: Voltaire (France); J.J. Rousseau (France); D. Didro (France); K.A. Gelving (France); P. Golbach (France); Charles Louis Montesquieu (France); Lessing (Germany); Wolf (Germany); Kant (Germany); Novikov (Russia); Radishchev (Russia); Belinsky (Russia); Chernyshevsky (Russia).
The philosophy of the Epoch of Enlightenment is heterogeneous, present in it:
Materialistic ideological orientation;
Idealistic ideological orientation;
Atheistic views;
Deistic views.
In articles of dictionaries and encyclopedias, pamphletes and polemical publications, scientific and philosophical ideas are widespread, which are presented in a living, intelligible, ingenious form, attracting people not only by logical evidence, but also emotional inspiration.
Philosophy of Enlightenment XVIII century. represented by two directions:
- deputy materialismVoltaire, Montesquieu, Rousseau, Wolf et al.;
- theoretical foundations of Deizmaon the basis of the materialistic science of Newton, Galilee, Descartes, presented with criticism in the works of Didro, Golbach, Gelving, Limetre, and others. A bright representative of French Enlightenment is Francois Marie Volter.(1694-1778), which entered the story of philosophy as:
Brilliant publicist and propaganda of Physics and mechanics Newton, English constitutional orders and institutions;
Defender of the Freedom of Personality from the encroachments of the Church, Jesuits, Inquisition.
The formation of the revolutionary ideology of Europe has great influence Jean Jacques Rousseau(1712-1778), the author of the famous work "Public Agreement", which became theoretical substantiation of civil society based on freedom and unconditional equality of legal rights, and inspired Jacobins in the era of the Great French Revolution.
Charles Louis Montesquieu(1689–1755):
One of the heproxecutives of geographical determinism, which believed that the climate, the soil and the state of the earth's surface determine the spirit of the people and the nature of the development of society;
Developed the idea of \u200b\u200bthe functional role of religion necessary to maintain order in society and its morality.
In France, a group of philosophers - advanced thinkers, scientists and writers gathered around the edition of the Encyclopedia, the chief editor and the organizer of which was D. Didro. Along with him, the publishers of "Encyclopedia" were Gelving, Golbach and Lameter. They created a rather developed form of materialism, which had an impact on the subsequent generations of philosophers and philosophical schools.
From the book the last and the first people: the story of the nearby and distant future by Stapledon Olaf.3. The cult of youth residents of Patagonia were held through all the spiritual phases, which were also known to the ancient races, but by their special way. They had their own primitive tribal religion, inherited from the distant past and based on fear before the forces of nature. They had and
From the book World of Fools Author Buroak Alexander Vladimirovich1. The cult of ephemerality The fifth people were not gifted by the potential immortality, which their creators themselves possessed. And from the fact that they were mortal and, nevertheless, durable, their culture mainly and drenched their shine and sharpness. Creatures for which natural
From the book World of Sofia Author Valve Unusaine20. The cult of the mind Special reverence of the mind in the current mass culture is unjustified, perverted: Intellect no more deserves respect than the stomach, kidney or biceps. He is not the main quality of personality at all, but only an optional appendage to a piece of living meat.
From the book the fate of civilization. Path of mind Author Moiseev Nikita NikolaevichThe Epoch of Enlightenment ... From the way to inhibit threads to the needle to the way to charge the gun ... Hilda began to read the chapter about the revival, when the entrance door slammed below, it came from the work of Mom. The girl looked at the clock. It was already four hours. Lisens on the stairs, mom
From the book worker. Domination and gestalt author Junger ErnstChapter Six. The era of the noosphere 1. The era of the noosphere and the problem of coevolution in the 20s of Lerua first used the term "noosphere" - the scope of the mind, which then used Tayyr de Charden. It is thanks to him that the term received widespread. Teyar de Charrad
From the book of Indian philosophy (Vol 1) Author Radhakrishnan SarvepallyThe era of the third class as the era of imaginary domination 1 The domination of the third class was not able to affect the inner core in Germany, which determines the wealth, power and completeness of life. Looking back on more than a six-year period of German history, we have the right to
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From the book of the foundation of philosophy author Babaev Yuri.3. The cult of the movement of both parties in which the form of a deity, moving in a clean fellowship of self-consciousness, and the form of a deity, resting in the elements of a substance, mutually refuse their different definitions, and unity that is the concept of their essence, reaches
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From the book Shadow of the mind [in search of science of consciousness] author Penrose Roger.The cult of personality in the criticism of Stalinism is usually along with repression, collectivization of agriculture, persecuted by the church, the persecution of some industries and cultural figures, among his sins, are called the cult of the personality of Stalin. In this case, the causes of the cult
From the book Vladimir Ilyich Lenin: the genius of the Russian breakthrough of mankind to socialism Author Subeto Alexander IvanovichPart II New Physics necessary to understand the mind in search of inconsistent physics
From book History of secret societies, unions and orders by the author Schuster Georg18.2. The turning point of the beginning of the XXI century, as the era of the great evolutionary fracture first. This is the era of a great evolutionary fracture, because at the turn of the 1980s - 1990s, humanity with its market and capitalist world-finding on Earth entered into
From the book Criticity of Pure Reason by the author Kant Immanuel18.3. The turning point of the beginning of the XXI century, as the era of global capitalism collapse, the second. This is the era of the global capitalist collapse in its imperialist form. On the one hand, the global imperialism of the global financial capital determined not only the first phase
From the book of the author18.4. The turning point of the early XXI century era as the era of the Renaissance of the Great Russian Socialist Revolution and the Celebration of Lenin and Leninism Third. This is the era of the Renaissance of the Great Russian Socialist Revolution and the collapse of the liberal and capitalist counterrevolution in
From the book of the author From the book of the authorThe anti-rope section is the third of the interest of the mind in this of its contradictions we saw here the whole dialectic game of cosmological ideas that do not allow them to be given the appropriate subject in any possible experience; Moreover, they are not even
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Department ___________________________
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"Culture of the Epoch of Enlightenment"
Examination on the discipline "Culturology"
students 1 courses of correspondence training, group FC (5.5) -1
specialty "Finance and Credit"
Astrakhan 2009.
Introduction
Culturalology is a relatively young humanitarian discipline. As independent science, it was formed at the beginning of the 20th century.
In the history of mankind, there were many cultures - original, not similar to another. The struggle between the dying and emerging new culture was accompanied by an adequate shift aesthetic Principles and mains of society.
In the 20th century, the ideology of enlightenment was originated in England, which was widely distributed in France, Germany, a little later in North America, the countries of Eastern and Southeastern Europe, as well as in Russia.
The Epoch of Enlightenment was the most important turning point in spiritual and aesthetic Europe's development that influenced almost all areas of socio-political and cultural life. Debunking political and legal norms aesthetic and ethical Codes of an old estate society, enlighteners made titanic work on creating a positive, facing first of all to a person, regardless of its social affiliation of the system aesthetic values \u200b\u200bthat organically entered the blood and flesh of Western civilization.
Target installation This test work is to disclose the origins, the path of the formation and evolution of the aesthetics of this era of the Epoch, on the basis of a retrospective analysis of the political, cultural, scientific, ideological concepts of the political, cultural, scientific, ideological concepts of the enlightenment period.
Chapter 1. The main values \u200b\u200bof the Epoch of Enlightenment
Having put forward an idea of \u200b\u200bthe formation of a person, the enlighteners showed that a person has a mind, spiritual and physical strength. People come to the world equal, with their needs, interests whose satisfaction is to establish reasonable and fair forms of the human hostel. The minds of the enlighteners are concerned about the idea of \u200b\u200bequality both before God and the laws, before other people. The idea of \u200b\u200bequality of all people before the law, before mankind - the first characteristic feature Epoch of Enlightenment.
Relief from all social turmoil enlighteners saw in the spread of knowledge. And not without their participation in the Epoch of Enlightenment, the victory was won by rationalism, which developed in Western European thought in the Middle Ages. In the article "The answer to the question: What is enlightenment?" I. Kant wrote:
"Enlightenment is a human yield from the state of its minority in which he is in his own fault. The minor has the inability to enjoy your mind without leading someone else. The minority according to his own fault is this, the cause of which is not in the lack of reason, but in the lack of determination and courage to use it. "
Thanks to the achievements of the Natural Sciences, there was an idea that the time of miracles and the mysteries had passed that all the secrets of the universe were revealed and the Universe, and the society obeys logical, affordable human mind to the laws. Rough Rough - the second characteristic feature Epochs.
Third characteristic feature Epoch of Enlightenment - Historical Optimism.
The era of enlightenment can be rightfully called the "golden age of utopia". Enlightenment, first of all, included faith in the ability to change the person for the better, "rational" transforming, political and social foundations. Landmark for the creators of Utopiy XVIII century. He served a "natural" or "natural" state of society that does not provide private property and oppression, divide on an estate that is not immentable in luxury and not burdened poverty, not affected by vices, living in mind, and not "on artificial" laws. It was an exclusively fictional, speculative type of society, which, according to Rousseau, perhaps, never existed and, most likely, will never exist in reality.
The revived ideal of a free person acquires the attribute of universality and responsibility: the person of enlightenment thinks not only about himself, but also about others, about its place in society. The focus of enlightements is the problem of the best public device. The enlighteners believed in the possibility of building a harmonic society.
Deep changes in the socio-political and spiritual life of Europe, related to the emergence and formation of bourgeois economic relations led to the main dominants of the culture of the XVIII century.
The main foci of Enlightenment were England, France, Germany. Since 1689 - the last revolution in England - the era of enlightenment begins. It was a glorious era, started by the same revolution and ending with three: a pro-consistent - in England, political - in France, philosophical and aesthetic - in Germany. For a hundred years - from 1689 to 1789. - The world has changed. The remnants of feudalism were ever more weathered, bourgeois relations were made louder, finally approved after the Great French Revolution.
The XVIII century also prepared the domination of bourgeois culture. The time of the old, feudal ideology came the time of philosophers, sociologists, economists, literators of the new century of enlightenment.
In philosophy, enlightenment opposed all metaphysics (science on overseas principles and beginnings of being). It contributed to the development of any kind of rationalism (recognizing the mind of the knowledge of the knowledge and behavior of people), in science - the development of natural science, the achievement of which it often uses to substantiate the scientific legality of views and faith in progress. It is not by chance that the election period itself in some countries called the names of philosophers. In France, for example, this period was called a century of Voltaire, in Germany - a century of Kant.
In the history of humanity, the enlighteners were worried about global problems: how did the state appear? When and why did the inequality arose? What is progress? And these questions were equally rational answers, as in those cases when it was about the "mechanism" of the Universe.
In the region of morality and pedagogy, the enlightenment preached by the ideals of humanity and has grown high hopes for the magical power of upbringing.
In the field of politics, jurisprudence and socio-economic life - the liberation of a person from unfair bonds, the equality of all people before the law, before humanity. For the first time, I had to solve a long-known question about the dignity of a person for the first time. In different areas of activity, it was transformed in different ways, but inevitably led to a fundamentally new, innovative discoveries in its essence.
The enlighteners were materialists and idealists, supporters of rationalism, sensualism (the basis of knowledge and behavior considered sensations) and even the Divine Providence (relied on the will of God). Some of them believed in the inevitable progress of mankind, the other - examined the story as a public regression. From here and the peculiarity of the conflict between the historical consciousness of the era and produced by her historical knowledge - the conflict, the more aggravated, the epoch itself defined its historical preferences itself, a special role in the current and coming development of humanity.
The Epoch of Enlightenment was an essential turning point in the spiritual development of Europe, which influenced almost all areas of socio-political and cultural life. Developed, political and legal norms, the aesthetic and ethical codes of an old Clavical society, the enlighteners made the titanic work on the creation of a positive, facing, primarily to the person, regardless of its social affiliation, the system of values \u200b\u200bthat organically entered the blood and flesh of Western Civilization.
Chapter 2. Features of Enlightenment in Europe
Responding to the Spirit of Time, the Epoch of Enlightenment (XVIII century - to the Great French Bourgeois Revolution) begins to lead an active struggle for the approval of violepability and freedomiff in spiritual culture, as well as liberaliz-ma in politics. Solna exhausted the achievement of the scientific revolution of the XVIII century, the enlightenment gradually turns the world to stability, and European self-consciousness is to confidence and optimism.
Different means of enlighteners tried to achieve hardly the main goal for the era - condemnation of the feudal past (as "unreasonable" and "unnatural") and the approval of the future; The enlighteners sincerely believed that their efforts, by upbringing, convictions, by continuous reforms, finally, can be created, finally "the kingdom of mind".
Culture becomes multi-layered and diverse, it is emerging and gradually approved by the fundamentally important quality of European culture - pluralism, which in our time has become a way to its existence. The history of European pluralism began with the struggle for violence.
2.1. Enlightenment in England
The motion of the enlightenment received its origin in England. Here, after the bourgeois revolution, many of those ideas were originated, which are most characteristic of the whole century enlightenment. John Locke (1632-1704) is one of the first "English Enlightenment thinkers, spoke of his conviction in a good and reasonable basis of human nature, and considered the purpose of all society the preservation and protection of personal freedom. The works of Locke are formulated natural human rights to life, freedom and property, which is the result of human labor.
From England, the ideas of Locke fell into France, where they met the enthusiastic reception, because they opened the way to form such damns of culture as pragmatism, enterprise and ingenuity.
Features of enlightenment in Ukraine.
Grigory Skovorod - Philosopher Enlightener.
1. Educibility of Enlightenment:
Main features and outstanding figures of the epoch
The spiritual heirs of the Humanists of the Renaissance were the enlighteners of the XVIII century. Posing the most acute criticism and angry, the feudal orders and church dogmas, the enlighteners undermined the ideological basis of the old society and created a new spiritual culture based on the principles of humanism, the equality of people, the liberation of the human mind and the harmonious development of the person.
Education- This is a political ideology, philosophy and culture of the era of the collapse of feudalism and the approval of capitalist relations. The term "enlightenment" was introduced into a cultural turnover by Voltaire and Herder. German philosopher I. Kant identified Education is a strict historical era of human development, the essence of which is widespread using the human mind for the implementation of social progress.
Outstanding education figures
British enlightenment
Locke John (1632-1704) - the philosopher materialist, from the first to express many ideas of enlightenment, the author of the theory of public contract and natural law.
Schaftsbury Antoni Ashley Cooper (1671-1713) - philosopher materialist, aesthetics, deesma representative; Sheptsbury is aestheticizes the world, arguing the aesthetic nature of moral perfection, drawing a majestic picture of the ever-creative and creative space with a single primary source of true, good and beautiful.
Tolland John (1617-1722) - philosopher materialist, close to the dialectical interpretation of the essence of the world (guess of self-apparent matter); In the book "Christianity without secrets" opposed Christian religion and church; On charges of attacks on religion and morality, the book was convicted of burning, and the author was sentenced to imprisonment, but fled. The main philosophical essay is "Letters to Serena."
Collins William Wilki. (1824-1889) - a writer, artistic form criticized not only old feudal orders, but also nascent bourgeois morals.
French enlightenment
Charles Louis Montesquieu (1689-1755) - philosopher, writer, historian. Mainly, the essay "On the spirit of laws" justifies the position of the deesma; The founder of the geographic school in sociology, which studies the influence of natural natural factors on the course of history; Developed the concept of the functional role of religion necessary to maintain public order and conservation of morality.
Voltaire (the real name of Francois Marie Arue, 1694-1778) - philosopher, writer, publicist; In artistic form criticized the feudal relations, the despotic form of government, the feudal-clerical worldview. In "philosophical letters", "Treatise about metaphysics"; "The philosophical dictionary" acted as a desist, at the same time expressed the idea of \u200b\u200beternity and income of matter, its objective existence and eternal movement. I had a great influence on the French materialists of the XVIII century.
Mabyelle Bonno de (1709-1785) - political thinker, historian, utopian communist. Considered the source of social misfortunes Private property, saw the way of transformation of society in reducing property inequality by preventing luxury and restriction of needs (ascetic communism); Recognizing the people with a carrier of the supreme power. The ideas of the Mabies contributed to the ideological preparation of the French revolution.
Rousseau Jean Jacques (1712-1778) - philosopher, writer, aesthetics, teacher, ideologue of the Great French Revolution. Claimed in 1762, the work of Rousseau "Emil, or about the upbringing" for religious liberation was sentenced to be burned, and the author immigrated to England for 5 years. In views of the truth of Rousseau - Detist. The social and political ideal of Rousseau was a republic, he defended the idea of \u200b\u200bthe unlawful power, which heard against the people, his life interests, justified the right of the people for a revolutionary overthrow such power. In the works "whether the revival of sciences and arts contributed to the improvement of the morals", "reasoning about the origin and justifications of inequality between people", many contradictions of social and scientific and technical progress were dismissed.
Condiiler Etienne Bonno de (1715-1780) - philosopher, logic, member of the French Academy; In its main philosophical essay, the "treatise on the sensations" developed a sensualistic theory of knowing the Locke. In the work of the "language of the calculus" gave the interpretation of logic as a general grammar of all signs.
German enlightenment
Wolf Christians (1679-1754) - a philosopher rationalist, an ideologist of early education, sought to build a comprehensive system of philosophical knowledge; His training leaders became the basis of German university education. In ethics, the principles of natural morality considers the objective norms arising from the very structure of being and independent of God from the will. In political teaching Wolf - a supporter of the theory of natural law and an expressant of the ideas of enlightened absolutism.
Lessing Gothhold Efraim (1729-1781) - philosopher, aesthetic, writer, critic. Overcomes the limitations of Wolfian rationalism; In theses "The upbringing of the human race" approaches the idea of \u200b\u200borganic development and the progressive movement of humanity to excellence; In aesthetics, the principles of realistic artistic image substantiated, gave a well-known classification of art.
Ghoter Johann Gotfrid (1744-1803) - philosopher, cultural theorist, public figure, chief inspirer of the motion "Burya and Natisk" - an educational literary movement that has broken with the regulatory aesthetics of classicism, with an exaggerated cultural cult and developed aesthetics of democratic original arts depicting bright and strong passions. In the work of the "Ideas of the Philosophy of Human Humanity", he holds the idea of \u200b\u200bbecoming the development and development of the world as an organic whole, completes the essay of the history of human culture. Great influence on creativity Goethe.
Goethe Johann Wolfgang (1749-1832) - Poet, scientist, philosopher, sought to universal knowledge of knowledge and worldview; His poetry and science (osteology, mineralogy, botany, physics, teaching about color) complemented each other. At the heart of his philosophy - a dialectical picture of the world, where the world is drawn as a totality of living forms, as a solid metamorphosis of forms. In Faust, unique on building an artistic work, which Goethe worked on all her life, in poetic form reflects scientific, historical, philosophical, moral problems.
Russian enlightenment
Lomonosov Mikhail Vasilyevich (1711-1765) - an outstanding scientist naturalist and thinker materialist, poet; Developing the ideas of new time science about a single union with natural patterns, accessible to knowledge; (Developed a "corpustary" philosophy) as a source concept for explaining physical and chemical phenomena. Public progress of Lomonosov tied with the development of education, education and crafts; In the spirit of enlightenment, developed projects of the country's economic and social development. The main topic of Lomonosov poetry is the Universe, Nature and Man. At the initiative of Lomonosov in 1755, Moscow University was created, which became the center of Russian science and culture.
Kozel Yakov Pavlovich (about 1728 - about 1794) - Russian enlightener, philosopher materialist, developed the ideas of a fair public device, opposed serfdom and religious morality.
Anichkov Dmitry Sergeevich (1733-1788) - Philosopher Desist, Professor of Moscow University; His thesis on the origin of religion was condemned for atheism and all its copies burned on the frontal place in Moscow.
Novikov Nikolai Ivanovich (1744-1818) - enlightenment, writer, journalist, publisher, organizer of printing houses, libraries, schools in Moscow, bookstores in 16 cities of Russia; He spoke against serfdom, by order Catherine II was concluded in the Shlisselburg fortress.
Radishchev Alexander Nikolaevich (1749-1802) - Writer, philosopher materialist, the investigator of the revolutionary tradition in Russia. Developing the ideas of French enlighteners, gave a revolutionary interpretation of the theory of natural law, condemned the autocracy as the state of the oldest human nature. For the composition of the "Travel from St. Petersburg to Moscow" Radishchev was convicted of the death penalty replaced by reference to Siberia. The link wrote a philosophical treatise "About man, his death and immortality," where he developed the materialistic worldview.
Chaaadayev Petr Yakovlevich (1794-1856) - Philosopher idealist, publicist. In the "philosophical letters", the philosopher relies on the accomplishment of earthly aspirations of the people as an ultra-industrial whole, overcoming egoism and individualism as unknown with the universal assignment of a person to be the engine of the Universe under the leadership of the Most High Reason and World Will. After the publication of the "philosophical letters" Chaadaev "the highest command" was announced crazy. Later, the thinker wrote the "apology of the crazy", where in response to the accusations of the lack of patriotism about the special historical fate of Russia.
Of the variety of views of enlighteners, various theories and their interpretations allocate central ideas of ideology and philosophy of enlightenment.
1. Antishastic, antireligious orientation of ideas Enlightenment. The purpose of the enlightenment as a wide ideological movement consisted of criticizing the foundations of feudal ideology, religious superstitions and prejudices, in the struggle for versoity, for freedom of scientific and philosophical thought, for the mind against faith, for science against ignorance and mystics, for freedom of study against its suppression by credibility, For criticism against apologetics. As part of the enlightenment, both an atheistic worldview, and deism, whose representatives admitted to God are spiritual power as a penny, root cause of the world, and "natural religion" as a social regulator of the historical process.
2. The all-pervisory mind. The main slogan of enlightenment is "Science and Progress!". The mind of the enlighteners is the main means of transformation of society. A person must correspond to the intelligent harmony of the natural world, and therefore it must be enlightened to form. The task of widespread science, education enlightened not only theoretically and not for future generations, but they themselves did a lot for its practical implementation. Many enlighteners are imposed on the revolution, but on the gradual, evolutionary transformation of society on the principles of intelligence and justice through the moral and political and aesthetic education of citizens. Hence the idea of \u200b\u200bthe "enlightened monarchy", according to which the ruler is the "philosopher on the throne", perceiving the principles of education, may be the way "good legislation" to establish fair social orders.
3. Historical optimism The enlighteners are based on the idea of \u200b\u200ba "natural man", according to which a person is kind of kind, and the reason for evil in it is infringement by the civilization of its natural, natural start. Inquiries, desires, aspirations and the goals of such a person were announced reasonable. The enlighteners believed in a person, his mind and a bright future, considered him the Creator of History. These ideas are based on the theory of "Natural Law" and "Public Agreement". In contrast to the teachings on the divine origin of power, its unlimited supporters of the theory of the "public contract" on the basis of the doctrine of natural law and the idea of \u200b\u200bpopular sovereignty. According to which the source and the final owner of any power is the people, argued that the state formed by the will of free and independent individuals (public contract) is obliged to ensure that they are essential (natural rights - rights to life, freedom and private property). Rousseau in the book "On the Public Agreement" argued that since the state arises on the basis of the contract, citizens are entitled to terminate the contract in the event of abuse of power.
The ideology and philosophy of enlightenment had a great influence on all spheres of society; The ideas of enlightenment are alive and today in the desire of humanity to universal humanistic values; And the leaders of the Enlightenment remain an example of a dedicated struggle for new ideals. The spirit of enlightenment and the enlightener is figuratively expressed in the following characteristic, which M. Gorky gave Volter: "... Voltaire, a man with a devil's face, all his life, like Titan, fought with vulgarity. Fastened was the poison of his wise laughter! Even priests who have fed thousands of books, not a spill of their stomach, went to death with one page of Voltaire, even kings, defenders of lies, he forced respect to the truth. "
In order for you to feel the originality of the Spirit and the style of philosophy of enlightenment, read small fragments of texts and compare the formulation and solving the philosophical and ideological problems with different philosophers.
Option 1.
After reading two fragments of text, answer questions:
what philosophical problems are delivered here?
what is the similarity and the difference in their interpretation by various representatives of the philosophy of enlightenment.
(one). Gotchold Lessing
"After all, the exercise of the mind with such a self-tenderness of the human heart is only on what is connected with our physical needs, would mean not to sharpen, but to fade it. In order for the reason to achieve full clarity and created the purity of the heart, which instills in us the ability to love virtue for her herself, he must exercise in comprehending of spiritual items ...
No, it will come, it will surely come, at this time of perfection, when a person, as his mind, will be all confident in the best ... The future ... He will create good for the sake of goodness, and not for the reward that We are caked by someone's arbitrariness ... ".
Lessing E. Education of the human race // Man. Thinkers of the past and the present about his life, death and immortality. - M.: Ipl, 1991. - p.385).
"Mephistopheles"
"... I'm talking about the planets to speak,
I will tell you how people are fighting, lights.
God's universe, a person is
Whatever he was speaking centuries.
He was better to live a little bit, not Ozari
His you are sparking from the inside.
He calls this spark mind
And with this spark cattle lives cattle.
Please forgive, but in your receptions
He seems like insects.
Half-half, half
He scrolls like a locust.
Oh if he was sitting in the grass of the bow
And in all the fucking would not have sued the nose! "
(Goethe I.V. Faust // Selected works in 2 volumes - M.: True, 1985. - T. II. - p.135).
Option 2.
Compare the formulation and solving the philosophical problems with enlighteners of the XVIII century on the proposed text fragments.
(one). Jean Jacques Rousseau
"Like the body, the spirit has its needs. Body needs are the basis of society, and the spiritual decorate it. While the government and laws protect public security and welfare of fellow citizens, science, literature and art - less despotic, but perhaps more powerful - wrapped the garlands of colors of people with iron chains, muffle the natural feelings of freedom for which they seemed It would be born, forced them to love their slavery and create the so-called civilized peoples. The need erected the thrones, science and art of them approved. The strengths of this world, love talents and patronize their owners. "
(Rousseau J. Zh. Reasoning about the sciences and arts ... // Anthology of world philosophy. - K., 1991. - T.1. - Part 2. - p.152)
(2) Johann Gottfried Gerder
"There is no doubt that in general everything that has not yet accomplished on earth will take place in the future; For unfavorable human rights and strengths embedded in him, the God is indestructible ... The deity helps us only through our diligence, our mind, our own strength. After it created the land and all the creations, devoid of mind, it created a man and told him: "Be my likeness, God on earth! Hlad and domination! Producing all noble and beautiful that you can create from our nature; I can't help you with miracles, because I put in your human destiny in your human hands; But all the sacred, eternal laws of nature will be assisted.
Gerder I. G. Another experience in the philosophy of history to upbringing humanity // Comm. Cit. - M., L., 1959. - p.273
Option 3.
After reading two fragments of the text answer questions:
ü what concept here is outlined?
ü which of the philosophers of the new time was it first formulated?
ü what is the similarity and distinction of interpretations of this problem in the presented texts?
(1) Charles Montesquieu
"As a physical creature, a person, like all other bodies, is managed by unchanged laws, as a creature, gifted by the mind, he freely violates the laws established by God, and changes the chases themselves. He must lead himself, and, however, it is a restricted creature, as any death is a reasonable creature, he becomes a victim of ignorance and delusion and often loses those weak knowledge that he has already managed to purchase, and as a feeling of feelings, he is in power thousands of passions . Such a creature is capable of every minute to forget his creator - and God reminds itself in the covenants of religion; Such a creature is capable of every minute to forget himself - and philosophers send it by the laws of morality; Created to life in society, he is able to forget his neighbor - and legislators call him to fulfill their duties through political and civil laws. "
Montesquieu S. - L. On the spirit of laws // Anthology of world philosophy. - K., 1991. - T.1 - Part 2. - p.111
(2) Jean Jacques Rousseau
"The transition from a natural state to civil produces in a person a very noticeable change, replacing an instinct justice in his actions and telling his actions the moral beginning, which they had not previously had ... Although in a state of a public person and deprived of many advantages with which he possessed in natural condition, but it acquires a much greater advantage: his abilities exercise and develop, his thought expands, his feeling is refined, and his whole soul rises to such an extent that if the abuse of new living conditions did not reduce it often to the state lower, With something from which he came out, he would have to be indifferent to a happy moment, ... who turned him out of a stupid limited animal to the creature - in man. "
Rousseau J. Zh. Reasoning about the sciences and arts // Anthology of world philosophy. - K., 1991. - T.1. - Part 2. - p.160-161.
Once again, refer to thinking of philosophers - enlighteners in search of a response to the question: what kind of virtues were worshiped in this era? And again we return to our table "Virtue in the history of culture" and fill the last column: the culture of the era of modern. The table is filled. Spend a comparative analysis of the era. Did the idea of \u200b\u200bthe moral ideal of a person changed significantly? What conclusions follow from the answer to this question.
In the philosophy of enlightenment, the problem of the moral nature of man was clearly delivered. Some philosophers argued that the person is kind of kind, and civilization makes him evil, greedy, envious. Others argued that a person is originally unilateral and imperfect and only the right upbringing in society can make it a person. What position do you join? Why? What life conclusions follow from your position?
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