Economic science deals with the fundamental problems of society; It concerns everyone belongs to everyone.

Ludwig von Mises

People who have never systematically studied economic theory, similar to the deaf who are trying to evaluate the sound of the orchestra.

Paul Samuelson

The origin and main stages of the development of economic theory as science

The needs of a person are very diverse. The main source of their satisfaction is the economy, the economic activity of people, since they create the necessary conditions for this. The economy allows you to transform natural resources into goodcomer consumption by society.

The concept of the economy (from c. Oikonomia, literally - art historical science of household) is now used in four values:

• - national economy of a certain country, groups of countries or the whole world;
• - the scope of the economic activity of a person in which the vital benefits are being created and consumed;
• - A combination of economic relations between people in the field of production, distribution, exchange and consumption of products that form a specific economic system.

Economy as a complex, diverse structured system is an object of studying special science - economic science.

Economic science - This is the sphere of mental human activity, the function of which is the knowledge and systematization of objective knowledge of the laws and principles of development of real economic reality.

The first attempts to study individual aspects of economic processes are still known from the works of the ancient Greek and Roman thinkers (Xenophon, Aristotle, Plato, Katon, Warron, Seneki, Columella), as well as thinkers of ancient Egypt, China and India. They investigated the problems of housekeeping, as well as agriculture, trade, wealth, taxes, money, etc.

Economic science as a knowledge system on the essence of economic processes and phenomena began to be born only in the XVI-XVII centuries, when the market economy began to acquire a general nature. The main stages of the development of economic science are shown in Fig. 1.1.

Mercantilism. Supporters of this school are the main source of wealth considered the sphere of circulation, trade, and wealth was identified with the accumulation of metal money (gold and silver). The views of this school representatives expressed the interests of trade bourgeoisie during the initial accumulation of capital and the development of foreign trade. Representatives: A. Montconien, T. Mann, D. Yum, V. Stafford.

Physiocrats. Unlike mercantlers, physiocrats first moved a study from the sphere of appeal directly to the sphere of production. But the source of wealth was considered only the primary sector - labor in agricultural production. In their opinion, industry, transport and trade are fruitless spheres, and the work of people in them only covers the costs of their existence and unreliable for society. Representatives: F. Kene, A. Turgo, V. Mirabo, etc.

Classical political economy. Originated with the development of capitalism. Her founders of U. Petty, A. Smith, D. Ricardo for the first time gave a systemic statement of economic science as a single holistic scientific discipline. They focus on analyzing economic phenomena and patterns of development of all areas of capitalist production, seek to reveal the economic nature of wealth, capital, income, loan, circulation, competition mechanism. It was they who marked the beginning of the theory of labor value, and the market was considered as a self-regulating system.

Marxism, or political labor economy. The founders of this area K. Marx and F. Engels explore the system of laws of capitalist society from the standpoint of the interests of the working class. Continuing the study of the theory of labor value, they conducted an analysis of the development of value forms, offered their concept of surplus value, money, labor productivity, reproduction, economic crises, land rental. However, some of the provisions of Marxism - on the denial of private property and the market, strengthening the operation and growth of the imparting workers under capitalism, the only factor of the formation of the surplus value, the benefits of social property, the inevitability of the collapse of capitalism did not have adequate scientific validity and did not find practical confirmation. Therefore, they are now revised and are subject to fair scientific criticism.

Marginalism (from Eng. Marginal - the limit) - the theory that explains the economic processes and phenomena on the basis of a universal concept of using limit, extreme ("max" or "min") values \u200b\u200bcharacterizing the internal essence of the phenomena themselves, and their change due to the modification other phenomena. The study of marginists is based on such categories as "limiting utility", "limiting performance", "limiting costs", etc. Marginalism uses a quantitative analysis, economic and mathematical methods and models, which are based on subjective psychological assessments of economic processes and phenomena. Representatives of marzhinalism - K. Menger, F. Vierz, W. Jevons, L. Valras.

In modern Western economic science there are different directions, flows, schools, the typology of which differs in both the methods of analysis and the understanding of the subject and purpose of the study. Conceptually different approaches to solving economic problems. However, these differences are largely conditional, therefore, the entire set of modern non-commissist currents and schools can be grouped into such four main directions: neoclassicism, Keynesianism, institutionalism, neoclassical synthesis (Fig. 1.2).

Neoclassicism He examines and develops the ideas of classical political economy, taking into account modern conditions. It denies the need for state intervention in the economy, considers the market as a self-regulating economic system, capable of independently establish the necessary balance between the total demand and the cumulative proposal. Founders of theory - A. Marshall and A. Liga. Followers - L. Mises, F. Hayek, M. Friedmen, A. Laffer, J. Gilder, F. Keigan, etc.

The neoclassical direction covers a lot of different concepts and schools: "Monetarism", the "theory of public selection", the "theory of rational expectations" and others. The concept of monetarism recognized by the theorist of which is American economist Milton Friedmen is particularly popular. Adherents of monetarism - F. Knight, J. Stigler, F. Keigan, A. Goldman.

Monetarism - The theory, which suggests the rejection of the active state intervention in the economy and attributes the money supply that is in circulation, the role of the defining factor in the formation of economic equilibrium, the development of production and changes in the volume of gross domestic product (GDP). According to the rule of monetarism, the increase in money supply (monetary base) should be coordinated with the growth rates of GDP, price dynamics and speed of money on such a scheme (Fig. 1.3).

Fig. 1.3. Monetary GDP Regulation Levers

Keynesianism - One of the leading modern theories, as opposed to neoclassics, justifies the need for active state intervention in regulating the market economy by stimulating the aggregate demand and investment through the implementation of a certain credit and budget policy. The founder of the theory is the outstanding English economist J.M. Keynes. Keynesianism emerged in the 1930s of the XX century. As an answer to the need to overcome the Great Depression (1929-1933), which set the economic system of capitalism on the edge of a complete disaster. Ideas J.M. Keynes, outlined in his main work "General Theory of Employment, Percentage and Money" (1936), was widely used by leading countries of the world in the practice of regulating the market economy and allowed relatively quickly overcome crisis phenomena, achieve the stable rates of economic growth and dynamic equilibrium. The Keynesian concept of stimulating demand is shown in Fig. 1.4.

Adherents and followers J.M. Keynes (J. Robinson, P. Staffa, A. Hansen, N. Kaldor, R. Lucas, etc.) advocate for the active participation of the state in the structural restructuring of the economy, consider it necessary to introduce anti-crisis and anticyclic regulation, redistribution of income, increasing social benefits and Dr.

Institutionalism, or institutional and sociological direction, whose representatives are T. Weblin, J. Commons, W. Mitchell, J. Gelbreit, Ya. Tinbergen, Murdal, etc., considers the economy as a system in which relations between business entities arise under The influence of both economic and legal, political, sociological and socio-psychological factors. The objects of study for them are "institutions", under which they understand the state, corporation, trade unions, as well as legal, moral and ethical norms, customs, mentality, people's instincts, etc.

Neoclassical synthesis - Summarizing concept, whose representatives (D, Hicks, J. Byucken, P. Samuelson, L. Klein, etc.) justify the principle of uniting market and state regulation of economic processes, approve the need to move to a mixed economy. The principle of rational synthesis of the neoclassical and keivsian directions of economic theory adhere to the principle of rational synthesis.

Renimating important strategic solutions in commercial activities It is also necessary to analyze the mechanism of their action from the standpoint of the main economic laws.

Many economic laws We do not think about the essence already automatically apply in daily activities. Therefore, it is not always possible to use them all in the complex. Indeed, to successfully fulfill the task and achieve the intended goal, it is necessary to conduct a comprehensive analysis and evaluation of actions.

Major Economic Laws

• the law of elevation of needs;
• the law of relationships between supply and price (the law of demand);
• the law of the relationship between proposal and price (the law of proposals);
• the law of the relationship between proposal and demand;
• the law of increasing additional costs;
• the law of decreasing profitability;
• the law of economic relationship between the costs of production and consumption;
• the effect of the effect of production;
• the law of the effect of experience;
• the law of saving time;
• law of Competition.

Law of elevation needs

The law of elevation of needs is the tendency of permanent growth of human needs. This is an objective law of development of society, according to which the process of increasing species (names), varieties, a change in the structure (in favor of quality) of consumer goods and services and their quality.

The number of types of goods and services is doubled after 10 years, their volumes in physical terms and the structure varies differentiate for each assortment group.

Law of demand

The law of relationships between supply and price (the law of demand) characterizes the change in the price of the goods when the demand for it is changed (with the unchanged level of quality).

The price reduction (price) causes an increase in demand (quantity), raising the price causes a decrease in the amount of demand, i.e. the buyer either does not have the means to buy this product, or it buys that-var-substitute.

It should be especially noted that in reality the situation with this law is not so simple, because There are a number of non-price factors affecting demand:

• Income level in society;
• Market size;
• Fashion and seasonality;
• The presence of substitute goods;
• Inflation expectations.

Law of Offers

The law of demand describes the behavior of buyers when changing the price of goods. The behavior of sellers (manufacturers) of goods on the market describes the law of sentences. The offer is the aspect of market relations, which reflects the immediate relationship between the market price of the goods and its number offered by the seller, the manufacturer or intermediary.

The law of proposals characterizes the change in the price of the goods (price) when changing its supply in the market (Quantity).

If prices are rising, then more products will come to the market of this name, the market stimulates an increase in the amount of supply, sellers (manufacturers) beneficially increase sales (production volume). Conversely, if the price for this product will be reduced on the market (under the influence of market mechanisms, not sellers), the sellers become unprofitable to offer this product in the market and its proposal will be reduced.

Equilibrium demand and suggestions

The mechanism of action of the law of dependence between proposal and demand is explained by the interaction of the supply curve and the demand curve. Curve offers shows how much product and at what price manufacturers can sell on the market.

The higher the price, the greater the number of firms have the ability to produce and sell the goods. A higher price allows existing firms to expand the volume of production in a short period of time by attracting additional labor or using other factors, and within a long period of time, due to the extensive development of the production itself. A higher price may also attract new firms to the market, which are still great production costs and the products of which at low prices is unprofitable.

Demand Curve (Demand) shows how many products consumers are ready to purchase at each price. The buyer usually prefers to acquire more if the price is lower (with the same level of quality).

Two curves intersect at the point of equilibrium of supply and demand, i.e., with an equilibrium price and the number of goods on the assembled curves. At this point there is neither a deficit, no redundant offer, which means there is no pressure on the price change in the future. This law acts in the conditions of perfect, or clean, competition.

Act of increasing additional costs

The law of increasing additional costs characterizes the structure of the country's wealth, the ratio between accumulation and consumption. Enlargedly accumulates include acquired or created material and intangible assets, consumption - a set of goods and services created for personal consumption by individuals.

The level of wealth of the country as a whole is determined by the level of its integrated development and natural-climatic conditions. In case of incomplete use of resources, additional costs increase, with the same level of consumption, the accumulation share decreases, the share of the internal gross product (GDP) per capita. The effectiveness of resource use in Russia is 2-3 times lower than in industrialized countries, and per capita GDP is 4-6 times less.

Law of decreasing return

The law of decreasing returns manifests itself at the micro level: it shows that more costs are required to receive each subsequent unit of efficiency than to receive the previous unit of efficiency, when the law scale has already exhausted itself.

For example, with increasing competition strength, the increment of each subsequent market share requires more costs than market increment to the same share in the previous period. Or the achievement of each additional increment of the mechanism of the machine requires funds many times more than spent on achieving the previous one's achievement.

Law of the Economic Relationship of Costs in the Spheres of Production and Consumption

The law of economic relationships in the field of production and consumption reflects the cost ratio in the areas of production (development, manufacture, storage) and consumption (delivery, use, restoration, disposal) of the object.

In the preparation of any strategic decisions, these types of costs should be taken into account. A significant increase, for example, the quality of the object entails the growth of production costs while reducing the share of operating costs in total costs. In this case, the optimal level of quality will be achieved with minimal cumulative costs.

Skip effect law

The law of the scale of scale is manifested in the fact that with an increase in the production program or performing any work (up to the optimal value), the permanent permanent (or indirect) costs, which include generalsavodskiy and communal, per unit of production, decrease, reducing it, respectively and its cost . In this case, the quality of products is rising.

Studies show that the release program can be increased by increasing the market share by increasing the competitiveness of products, performing a complex of work on unification and aggregation of homogeneous products. Due to scale effect The cost of the same type of products can be reduced to two times, and its quality of manufacture increases to 40%.

The law of the effect of experience

The scheme of the action of the effect of the experience of the performance of work or the development of new products is similar to the scheme of the action of the law scale.

Obviously, when a person performs work for the first time, he will leave for it several times more time than after the complete development of methods, techniques and skills of this work.

The law of saving time

The law of saving time in the author's interpretation states that innovative activity should provide a steady increase in the effectiveness of similar objects, i.e., a decrease in the amount of the costs of the past (emitted), living and future labor for the life cycle of this object per unit of useful effect (giving) compared to with the previous model of the object or the best world sample.

There were no "future work" categories in economic theory, as a result of which the law of saving time in scientific and educational literature was considered (in Soviet times) and is being considered as saving the amount of past and living labor per unit of products.

Such a narrow static approach to the main law of the efficiency of social production - law saving time - excludes the operational costs and useful effect of the object from the scope of the study, leads in perspective to the inefficient use of resources in a national economic scale.

Law of Competition

The law of competition is the law, in accordance with which the world occurs in the world, the objective process of constant improvement of the quality of products and services, reducing their specific price (prices divided by the useful effect of the object).

The law of competition is the objective process of "removal" from the market of low-quality expensive products. The law of competition can work for a long time only when high-quality antitrust legislation will work.

Major Economic Lawsare not in themselves difficult to understand. This is the basic, simplest rules that describe work in the competitive market. But at the same time, neglect of even one of these basic laws is enough to lose the opportunity to achieve the outlined result.

The emergence of economic ideas refers to the time of human occurrence. The origins of the same economic science should be sought in the teachings of thinkers of the ancient world. Old Indian "Laws Manu" (IV-III centuries. BC. E.), " Artyhasaster (II century BC. Er), Babylonian " The laws of the king Hammurapi " (XVIII BC. Er), Ancient Chinese " Book of Change " And other sources noted the existence of a public division of labor, private ownership, relations of domination and subordination between people.

Vertex report of the report The development of economic thought is related to the activities of ancient thinkers. Views of ancient Greek philosophers Xenophite. (430-354 BC. Er), Plato (427-347 BC.) , Aristotle (384-322 BC er) can be characterized as theoretical source points of modern economic science. For example, there were issues such as the cost and price of goods, utility, exchange relationships, functions of money, etc. It is considered that the term "economy" himself denoting the doctrine of the management of the economy was introduced into the scientific circulation Aristotle. In ancient Rome, the problems of applied, primarily an agricultural nature, were of particular importance.

Christianity has changed an assessment of economic activities. It announced the work with the necessary and holy business. Ethical norms of behavior were transferred scholastami in the description of the economy. Therefore, the Economic Doctrine of the Middle Ages turned out to be more awarded the rules of norms and regulations of public life than the generalization of real economic practice.

As a science, economic theory occurs in the XVI-XVII centuries. The origins of it classic period It became a development mercantilism (From the Italian "Mercante" - a merchant), who, according to T.Negessi, is not a theoretical school, but a systematic policy aimed at creating strong centralized national states in the conditions established after the collapse of the medieval system for the organization of industry and trade. The main concern for mercantilists was the foundation of methods, with the help of which the state could get gold and silver, which were considered the main from wealth. The most famous of them began to prohibit the export of precious metals from the country and import of goods.

A special popularity among mercantlers had an English economist Thomas Man., recognizing the only source of wealth of trade, and the French researcher Antoine de Monkereynewhich in 1615 introduced the term "political economy", which meant "management of state property of the city".

In the middle of the XVIII, the economic schools actually begin to be formed. . PhysiCrats (from the Greek "Power of Nature") rejected the teachings of mercantilists, believing that the source of wealth is the excess of the product produced over consumed in agriculture. The prominent representative of this school was Francois Kene (1694-1774), which in its "economic tables" made a brilliant attempt to analyze public reproduction. Transitional bridge from mercantleists and physiocrats to classicalPolitEconomy Work steel William Petti. (1623-1686). Wide fame received his saying "Labor is a father and the most active principle of wealth, and the Earth is his mother."

Adam Smith and David Ricardo entered the story as founders of classical political economy. Its main idea is liberalism, minimal government intervention in the economy, market self-regulation based on free competition, which A. Smith called the "invisible hand." Polytecomony's classics laid the foundations of the labor theory of value and income exercise, tried to disclose the economic laws of development of the modern society.

Classical political economy has become the basis for the entire subsequent development of economic science, putting the main problems and suggesting the main research methods. Based on the traditions of the classic school of political economy, K. Marx and F. Engels in the middle of the XIX century. Created a theoretical concept that received a generalized name marxism. Their ideas that consider the laws of development of capitalism and the concept of socialism have had a significant impact on the development of domestic economic theory up to the 1980s.

In parallel with Marxism, the theory was formulated marginalism (from the English "limit"), which started the beginning of the new neoclassical stage Development of economic thought. The classics of this theory were economists austrian school Karl Menger (1840–1921), Friedrich von Vizer (1851–1926), Eigen von Bam-Baberk (1851-1914). Marginalism Unlike previous schools of economic analysis proceeded from the use of limit, additional values \u200b\u200bcharacterizing the change in the state of the object of analysis.

Within the framework of the neoclassical stage, modern economic theories have been allocated, formed at the end of the XIX - early XX centuries. Their main directions are neoclassical, Keynesian and institutional sociological.

Neoclassical direction It began to communicate with the design of the "New Classic Economy", which is an attempt to synthesize marginalism and classical political economy. It is represented by modern theories monetarism (M.Fridmen (born 1912)) and neoliberalism (F. Hayek (1899–1992)).

Founder keynesian direction is an John Meinard Keynes (1883-1946). Its works were given the most important theoretical substantiation of state regulation of the economy through financial and monetary policy.

Rodonamel institutional and sociological direction is an Torstain weblin (1857-1929). The name of the concept comes from the Latin "Institution" - an institution, organization, establishment. All of her supporters consider the economy as a system that includes a set of economic and non-economic factors and relations.

Modern economic theory, being the heiress of the richest knowledge, does not discard anything that the economists of the past centuries contributed. It continues their ideas, complementing or specifying scientific analysis, so this stage of economic science development is customary with the formation of a new paradigms. Under it means a system of fundamental prerequisites, research methods adopted in science, as well as submission of scientists about how to solve problems. The modern paradigm provides for the possibility of synthesis, and not the opposition of various economic schools and directions of analysis.

Many modern economists have made outstanding discoveries in theories that have found their use in practice and contributed to improving the impact on economic development. Evidence of this is the annual award of the Nobel Prize - the highest scientific award. Nobel Prizes in the economy are awarded since 1969, and they are currently over 30. Among the winners of the premium - P.Samuelson, V. Neontyev, M.Fridmen, L. Kantorovich, K. Errow, J. Hicks, Saximon , R. Sollo, J. Buchanan, Ya .TIlbergen, S. Kuznets and other prominent economists.

1.2. Subject of economic theory and its function

There is still no generally accepted definition of economic theory. It covers such a wide range of values \u200b\u200bthat any important aspects remain disregarded with any brief definition. thing but. However, the main problem of economic theory and practice consists in resolving the contradiction between the limitless needs of people and limited resources.

In the broad sense of the word economic theory - this is the science of patterns and economic growth factors in the repressive dynamics of reproduction; on the use of limited resources for the production of goods and services and the exchange of them in order to meet the needs; on the types of production and exchange, about the daily business of people related to the extraction of existence; about public wealth.

Structurally, economic theory includes two sections: microeconomics and macroeconomics. Microeconomicshe studies the behavior of individual economic agents. Its founders are representatives of marzhinalism. In the center of its analysis - the prices of individual goods, costs, costs, forms and mechanisms for the formation of capital and functioning of the company, the pricing mechanism, the motivation of labor. Macroeconomics He studies economic processes and phenomena at the state level. The object of its research is a national product, economic growth, employment, inflation. Macro- and microeconomics are interconnected and organically interact.

Macroeconomics, like microeconomics, is section of Economics. Translated from the Greek word "macro" means "big" (respectively, "micro" - "small"), and the word "economy" - "maintenance" (Shevchuk D.A., Shevchuk V.A. Macroeconomics: Lecture Summary. - M.: Higher Education, 2006). In this way, macroeconomics is a science that studies the behavior of the economy as a whole or its major aggregates (aggregates), while the economy is considered as a single complex large hierarchically organized system, as a combination of economic processes and phenomena and their indicators (Shevchuk D.A. Macroeconomics: Lecture Summary. - Rostov-on-Don: Phoenix, 2007).

Unlike microeconomics, which studies the economic behavior of individual business entities (consumer or manufacturer), macroeconomics explores problems common to the whole economy, and operates cumulative values, such as gross domestic product, national income, cumulative demand, cumulative supply, cumulative consumption, investment, general price level, unemployment rate, public debt, etc.

Determination of the subject of economic science through limited resources, the classical wording of which belongs to Lionel Robbins (1932), consists of four conditions:

1) a person is committed to various purposes;

2) time and means at its disposal are limited;

3) they can be aimed at achieving alternative purposes;

4) At any time, the goals have varying importance.

Only all the conditions taken together create a situation of choice.

The main problem of the economy is the choice of directions and ways to use limited resources. From here, there are three fundamental tasks that individual people face and society as a whole in the process of choice - what, how and for whom to produce? Depending on the methods of solving these tasks, three economic systems distinguish: traditional, market and command. In a market economy, the price system determines: "What", "as" and "for whom". For this reason, microeconomics are often called the price theory (Shevchuk D.A. Microeconomics: lecture ability. - Rostov-on-Don: Phoenix, 2007).

The criterion for response to the first question "What needs most important and to what extent can they be satisfied?" Performs value. In a market economy, it, along with cost, determines the price of goods, and the evaluation process itself is produced by the buyer. A greater need is consistent with readiness to pay a higher price in this way, the farming establishes the price structure, which reflects the relative value of various goods and services for society as a whole. When a change in preferences, the structure of consumer spending is changing, as a result - the price structure changes, and we answer the question "what to produce?" In a different.

Problem "How to produce?" You can smash on a series of collisters:

1. How should the resources between the industries should be distributed?

2. What kind of firms (enterprises) should produce production in each industry?

3. What are the combinations of resources (what technology) should the firm apply?

And again the price system tells us the right answers. The more product you need, the higher its price and higher profits from its production. In turn, more profitable firms are ready to pay more for the resources. There is an adjustable resource flow market from firms producing less necessary goods, in firms producing more desirable goods and services. The choice of a specific technology is determined by the intrafirm goal - to produce goods as cheaper (minimize costs). This choice depends on the prices of production factors.

Product distribution and answer to the question "Who should get the good?" Depends on the distribution of income between individuals in accordance with the prices of resources and the number of resources with which each individual possesses. Those who have large income get a large proportion of products.

Alternative costs.

When choosing an optimal use of the resources "Alternative value" of the choice, you can call the best of the options that I had to donate.

For example, an alternative cost of studying at the Institute - Earnings of the Student, if he worked.

The most important concept of economic science is alternative costs. In the literature, the expressions "Costs of lost opportunities" are also used as synonyms. "Alternative costs", "Alternative cost", "impregnated costs" and some others).

Alternative costs of the current use of the resource - the income from the remaining alternative ways to use it.

"Microeconomics" in the system of economic disciplines.

Micro, Meso, Macro, World (Mega).

It should be emphasized that microeconomics is largely abstract science, it is not designed to give answers to questions like "How to earn a million and how to spend it then?". It is impossible to say that it fully reflects the realities of economic life or even strives for this, as physics, for example, seeks to give a holistic physical picture of the world. It only explores the main features of the economy, using various simplifying prerequisites and models. One of the most important prerequisites is a hypothesis of the rational behavior of economic agents.

In contrast to other social sciences, an economic approach to behavior analysis is based on the assumption of the actions of individuals exclusively in its own interests, and the purpose of these actions is maximizing utility.

Methodology of microeconomics: postulates and models.

The main research method - the study of objects is not directly, but indirectly by analyzing models.

In economic theory, iconic modeling is used, as a rule of formula and graphics.

The microeconomics uses optimization models (maximum utility, limit costs, etc.) and equilibrium (market balance).

To describe how prices and factors interact, their determinants, various models are used in microeconomics. Models are used to obtain conclusions from the theory and Tsang prediction of how changes in economic conditions lead to a change in decisions and to changes in the prices and volumes of sold and purchased goods. The conclusions from the economic model are expressed in the form of hypotheses, which are approval of the causes and consequences that can be confirmed or refuted by the facts. At the same time, the model is simplified and abstraction that does not apply for a mirror reflection of reality. They must be detailed smoothly enough to satisfy the original goal, and not more. And the basic principles taken from simple models do not contradict the principles of action of complex models (Shevchuk D.A. Microeconomics: Abstract lectures. - Rostov-on-Don: Phoenix, 2007).

Economic theory performs several functions. Cognitive functionallows you to disclose the essence of economic phenomena and contributes to the formation of economic thinking. Thanks methodological function Economic theory of general (object as a whole), relying on general laws as the initial methodological parcels of the analysis. Practical function Provides economic policies.

The mutual relationship of these functions is manifested in the interaction of economic policies, economic practices and science reflected scheme 1.

Scheme 1.

Interaction of economic policies, business practices and science.

The basis of economic theory is a study of social production, which serves as the initial point of the emergence of new needs and interests. Needs contribute to qualitative and quantitative changes in production, affecting it not directly, but through the market and economic policies. The latter, in turn, is exposed to not only production, but also economic science. The implementation of the objectives of economic policies can lead to a change in social production, its improvement, which is reflected in the subsequent development of economic theory. The allocation of the functions of economic theory makes it possible to determine its place among other economic sciences (Scheme 2).

Scheme 2.

The place of economic theory in the system of economic sciences.

1.3. Basic methods and principles of economic analysis

Method - These are those receptions and tools of research that has methodology As an independent science of the method.

When studying economic processes and phenomena, it should be about two aspects of the analysis. First, it is a study of internal processes at the microeconomic level. It implies use minimum or maximum setting method When determining limit values. Secondly, the aspect of the consideration of external relations characterizing the relationship between production agents. The prevailing here is speaking meeting of equilibrium both at the level of macroeconomics and at the level of microeconomics.

The relationship of economic theory and methodology does not exhaust the role of the research method, it has its own special techniques and specifics. First of all, it principle It needs to consider phenomena in development. The research potential of the principle of historicism is very large, it includes comparative historical method, unity of historical and logical etc.

The methods and techniques for analyzing economic reality include induction and deduction, analysis and synthesis. . Induction- This is the process of creating a theory from a set of observations. It provides a transition from private observations to generalization. . Deduction- The process of predicting future events using the theory. It provides the transition from total to private . Analysis means studying the subject in parts, i.e. its individuals and properties so that the results obtained are then reduced to an integer, produce synthesis.

The most important method of economic theory is systems approachExploring functional connections - direct and inverse relationships between variables. Its use showed that economic laws and categories are not absolute, but relative in nature, which allows you to move away from one-sidedness and categorical judgment.

Economic theory is widely used mathematical and Statistical Methodswhich allow you to identify the quantitative side of the processes and phenomena of economic life, their transition to a new quality. Of particular importance for economic theory has modeling, i.e., a formalized description of the economic process or phenomenon whose structure is determined by the objective properties and the subjective target nature of the study. When building a model applied abstraction method: By keeping the main functional dependences of the variables of economic quantities and not considering the minor, the model reproduces simplified economic ties, which allows you to create complex theoretical systems. After building a model, it is necessary to check how much it corresponds to real economic processes. Models are static, in which the economic system is analyzed at a certain point in time, and the dynamic, which are the basis for forecasting development in the future. Linear and nonlinear models are also distinguished. A distinctive feature of nonlinear models is the complex nature of connections that cannot be expressed by the system of linear equations. In addition to mathematical (iconic) models in economic theory, graphic models are used.

Economic principles - These are generalizations containing several inaccurate quantitative definitions in the form of medium data or statistical probabilities.

Among the economic principles are the most common are:

- assumption "with other things to equal terms", allowing to consider all economic variables, with the exception of those currently being considered unchanged;

- the principle of "cost-benefits", requiring economically rational choice from a number of alternatives;

- The principle "After that, does not mean because of this," requiring non-mixing correlation (dependence) with causality.

When studying economic problems often use positive and regulatory analysis. Based on this, there are positive and regulatory economic theories. Positive analysis makes it possible to see the relationship between real economic phenomena and processes, the regulatory analysis is based on the study of what and how it should be. Regulatory approval is usually derived from positive, but objective facts cannot prove its truth or falsity. With regulatory analysis, estimates are made - it is fair or not, bad or well, permissible or unacceptable.

Economic theories are formulated in the form of positive assertions, although most discrepancies between economists arise when considering regulatory analysis issues.

Thus, the study of economic problems leads to the identification and failure of the facts, the establishment of the principles characterizing the real behavior of individuals and institutions. The elimination of the principles from the facts is the maintenance of the economic theory, which is necessary for the development of a successful economic policy (see scheme 3).

Scheme 3.

Communication between factors, principles and policies in the economy.

Economic policy - a targeted system of state events in the field of social production, distribution, exchange and consumption of goods. She is designed to reflect the interests of society, all of its social groups, and aims to strengthen the national economy.

Large transformations, changes in the management system of the economy, economic management, paths and methods of implementing economic policy make up the content of economic reforms.

Reform - specially organized and on legal principles conducted by the highest authorities of the transformation of public relations (economic, social, political, etc.) or individual spheres of state and society (finance, education, defense, etc.), and we are talking about quite significant The layers of these relations, about the important areas of public and public life.

Prerequisites for modern economic reform in Russia can be considered attempts to transform the centralized planned economy, called the "Perestroika" (spring 1985 - August 1991), when the first steps were taken towards a real market economy. At the same time, the main task was to be the root reconstruction of the national economy on the basis of scientific and technological progress, with deep structural shifts in public production, with a radical reform of the economic mechanism, capable of providing socialism to socialism. In the development of modern economic reform in Russia, associated with an attempt to build a market system, several stages can be distinguished (see Table 1)

Table 1.

Stages of economic reform in modern Russia.

The deepest crisis in which there was a country, unsuccessful attempts to interrupt its current indicate the inadequacy of the received reform version of the time and conditions of the country and urged the need to create a new concept of reforming with the modern characteristics of the quality of life of the people on the basis of the formation of a new technological method of production and multi-brain, Socially oriented, dynamic market economy with a significant role of the state in regulation. Of particular importance in the process of developing a new reform strategy is attached to regional policies. This is due to the existence of trends in economic and political disintegration. An example of Chechnya shows what dangerous limits can reach the sovereignty process, which victims among the population and in the economy this can lead if it is not blocked on time or not solved within the framework of the law. This proves the need to apply more efficient reform tools, adopting suspended political and economic decisions that contribute to the preservation of the integrity of the state. Such requirements are due to the general course of economic reform in all regions of the country. Therefore, in many documents relating to regional policies, it is said that modern economic reform should be aimed at: equalizing the economic and social development of regions in all indicators determining the standard of living of the population; the formation of effective territorial proportions, large production complexes, creating conditions for the territorial settlement system; Overcoming disproportion in the development of the national economic complex and individual industries based on the reduction of the commodity sector of the economy in favor of the processing sphere and the scope of services; Changes in the administrative and territorial structure of Russia and its zoning.

Training tasks to the topic 1

1. Give your comment and determine which conclusions are positive and what - regulatory: a) "Recently, in the Russian economy, there is a decline in production and high inflation rates"; b) "It is necessary to develop a set of measures to slow down or terminate the decline in production and a reduction in inflation rates"; c) "Primorsky Krai already at the initial stage of reforms received the necessary constitutional authority to substantiate and implement socio-economic policies adequate to the conditions available here. It ensured greater freedom of action to choose priority areas and effective mechanisms for entering the market. " d) "If the national production decline in 1991-92. It was explained by the very fact of the transition from the planned economy to the market, then in subsequent years it is already impossible and politically immoral to write down the "diseases" of the economy only by the grave heritage of the communist regime. "

2. What is the meaning of the fact that economic theory is not laboratory science? What problems may arise as a result of the formulation and application of economic principles?

3. Specify which of the following statements relates to macroeconomics, and what - to microeconomics: a) the unemployment rate in certain areas of Russia reaches 10%; b) the closure of mines as a result of a forced structural restructuring of the domestic economy led to massive dismissal of workers; c) GNP of Russia in five years has decreased by almost 40%.

4. Indicate which logical errors that violate the principles of economic analysis are contained in the following statements: a) workers in the coal mining industry raised their income as a result of wage growth, therefore, workers of all other industries will benefit if their salary increases; b) the rise in prices for gasoline in Russia was accompanied by an expansion of its sales, therefore, an increase in gasoline demand is caused by increasing its sales price; c) after the collapse of the USSR, the structural crisis in the CIS countries began to deepen, it means that its development is caused by political reasons; d) the rise in prices in Primorye is accompanied by the growth of wages, therefore, the population of the region wins from the rise in prices.

5. Based on common sense and your everyday experience, determine which functional bonds there are between: a) the cost of goods and in demand for it; b) your cash income and your savings; c) your cash income and current consumption costs; D) a percentage of loans and demand for credit.

Which of these dependencies are straight and which are inversely proportional?

Test on the topic 1

Select the only correct answer.

1. Economic theory can be defined as science

a) about the stock market; b) on public administration;

c) about public selection in limited resources;

d) how the state affects the activity of the market.

2. Which of these provisions is not related to the definition of the subject of economic theory?

a) efficient use of resources;

b) the unlimited resources; c) the system of needs;

d) maximum satisfaction of needs;

3. Economic model

a) reflects the main economic principles;

b) can explain how the real economy functions;

c) is often based on simplifications;

d) is the ideal display of reality.

4. The focusing process only on the most important factors to explain the phenomenon or phenomenon is called

a) abstraction; b) marginal analysis;

c) rational choice; d) controlled experiment.

5. Which of these economists is the founder of the labor theory of value in economic theory?

a) Aristotle; b) A. Smith; c) D. Ricardo; d) K.Marks.

6. The use of assumptions in economic analysis:

a) changes the internal logic of the theory or model;

b) facilitates the solution to the problem;

c) makes a model more realistic;

d) Increases the number of research issues.

7. Economic theory

a) deals exclusively by the prognostic characteristics of the development of economic systems;

b) contains provisions that are accepted by all economists;

c) is an accurate applied science;

d) cannot predict the future, but can explain the consequences of certain phenomena in the development of the economy.

8. Economic reform is

a) specially organized and conducted by the highest authorities of the transformation;

b) the alternative to the social revolution;

c) system of public experiments;

d) the transition of society to the market economy.

Below by mathematical analysis

it will be proved that the surplus value is not created

hired workers or invested capital

and the intellect of scientists, designers and technologists,

opening new laws of nature

developing new materials

samples of products and technology of their production,

as well as the natural energy that they will be able

put on the production service.

1. Intelligent theory of surplus value.

By the end of the 20th century, Marxism-Leninism passed all three stages stipulated by the process of knowledge: from the living contemplation of the class struggle of the proletariat and the bourgeoisie to abstract thinking, which gave the theory of the revolutionary reorganization of the world and from theory - to the practical experiment over the three generations of people of the Great Power.

The cycle is completed, it is time to analyze and draw conclusions. According to Lenin's expression, the cornerstone of the Marxist revolutionary teaching is the theory of surplus value. Check this "stone" for strength. Domarxist political economy at each stage only fixed the relationship observed in the social production and trade (as photo), but could not disclose and show the dynamics of their development, to explain the pattern of changing socio-economic formations and went into theoretical deadlock.

Marx, adopting a purely speculative conclusion Ricardo on the nature of the surplus value, developed this version in detail and turned into the theory, which became the basis of his teachings. Do not assume the possibility of further dialectical evolutionary development of capitalism (due to the above staticness of all theories), Marx very convincingly proved that the only way to resolve the main contradiction of capitalism (which, in his opinion, is that the surplus value is created by the worker class, and is assigned by capitalists) is the proletarian revolution, destroying operation together with exploitative classes: "... the revolution is necessary not only because there is no other way to overthrow the dominant class, but also because the overthrow class only in the revolution can lose all the old abominations and become able to create a new foundation of society "(Marx K. and Engels F., Op., 2nd ed., T.3, p.70). Than not philosophy Skolnikova, Hero Roman F.M. Dostoevsky "Crime and Punishment"? However, let us return to the issues of political economy, and the philosophical analysis of the theory will be held later.

I will open the seventh chapter of the first volume of "Capital" and recall that the industrial capital "k" consists of two parts: the permanent capital "C", spent on the means of labor, and the variable capital "V", spent on the acquisition of labor. Analyzing its capital formula

Marx makes the conclusion that the permanent capital "C" transfers its value to the products unchanged, and variable capital "V", i.e. Working force, creates also the surplus value of "M".

We will analyze as an example, which does not doubt Marxists, the following statement of Engels: "In the most advanced industrial countries, we have tamed the forces of nature, and put them on the service of a person; Thanks to this, we have immensely increased production, so now the child produces more than before hundreds of adults "(Marx K. and Engels F., Op., 2nd ed., Vol. 20, p.358). Reply for three questions that did not ask myself the founder:

a) Who are "we"?

b) What makes a child to produce more than hundred adult people?

c) who is the person who "we" put the strength of nature?

"We" are a well-defined circle of scientists and engineers (to which we do not apply, nor Engels, whose discoveries and inventions are applied in this production process, i.e. Materialized in labor. The word "produces" is applied wrong to the child. Baby does not produce. He manages the forces of nature, supplied by "us" to the service "Man". The child in this production is the supervisor for slaves at the slave owner. Replace the natural forces and mechanisms of hundreds of slaves, and everything will fall into place. And, as before the slaveman divided the surplus value created by slaves with the supervisor, so the owner of the production tools divides the surplus value created by the intelligence invested in this production process, with a child controlling the process, paying for the working time of the child at the labor market. Thus, the natural forces are delivered to the service to the owner of the means of production and the child, which in the separation from the production system itself cannot produce anything. The very "we", which put the strength of nature to the two service, do not participate in the distribution of surplus value! If someone has the idea that those workers who made the means of labor have been relevant to this surplus value, raw materials and energy resources, he will be wrong, because they do not differ from it. And in this case, the child can produce means of production, including for the resumption of its process. An absurd assertion of the classic that could be forgiven the mentioned child should be written as follows: "In the most advanced industrial countries, as a result of the scientists and engineers who did not pay for the creative work and hard physical work is so automated and replaced by nature forces that now one child can manage Equipment producing products more than before produced hundreds of adult artisans. " Now everything stands in their places, the true source of surplus value and the principle of its distribution is understood. We highlight from the overall concept of advanced capital not two, but five main factors (speaking by mathematical language, function arguments), which really acquires the capitalist: water, raw materials, energy, labor and intellect of engineers.

The formula will take the form:

K` \u003d C + I + V + E + F + M

i - Intellect (scientific, engineering and technical personnel, whose subject of labor, knowledge, knowledge, and the product of the work of the new product or new technology);

v - working force (workers, the subject of labor of which are material objects);

e - Energy (energy); F - raw materials and auxiliary materials;

m - surplus value.

Let us analyze the influence of each of the factors on the value of the surplus value (in reality the factors may be greater). First consider the energy carriers. The cost of fuel is equal to the cost of its production and transportation. Burning in the firebox of the steam machine, it highlights thermal energy, which is converted into mechanical energy that performs the main operation in the production process - the drive of mechanisms (machines). And this work is much larger than that which is done in the mining and transportation of fuel. It has the cost equal to the cost of the workforce replaced by it, which would require mechanisms in motion in the absence of a steam machine. The fuel is because it is mined that the energy contained in it is greater than the energy required for the extraction and transportation of this fuel. So, the energy carrier (fuel) in the production process creates through a steam machine (or other engine) the surplus value, equal difference in the cost of the released labor force, and the value of replacing its energy. It is the technical means that allowed to replace the labor force of the cheap force of natural energy resources, provided the rapid enrichment of capitalists during the industrial revolution!

We will estimate the role of intelligence in the production process. Improving the car and increasing its efficiency, automating manual operations and thereby reducing the cost of fuel and labor, the intelligence also creates the surplus value. For example, by having doubled KPD. The mechanisms, it creates the cost equal (in the first approximation) half the cost of the required fuel. Having increased twice the service life (resource) of the steam machine due to the right organization of its operation and maintenance or the use of new, more wear-resistant and durable materials, it creates the cost equal to the value of the second steam machine. In addition, unlike other factors, the intellect has an invaluable property, namely: the surplus value once created (thanks to new designs or technologies), now it will occur whether the production cycle is renewed, regardless of where the intellect that has created its intelligence!

But it does not come out of the air every time. So, once, creating the cost at the expense of a technical or organizational decision, the intellect forever conveyed the ability to reproduce to other factors of production. This means that each production factor does not simply transfers its value to the product produced, but creates the surplus value, the size of which is determined by the intelligence invested in this factor.

Consider labor - a factor that according to Marx is the only source of surplus value and the creator of all consumed and accumulated wealth. It is quite obvious that as it automates production, the share of his participation in the production process, gradually inferior to the intellect, will decline and, in the end, will disappear, and at the same time the surcharge costs will disappear.

So maybe he has a decisive contribution to production at earlier stages of development? Let us exclude from the production process of intelligence. An interesting picture is obtained: without the invention, the intelligence of the method of obtaining and useful use of energy and raw materials, they cannot be used, and the means of labor are not touchdown by intelligence, there is nothing but raised from the earth a stone or a stick. This method of production, where the only type of labor is physical cyclic work, does not allow to get a surplus product or surplus value. Working force in such conditions is capable only to reproduce itself. The workforce creates the surplus value, as well as other factors, so far, because it is invested by intelligence in the form of knowledge and skills necessary to perform certain hand-held operations. The labor force, in its pure form, should be considered as muscular energy and the skills of its use in the manufacturing process for performing not yet automated operations. It is possible to read this very much and Marx in the world famous "manifest of the Communist Party": "The worker becomes a simple attachment of the car, only the simplest, the most monotonous, easiest of all digestible techniques are required. In the whole surplus value, it is created by human intelligence, both alive who are directly involved in the production process and past, emitted in the means of labor, in the methods of obtaining and using energy and raw materials, in skills and knowledge of trained workers.

Indeed, any energy carrier until the intellect has found a method of useful use of its energy, it cannot become a production factor or product that has a price: who needs a wind to the invention of sails and wind turbines, or atmospheric electricity, if there is no way to get it and apply. Useless (from the point of view of production) wind energy, it becomes possible to sell only after turning it into the beneficial energy of rotating millstones, etc. Similarly, with raw materials: flax will not become a product until the invention of the method of obtaining yarn, and iron ore - before opening the method of smelting iron. Therefore, any type of energy and raw materials acquires the cost, and the ability to bring the surplus value only after the magical touch of intelligence to it. Even the use of new auxiliary materials created by the intelligence (lubricants, cooling liquids, etc.) increases the surplus value.

On this we will stop and dare to state that the word intelligentsia, who has ever served almost with curses, especially with the adjective "rotten", in fact it is exactly the fertile layer of society on which all the fruits of civilization have grown. The intelligentsia, being the main opener, the keeper and a distributor of knowledge, has a completely definite independent place in public production, has all the signs of the socio-political class and is such! Sample the classic Lenin definition of classes: "... Large groups of people differing in their place in a historically definite system of social production, by their relationship (mostly fixed and decorated in laws) to the means of production, by their role in the public organization of labor, and Therefore, according to methods of obtaining and sizes of the share of public wealth, which they have. Classes, these are groups of people, of whom one can appropriating the work of another, thanks to the difference of their place in a certain economy company "(Lenin V.I., full. Sob. Op., 5ium., T.39, p.15 ). There is a complete conformity to the definition, and from the point of view of production, and in terms of distribution. The intelligentsia is a class, the results of the mental labor of which are assigned the owners of the respective factors. The intellectual class is the socio-economic class, which was the first to be born in the depths of the primitive-communal system and ensured the further development of civilization. The first intellectuals are elders, shamans, leaders, in the functions of which included training of tribesmen making equipment tools, determining the time of sowing, harvesting and other works, the organization of joint labor, the distribution of responsibilities in the division of labor, etc. These "primitivelectuals" could no longer accept direct participation in physical work, and exist, consuming the surplus product produced by the tribe through the use of specially treated labor instruments and the rational organization of work. As the accumulation of the production of past extractable intelligence (their improvements), the amount of the surcharge product, or the magnitude of the surplus value, grew up. The intellectual class is the same "ugly dot", which did not recognize any class throughout the history of civilization, and which in the era of the scientific and technical revolution turns into a "swan". This class, thanks to which humanity has all material and cultural values. The remaining classes were accepted and accepted in the production of surplus value participation to the extent in which are the carriers of intelligence and implement it in practice. Thus, all the wealth accumulated humanity is a materialized intelligence in the entire history of its development.

The formula of Marx K` \u003d C + V + M is not a law, but a frozen photo of the most primitive manufactory of the XIX century, on which the capitalist was his own and engineer, and an accountant, and the supplier, and the seller. In the expanded form, the law is displayed as follows:

K` \u003d C + I + V + E + F + MC + MI + MV + ME + MF,

where: C is permanent capital (wage);

i - Intellect (scientific, engineering and technical staff, the subject of labor of which is information, knowledge, and its product - a new product or new technology);

v - working force (workers, the subject of labor of which are material objects to which they affect the means and methods inhibited by intelligence);

f - raw materials and auxiliary materials;

mC, MI, MV, ME, MF - surplus costs created by the relevant production factors.

Formula is valid for any formation, and displays any method of production at any stage. It changes from zero to infinity only the proportion of the participation of one or another factor. This formula is the law of economic development. Formula is also suitable for the irrational area of \u200b\u200bcreative labor. Creating, for example, a picture, the artist spends such a number of wages (easel, palette and brushes), energy (lighting and heating of the studio), raw materials and auxiliary materials (canvas, paints, solvents) that their value can be neglected. The cost of the picture is determined by the intelligence invested in it - the talent, the craftsmanship of the author. The owner of works of art can make a profit as a result of their demonstration, without consuming and not spending any resources.

We carry out a simple mathematical analysis of the bred law. Suppose that scientific and technical progress stopped at a certain level (red Khmers scored their "roting" intelligentsia) and exclude, in connection with this, from the formula only the intellectual factor and its surplus value. Initially, the rest of the factors will create the same surplus value as before, but, as the conditions for the extraction of natural resources are complicated, the rational of their reserves, the exhaustion of land, exacerbates the problems of processing and destruction of waste, the surplus value created by the remaining factors will decrease and, reaching Zero, can then turn into a negative value!

If you return for example with fuel, it will mean that it will require more energy at its prey and transportation at a certain point than this fuel contains it in itself. Similarly, with raw materials, its reserves are also limited. As a result of the limitity of agriculture of land, natural reduction in their area and exhaustion, with a constant population increase, the cost of food (phrase "food" do not use due to the fact that the product is called the result of the process, by analogy with combustion products) will grow . Such a process can continue until the surplus value created by the remaining factors does not zero, and the population will not begin to regulate hunger, like animals. This is the private, the case that is described by Marx Formula! When analyzing his formula (if analyzed), he did not consider that as a result of the limb of natural resources with each new cycle of reproduction, raw materials, energy resources, labor, and with them and the means of labor (without the impact on their intellect) will be expected until While production will not be unprofitable and will not stop. Save humanity from such a pessimistic final of extensive development and ensure constant progress and prosperity can only intelligence, and not just intelligence, but an advanced development of intelligence in relation to processes that reduces the performance of other factors!

Scientists have calculated the natural stocks of energy carriers and called small, on a historic scale, the deadlines for which they are still enough. Stretch, as the great D.I. Mendeleev, you can and banknotes, and if in the 21st century, scientists and engineers do not develop an industrial way to get cheap energy from new sources, and then new types of raw materials, I do not assume to predict the fate of earthlings in the XXII century, but I assume that the struggle for Antarctica will unfold and The bottom of the World Ocean (¾ planets, however).

Having completed the analysis of the understed law and considered the three cases (the first - when the parameter of interest "I" is interested in a constant value, the second - when it is addressed to zero, and the third one - when he strives for the top, not limited limit), can be consolidated with confidence, What exactly is this parameter (factor) - intelligence - determines the rate of development and the fate of civilization. All other parameters of formula (factors) are functions, intelligence, i.e. Change values \u200b\u200bonly under the influence of their argument - intelligence. "The bourgeoisie is rapidly improving all means of production and infinite facilitating means of communication involves everything in civilization, even the most barbaric nations ..." - written by Marx in the "Manifesto Communist Party". Marx error is that the bourgeoisie itself does not improve the tools of production, but creates the intellectual class for creativity and, with great benefits, assigns the fruits of this creativity. Often, the inventors themselves became owners or co-owners of enterprises using their invention, especially since at that time university education was a lot of wealthy people. Apparently, therefore, Marx and connected two classes in one. The process of industrialization causes naturally the rapid increase in the number of mental labor workers themselves, and on the other pole at this time as a result of mechanization and automation of labor workers, i.e. Simplified by their operations and attracting the workforce of "barbaric nations", the unemployed class is formed. This trend is objective, natural and was observed in developed countries in the XVIII century, and now touched us, but did not receive due dialectical assessment. It is impossible to constantly expand production, consumption is limited by the population and its working demand, and therefore with an increase in labor productivity, the unemployed class should grow.

Socialism, if it is so called the following formation for capitalism, where political power goes to the class of intellectuals, it will arise when this class, realizing its place in public production, and its historical purpose will create a political organization for the implementation of its class interests and goals. which will come to power with the mechanism of democratic elections. In this new formation, plutocracy (not from the Russian word of Plutos, but on behalf of the ancient Greek god wealth of the plutos) must change the power that I would call the NOURA - the power of the mind (from the Greek NOOS).

Summing up, it should be recognized that the economic teaching of Max, based on the achievements of science and technology of the XIX century, was a natural product of his time and in a number of issues was undoubtedly a step forward, but inheriting Ricardo's mistake, Marx made a number of new mistakes, customizing the theory under Revolutionary idea and rebellious spirit of the middle of the XIX century. The tragedy of Marxism is that he, in accordance with the eleventh thesis of Marx about Feyerbach, did not just explain the world, but becoming Marxism-Leninism, he took up his reorganization - from erroneous theory turned into real devastating power. And as if he said about him the great Goethe: - "There is nothing more dangerous for a new truth as an old error." The prophetic words about the revolutionary theory, which sounded in Unison Goethe, invested Dostoevsky in the mouth of the "demons" character - the former revolutionary Shatov: - "... Polnuku, the most terrible scary of mankind, worse than Mora, hunger and war, unknown until this century. Polnuku is a despot that has not yet come to now. The despot, having his priests and slaves, the despot, before which everything stuck with love and superstition, is still inconceivable, before which even science herself trembles and shamefully pursue him. "

After considering the question of the nature of the surplus value, it should be noted that certain doubts about the infallibility of Marxism-Leninism appeared in scientists developing this teaching. So, in the "True" of December 12, 1989 In the article "Smart Richer", Professor A. Zhuravlev wrote: - "... At a certain stage, in the late 40s - early 50s, we did not take into account the new social force, moving the HTR, namely, the workers of mental labor. Meanwhile, their role increases immeasurably, determining the emergence of a new economic theory, which should imagine as a special case, the classical political economy of the industrial society. " By this time, my theory was already written, but met the powerful resistance of scientists from Marxism-Leninism. Finally, 07.02.90. I managed to speak with her under Leningrad television, and 08.02.90. The "Change" newspaper published my article "Intellectual theory of surcharge cost" http://zerodragon.ucoz.com/publ/tema/intellektualnaja_teorija_pribavochnoj_stoimosti/4-1. Famous publicist Z.G. Oskot in his "humane bullet" so responded about it http://fanread.ru/book/4707296/?page\u003d2. He was, of course, the right is that then time has not yet come, but now, if you wait next, you can be late.

The existence on business trips in China (10 times) and observing the rapid development of its industry and science, with each trip, it seemed more and more to me that this country had already adopted published in 1990. The theory and in practice develops its scientific and technical potential in full compliance with it.

2. Dialectic analysis of anomaly called socialism.

Engels has a very curious example of dialectical transformations: "If you cut a worm, then it retains the receiving mouth with a positive pole, forming a new negative pole on the other end to selection; But the former negative pole (rear pass) becomes now a positive pole, i.e. It becomes the mouth, and a new rear pass is formed at the location, or a negative pole "(Marx K. and Engels F., Op. 2nd ed., Vol. 20, p. 531). It is very strange that Engels, several pages previously recognized that the history of nature and human society will obey the same general laws of dialectics, allowed not only the possibility of such an operation on humanity, but also considered it necessary. (Note: In fact, a part of the tail dies, and the part of the head lives and, if the root ports remain with it, multiplies). Lenin also brilliantly held this operation to destroy the old "head" and turning the "rear pass" into a new "head" above the peoples of the Great Power. This new "head" - a new layer of society, called the party and state bureaucracy, is suitable for all criteria under the previously determined classes: this is a fairly large group of people who has a completely definite and only its inherent attitude towards the means of production - it is monopoly with them. Do not own and not carrying economic responsibility for the consequences of its activities. The mechanism of education of this class is disclosed in the book M.S. Elena "Nomenclature", where the party and state bureaucracy (Nomenclature) never expressed the interests of the working class and, moreover, the peasantry, but acts only in their narrow interests. The bureaucracy consumes the best part of the wealth company produced by the Company, and invented, invented a new assignment method for this - created public consumption funds with special and special services, - a way, nothing in common with the work distribution. This method was presented as the sprouts of the communist distribution. The feature of him is that all its benefits, privileges, movableness and real estate representatives of the bureaucracy class received not in the property, but in use, and as a result, they were dependent on their position, becoming slaves of the system, and were afraid of the party ticket . The Soviet bureaucrat was particularly proud of its origin from the "rear passage". The lower the origin of the bureaucrat, it was believed to be strongerly connected with his roots with the people. In this bureaucrat, it was seen by his unity with the people, but this unity of origin is perhaps the only unity of opposites with the socialism of opposites. The indigenous interest of this class was to maintain stagnation. In the stool he is eternal. With socialism, there are no internal economic mechanisms that stimulate scientific and technological progress. Being is isolated from external influences, it should, destroy the intellectual class, to degrade to the level of feudalism. The vertex of the celebration of Marxism-Leninism can be considered the mode of Paul Pot, which existed in Cambodia, in which the whole range of measures necessary to establish and maintain eternal equality, but which was destroyed by the outside intervention. The progress in our country had been noticed only in those sectors on which our defense capability and political prestige depends, it took place under the influence of the external contradiction of socialism and capitalism, which should be destroyed by a dialectical closure of opposites, or convergence, i.e. With the transition of both systems in the "noocratic" formation. The probability of military resolution of this contradiction still exists, but, thank God, the likelihood of this is small, because when warped with modern means of the winner, it may not be. During the implementation of the peaceful version of the restructuring of the bureaucracy was to be eliminated as a class, it was the intellectual class in which she was all the years of his stay in power, a class of little bit of his enemy. But for this, unorganized intellectual forces were to unite on a single platform for their class interests, to create their own political party and the program for the implementation of their historical destination. Emigration and physical destruction of the intellectual class during the revolution, civil war, waves of Stalinist repression, social discrimination in the USSR - all these stages and forms of the unlucky class struggle of two antagonistic opposites, one of which was headed by an anomaly called the socialist building.

3. Analysis of post-Soviet capitalism.

Going into a political deadlock, once the monolithic party and Soviet bureaucracy gave a crack, and with the ads of restructuring, the polarization process began in it. The most distant and enterprising representatives, taking advantage of the non-lost influence, declaring themselves by democrats and liberals, holding back at command altitudes and key positions, sought to turn the country to the capitalist path of development. Trying to find a way out of the deep crisis of socialism that covered the country, Gorbachev took the course of the market in the economy, i.e. Calling things with their names - to capitalism. First, cooperatives and individual activities were allowed. This gave the "shadow" economy to "wash" his money, then private currency accumulations were legalized, small private enterprises were resolved; And finally, the restrictions did not. Joint companies, rooting, contributed to the splicing of our economy with the global capitalist system. The ideologically, the country continued to firmly stand on the positions of socialism. The leadership positions were faithful members of the CPSU, which did not reject a leadership role and promised to prevent counterrevolution, in the sense in which she understood it. It is clear that in this case, market relations at a certain stage were supposed to be interrupted by a known way, as it happened to NEP, and what then? Would socialism would be left for new capitalists? The inconsistency of the economy and ideology, deepening with each day, the contradiction between the Democracy of the President of the country and the Avtocracy of the CPSU Secretary-General prevented the process of restructuring, caused inconsistency of the transformation carried out, led to the exacerbation of the political atmosphere within the country.

And here again it is appropriate to remember the ingenious Hegel: - "The madness of the modern time should be considered the desire to change the decline system of morality, the state device and legislation without simultaneously changing religion - to produce a revolution without reformation ..." (Hegel, "Philosophy of Spirit", paragraph 552.) If the Secretary General is not madman, it was supposed to give off the restructuring and peacefully return to the old principles, or in favor of the president to refuse the Communist Utopia, and to renounce its religion - Marxism-Leninism, which at the strength of his impact on human consciousness and influence on history , Compare exactly with the largest religious teachings. Over the years of restructuring, as a result of the specified division of the Personality of Gorbachev, our country, as a socio-economic system, has experienced a lot of contradictory effects from the authorities in the form of laws, decisions, decisions, decrees aimed at the improvement of the situation, but in fact caused negative effects. Most of these impacts did not meet folk support and only discredited power.

The creators of these documents had to get acquainted with the law of thermodynamics, known since 1884. and named after the French scientist discovered by the French scientist. This principle, which stshes that the external impact, withdrawing the system from the state of equilibrium, causes the processes in it, seeking to weaken the effect of exposure, is of the same universal character as the laws of Hegel's dialectics.

The Gorbachev campaign to combat drunkenness and vineyards ended with collaboration and negative consequences in the form of moonshine, speculation with alcoholic beverages, toxicizing and addiction - a visual confirmation of this principle in human society. This campaign contributed to its overthrow. In medicine, it is forbidden to put experiments at least one person, even hopelessly sick, but there are no prohibitions in politics and economics - here you can experiment on the whole nations and remain unpunished. The country receives a portion of the laxative, the portion of the fixing, and its body comes into an increasing disorder. It is a pity that politicians do not give an oath of hippocratic and are not attracted to responsibility for its violation. It remains only to dream with Plato about the time when philosophers or rulers will come to power, they will learn philosophy when they begin to analyze the existing experience and foresee the consequences of their impacts before performing these impacts. Gorbachev brought the system from equilibrium. The indecision and weakness of Gorbachev took advantage of Yeltsin and, sharing the country with the communal on the politburo on the part, translated his part to the capitalist rails and led, but not forward along the path of convergence, and back to the first-middle form of capitalism, which received the definition of "cave capitalism". During this turn of the history, yesterday's leadership fighters for communist ideals turned into leadership divants - future oligarchs and corrupt officials. The last theoretics of the socialism of the Gorbachev period tried to get rid of the class structure of society, they more like to manipulate the amorphous concept of "workers' masses". This is an anti-scientific (and even antleninsky and anti-marxist) approach to the historical process. The statement that the driving force of the development of society is a class struggle (that is, the struggle of opposites) is absolutely undoubtedly dialectic; It is only necessary to distinguish the classes and their interests correctly.

And at the present stage, the denial of the class structure of society and the introduction into consciousness of citizens who do not have elementary knowledge in the field of political economy and philosophy, the consumer concept "middle class" stems from the desire of new bureaucrats that have turned into plutocrats, hide their class essence.

I believe that it has come time to recognize the workers of the intellectual front, regardless of nationality and religious views, to recognize the social and political class, which has no less than thirty million people, and is the only force able to ensure the development of science and economics, increase the welfare of the whole people and on the basis of this Class build a progressive political party.

I hope that a major scientific center, to whose staff will come by my theory, will become the center of crystallization of the new political force, which is ralling around the staff of scientists of industry institutions, KB and high-tech industries, and then the ITR of all industrial enterprises in Russia.

Created by them will become a worthy alternative to United Russia and won the majority in the Duma, will take laws that ensure the priority of science in all spheres of human activity. but

Alexander Pavlov

The term "economy" means literally translated from the Greek "Homelandship, household laws" ("Okos" - a household, "Nomos" - law). Later, the meaning of this term was greatly expanded, and nowadays in economics understand the management of the economy of not only families, but also firms, industry, states or groups of states, the world as a whole.

Public science, which studies objective laws of economic activity, is also currently called the "economy".

The main components of economic activity.

The economy as the field of activity of people is related to the cost of resources production of consumer goods - all that increases well-being, satisfying the various needs of people.

The main goal of economic activity is to satisfy needs.

The most famous classification of the needs of people was developed by an American psychologist A. Mashloau (Fig. 1). In his scheme, the need is grouped into the order of climbing from primary (below the "pyramids" of needs) to the highest (on the "top" of the pyramid).

Some modern social commodities offer a more enlarged classification, highlighting three main types of people's needs:

elementary needs (in food, clothing, dwelling);

requirements for the general conditions of life (in health, in education, in culture, in movement in space, in personal security);

needs in activities (in labor, in family-household activities, in leisure).

The degree of development and meeting the needs of people is estimated using a system of indicators. welfare (Table 1).

If the satisfaction of elementary needs can be unambiguously measured using such indicators as, for example, the volume and structure of consumption of various goods and services, then the satisfaction of more "sublime" needs to be assessed much more difficult. The characteristics of meeting the needs in activities include, in particular, motivation of man, i.e. Motives that encourage a person to this type of activity (whether he works for a piece of bread or sees the method of creative self-realization in the work). Obviously, it is very difficult to measure this factor.

The most generalizing indicators of well-being consider the average duration of the upcoming life and the average income.

Table 1. Requirements and basic welfare indicators

Table 1. Requirements and basic welfare indicators
Structure of needs	Basic welfare indicators
Elementary needs - food needs - clothing need - Housing Needs	- average duration of the upcoming life - secondary family income - Family Wealth (Real Estate, Long-term Opportunities, Financial Assets) - the volume and structure of consumption of the main food and non-food products of short-term use, services - security housing, its comfort
Requirements for general living conditions - Health need - need for education and culture - Moverees in space in space - personal security needs	- Indicators of the development of the material base Social infrastructure branches - Contingent serviced population
Activities - Need to work - Requirement for family-household activities - need for leisure	- availability, maintenance and working conditions - Duration, labor intensity Labor motivation and satisfaction with labor - time spent on homework, care for yourself and children - Structure of household types - Motivation of family-household activities and satisfaction with it - Duration and structure of leisure (free time) - Motivation of leisure and satisfaction

To meet your needs, people consume good - both material (for example, bread or gasoline) and intangible (for example, theatrical sight or "know-how"). Some benefits are designed for final consumption (bread, theater services), other benefits are resources necessary for the production of finally consumed goods (gasoline, "know-how").

Some benefits are practically unlimited (such as fresh air). However, most of the goods are limited - they are not enough to fully satisfy the needs of people at the moment. This second category of benefits is called economic benefitsAnd economic activity is just aimed at an increase in their quantity and quality.

In market economies, most economic benefits (but not all) become goods. Product - This is a product of labor produced not for its own consumption, but for exchange for other goods, for sale in the market.

To understand what kind of economic benefits are becoming goods, it is necessary to pay attention to another two techniques of their classification: how those or other benefits are consumed - individually (like bread) or collectively (as a television transmission), it is possible to exclude from consumption evading payment " Zaitsev "(for example, all the services of law enforcement are used by all - and serviceable taxpayers, and taxes evading taxes, while in the theater is only strictly in purchased tickets).

According to these two criteria, four types of human benefits consumed by people are private, common, quasocobalized and public (Table 2).

It is mostly private goods, since the seller and the buyer here are directly communicating face to face. To make goods general and quasocial benefits, the state should provide some special conditions (for example, legally consolidate the exclusive property rights to develop minerals or on the execution of theatrical performances). As for the public benefits, the market with their production cannot be fundamentally cope with it, so the production of these benefits the state is forced to take over.

To produce economic benefits, you need to use resources (factors of production, productive forces). It is customary to allocate five main types of resources - work, land (natural resources), capital (artificially created material resources), entrepreneurial (organizational) abilities, information.

Work(Working force) is physical and mental abilities, as well as the ability and desire of the employee to use their abilities. The peculiarity of the human production factor is that the employee is both a resource and consumer. Working, he creates good to satisfy and develop its own needs. Therefore, health, education, employee qualifications, its labor content and attitude towards it are indicators and welfare, and labor quality.

« Earth»Call all natural resources provided by nature. These include not only fertile soil, but also forest wealth, mineral reserves, fresh water, etc.

Capital - These are all the means created by people for the production of economic benefits (cars, equipment, raw materials, etc.). We are primarily about material capital, but in the face of developed market economy, money and other financial assets are becoming money, which can be purchased material capital resources.

Entrepreneurial(organizational) talent - This is the ability to creatively lead the use of all other resources, take responsibility and risk.

Initially, economists spoke only about four types of resources, but in the 20th century. They began to highlight another factor of production called " information" These are data on innovative techniques to use other resources, expressed, as a rule, in a mark-form (book texts, programs for computers). If the entrepreneurial factor is not unremitted with the personality of a person, then the information is separated from its creator and can function quite independently (trade in patents, "know-how", etc.). Unlike other resources, information can be replicated. "If I have a ruble and you have a ruble, then after the exchange, everyone will remain on the ruble," says the proverb. "But if I have an idea and you have an idea, then, change them, everyone will have two ideas."

All listed production factors existed throughout almost all human history (information - since the appearance of writing). However, their meaning changed significantly. In proving societies, the main factors were physical work and land. With capitalism, the championship passed to capital and entrepreneurship. With the deployment of the HTR, creative work ("Human capital") is obtained and information.

General laws for the development of the economy.

Economic life is developing according to certain economic laws. Economic laws are sustainable, significant, constantly repeating links between economic processes and phenomena. For example, the inverse relationship between the change in the price of goods and the demand for it is expressed in the law of demand. Economic laws, like other laws of public life, are objective in nature - they act independently of the will and desire of people.

Distinguish general (universal) and specific economic laws.

General Law Development Laws - These are those that act throughout the human history. These laws acted in a primitive cave, they operate in a modern company, they will act in the cosmic starship.

The most common laws of economic life include the following:

law enhancement;

the law of progressive economic development;

the law of the growing division of labor;

the law of increasing alternative costs.

The development of society leads to a gradual increase in needs. This means that over time, people are constantly growing an idea of \u200b\u200ba set of goods consumed, which they consider "normal".

On the one hand, the standard of each type of consumed goods is growing. For example, primitive people wanted, first of all, have a lot of food. The modern man is usually concerned about not to die from hunger, and so that his food is tasty and diverse.

On the other hand, as purely material needs satisfied (especially the most pressing), the significance of spiritual and social needs is strengthened. So, when choosing a job in modern developed countries, young people are increasingly concerned about not so much in order to receive a high wage (which would be exquisite to eat and dress), no matter how work is creative, allowed to self-realize.

The elevation of needs and the growth of production capabilities is interrelated. As the English economist A. Marshall noted, "... In the early stages of human development, his activities dictated by his needs; In the future, each new step forward should be considered the result of the development of new activities generates new needs ... "(Marshall A. Principles of economic science. T.1. M.: Progress, 1993).

In an effort to satisfy all new and new needs, people improve production - increase the amount, quality and range of manufactured economic benefits, increase the efficiency of the use of economic resources. These processes call progressive economic development or economic progress.

If about the existence of progress, for example, in morality or in art, social scientists are arguing, then the progress in economic life is not disputed. Indeed, a modern man lives much prosperous than his ancestors even a hundred years ago. This is expressed not only that it consumes a greater amount of best quality goods, but also in changing the priorities of consumption (the "climb" on the "pyramid" of the oil), increasing the stability of the life of people (the impact on the lives of people of negative natural phenomena is reduced - for example, Nordime).

Progress in economic development manages to achieve through development division of labor between members of society.

If different people will not produce absolutely all consumer benefits you need, but to specialize in the production of only some of them, then their overall performance will increase. But in order for everyone to have a complete set of all necessary benefits, it is necessary to organize a permanent exchange between them with various benefits.

Curve production opportunities -this is a lot of points, each of which corresponds to a possible combination of the simultaneous production of two alternative benefits with the best use of all resources. If we produce a set of products denoted by point A (or B, C, D), then all resources will be used without a residue; If we produce a set of products denoted by the point G, the resources will not be used completely (for example, the unemployment takes place, the production facilities are not allowed and so on.). The point located above the curve of production capabilities (say, point F), denotes such a combination of produced goods, which, with the existing resource potential, in principle is unattainable.

Possessing in every moment in limited resources, society cannot go beyond the limits of production capacity. It should choose how many cannons and oil it is better to produce. You can only produce cannons and deprive the oil society ("cannons instead of oil"), and you can use all the resources of society only for oil production ("throwing swords on the oral"). Practically society is usually choosing some intermediate version: due to the reduction of oil production, some of the economic resources are directed to the production of guns.

The curve of production capabilities is not frozen, it changes with an increase (or decrease) of resources. When economic growth is observed (expansion and improvement of production), the curve is shifted upwards and to the right. When the economy is experiencing a crisis (as, for example, in Russia of the early 1990s), the curve shifts down and left.

The model of the production capacity curve is an illustration of the law of increasing alternative costs. Under alternative costs Understand the missed benefits, i.e. "The price" of one product (good), expressed in the alternative number of other goods (good), from which refuses, making a choice. For example, if we increase the production of cannons from 1 to 2 thousand pieces, then with this resource potential, it is necessary to reduce oil production from 9 to 8 million tons. (Movement from point to point C). Consequently, alternative costs (alternative price) of this thousand guns - 1 million tons of oil. However, the magnitude of alternative costs is not constant. If for the sake of production of the 2nd thousand guns, we must refuse from 1 million tons of oil, then for the sake of production of the 3rd thousand - already from 2 million tons (movement from point C to point D).

According to the law of increasing alternative costs, with an increase in the production of one product, it is inevitably an increase in its "price", expressed in another alternative product. The growth of alternative costs is due to the presence of specific resources that give high returns in one form of production, but low in the other. For example, it is difficult to expect that the gun designer will be able to successfully invent improvements in oil production, and the equipment, with which oil is made, is little suitable for making guns.

In addition to the listed, most important, there are some other general laws for the development of the economy.

General economic laws show continuity in economic development and allow us to consider the economic development of human society as a single global process.

The patterns of the long-term development of the economy.

Along with general economic laws in the life of society, there are also specific economic laws that act only within a certain type of economy and reflect the specifics of a particular stage in the development of society. For example, the law of demand is inherent only by the market system of the economy. This law did not act in a primitive society, where no prices had existed; It is likely that he will not act in the postcase society, where new, non-market production and distribution systems will arise.

Specific economic laws reflect discontinuity in development, emphasize the qualitative differences in the economic life of people of different historical eras and various civilizations. Therefore, the development of the economy appears as a development economic Systems - Specific, differing aggregate of economic relations between participants of the economic life. Different economic systems differ among themselves in their ideology, as well as on their approach to solving property issues on the means of production and in the method of coordination and economic management.

Long-term (centuries-old) Evolution of the economy explains the theory of post-industrial society. Medium-term trends in the development of the economy in the 20th century. Better characterized by the concept of mixed economy.

In the USSR, since the 1930s, only the only one, erected in dogma, was allowed to use the Macrotencies of Social Development concept of five ways production, announced by the highest achievement of Marxist-Leninsky teaching. The essence of this concept is that the development of society is considered as an alternation of five increasingly progressive socio-economic systems, socio-economic formations, from primitive to the coming communist (Fig. 3).

The basis of the socio-economic formation, according to K.Marks, is one or another method of production, which is characterized by a certain level and nature of the development of productive forces and the relevant levels and nature of production relations. The main production relations, by K. Marx, is the relationship of property. The transition from one socio-economic formation to another is carried out in the process of social revolution. . The basis of the social revolution is the deepening conflict between the productive forces of the Company and the outdated system of production relations. The revolution leads to a change in the dominant class. The winning class transforms in all spheres of public life, and thus the prerequisites for the formation of a new system of socio-economic, legal and other public relations are created. So a new formation is formed.

Soviet Marxists allocated five stages of human history: preparation primitive; Three class (slave-owned, feudal, capitalist) and, finally, classless (communist) formation, the first step of which is socialism.

Relying on some ideas K. Marks The concept of five production methods has its strengths. It emphasizes that socio-economic progress is of a jump-like nature, when the gradual accumulation of quantitative changes creates a new quality. Public development is considered as a dialectical denial of denial: communism, as well as primitiveness, - classless system, but this is a lawlessness of not a primitive society that is balancing on the verge of hungry death, and societies "on the other side of the material production."

The concept of five production methods has, however, the weaknesses. Most researchers are unanimous in that the concept of five production methods cannot serve as a tool for the proper understanding of the evolution of non-European civilizations. Finally, it is doubt the validity of the use of the concept of "communism" (as he was understood in the USSR) to characterize the prospects for economic development.

The concept of production methods has successfully competes the theory of post-industrial society, popular among west social scientists since the 1960s. According to this theory (it relies on the ideas of O. Toffler, D. Bell and a number of other sociologists-economists), the development of society is considered as a change of three socio-economic systems. The pre-industrial society, industrial society and post-industrial society differ in the main factors of production, according to the leading sectors of the economy and on the dominant social groups (Table 4).

According to the theory of post-industrial society, the borders of public systems are the socio-technological revolutions: the industrial revolution (the border of the 18-19th centuries) separates the industrial society from the pre-industrial, and the scientific and technical revolution (from the 1960s) marks the transition from the industrial to the post-industrial society. The industrial economy system won as a result industrial revolution - mass replacement of manual labor with machinery, with the result that agrarian production as the basis of the economy was supplanted by industry. In developed countries of the West, from the 1960s is deployed scientific and technical revolution(HTR), the essence of which is in labor intellectualization, in the transformation of science to the leading factor in the development of social production. Material proceedings as such (and agrarian, and industrial) gradually goes into the background, the production of high-tech services becomes more important. Therefore, it is often synonymous with the concept of "post-industrial society" such expressions as "Information Society" and "Service Society" are served. The modern economy is considered as a transitional step from the industrial to the post-industrial system.

Created by K. Marks the theory of methods of production and developed by modern Western institutionalists the theory of post-industrial society with all their differences does not deny each other. Moreover, both of them rest on similar principles: the development of the economy is considered as the first priority of the development of society, itself this development is interpreted as a progressive and stadium process. Therefore, it is possible to build a synthesized scheme of socio-economic development of human society (Fig. 4).

The main theoretical ideas of this synthesis concept are as follows.

1. There are three large phases of economic evolution - pre-industrial society (agrarian economy), industrial society (industrial economy) and post-industrial society (information economics, leisure economy).

2. With more detailed analysis, the evolution of society appears as a change in production methods, each of which has its own specific productive forces and production relations. In the depths of the pre-industrial society after the decomposition of the primitive system, three different methods of production are developing, and in parallel to each other are Western and Eastern development paths. Most early-grade civilizations develop according to the Asian production method model. This path is deadlock, the development of feudal and the more bourgeois relationship occurs here under the influence of the outside, often has a reversible character. As the majority of modern social scientists believes, only the development of Western European civilization (through antiquity and feudalism) creates prerequisites for the emergence of industrial society, which corresponds to the capitalist method of production.

3. The main milestones of economic development are the three socio-technological revolutions - the Neolithic (transition to the manufacturing farming), industrial (transition to mechanized production) and scientific and technical (transition to high-tech production).

4. The forms of production are evolving from the predominance of natural relations (in pre-industrial societies) through the commodity (in industrial society) to the systematic production (in the post-industrial society).

Features of modern economic development.

The theory of production methods and post-industrial society explains long-term, centuries-old trends in socio-economic development. In order to understand the patterns of the modern era, the "telescope" theory should be supplemented with a "microscope" theory. The concept was previously played by the concept, according to which the modern world was considered as an arose struggle of dying capitalism and the emerging socialism.

The fundamental characteristics of "capitalism" and "socialism" were considered diametrically opposite, and the "World of Capital" was depicted exclusively by gloomy paints, and the "world of labor" - on the contrary, only light (Fig. 5). But the real "capitalism" and real "socialism" already in the 1970s little corresponded to the signs that were considered decisive for their characteristics. Since the concept of the confrontation of "capitalism" and "socialism" turned out to be inadvenous, a new theory was required, which would help to understand the essence of world socio-economic processes of the end of the 20th - early 21 centuries.

Such a new concept has become theory of mixed economy. According to this theory, the main criterion of the classification of modern socio-economic systems is the mechanism for regulating the economy. With this approach, the main types of systems are (Table 5):

1) Based on the mechanism of the "invisible hand" classical market economy,

2) based on policy planning command economy

3) Mixed economy, synthesizing the most effective features of two other systems.

The classic market economy (or pure capitalism) has a passed stage in the development of society: its flourishing falls on 19 V. The opposite of the market economy is the economy of command type (military economy, the fascist economy, the economy of the countries of "real socialism"). For the command type economy, a state's desire to completely eliminate market self-regulation, replacing it with government comprehensive regulation. The command economy under HTR conditions is as ineffective as purely market.

The synthesis of both these interconnected systems becomes a mixed economy. Mixed economy is an economic system based on a combination of market self-regulation and centralized state-corporate regulation, designed to strengthen the effective parties to the mechanism of the "invisible hand" and smooth its negative consequences.

Table 5. The main characteristics of the economic systems of the modern era

Table 5. The main characteristics of the economic systems of the modern era
Main characteristics	market economy	command economy	mixed economy
Property relationship	Private property	State ownership	Pluralism of property relations in the dominance of quaschable forms
Subjects of economics	Many small producers	The state is the only manufacturer	A large number of manufacturers of various scale when dominating oligopolistic structures
Economic mechanism	Market self-regulation	Centralized planning	State and oligopolistic regulation that complements market self-regulation

The origin of the elements of the mixed economy is still by the end of the 19th century, and in the second half of the 20th century. She became the basic concept of development in all developed countries. Anticipation of superpowers, fierce economic rivalry of world economy leaders and the deployment of HTR served as permanent impulses stimulating the state and corporate (intra-industry) regulation of market economy. Currently, business systems of almost all developed countries are various modifications of the mixed economy. At the same time, despite the general features, the farms of developed countries are a variety of national models of a mixed economy, which is primarily due to the difference in national (regional) economic and cultural traditions.

Among the various national models of the mixed economy, three of its main regional varieties have been allocated, which established in 1970-1980 - the American liberal model for which the minimization of state regulation is characterized, which is based mainly in the legal regulation of economic life; Western European Social Democratic Model, focusing on the social policy of the state; Japanese patriarchal-corporate model when the government is mainly engaged in economic growth strategy.

If some national models of the mixed economy are more close to a purely market model, then others - to the command (Fig. 6). The American liberal model is closest to the net market economy. On the contrary, in countries of Western Europe, the traditions of state regulation are stronger. The Japanese model occupies an intermediate position between American and Western European models.

If the farms of modern developed countries are called a mixed economy, then, when characterizing many developing countries (former countries of the Third World) and especially post-socialist societies (including Russia), they are more often talking about transition economy.

The economy of the transition type formally has the same features as a mixed economy (a combination of a centralized regulation, a variety of ownership forms and types of farming), but there is a fundamental difference between them. If a mixed economy is a steady system where various elements complement each other, the transition economy is an unstable and constantly changing state of economic life caused by the transition from one economic system to another. Although this state is very painful, it is almost impossible to disable it in the process of economic transformation.

Study of economic activity.

The study of laws of economic activity of people is engaged in economic science.

In economic science there are two different approaches to the definition of its subject.

In Soviet political economics, the following definition was generally accepted: Economic theory studies relations of production - Relationship between people, objectively developing in the production process. Such social The approach to the definition of the subject of economic science is characteristic not only for Marxism, but also for such a modern flow of the economic thought of the West as institutionalism.

In most educational publications, written in the traditions of the neoclassical direction of economic thought, economic theory is determined, however, otherwise - as a science studying effective use of limited resources to meet their needs. This approach is conventionally called resourceSince he considers the economy not as a relationship between people, but as the attitude of people to resources.

The social and resource approaches to the definition of the subject of economic theory seem to show the economy in completely different angles (Fig. 7), fixing attention to various economic laws. When a social approach is placed at the head of the corner, the attention of the researcher is focused on specific laws of the economy, on differences between economic systems of different eras and various regions. If the resource approach is prevailing, the researcher will make focus on general laws, on universal features, inherent in economic life always and everywhere.

However, in fact, both approaches to the definition of the subject of economic theory are not opposed, but complement each other. All economists agree that the most important of the resources are the work and entrepreneurial abilities - resources that are inextricably related to the personnel of the employee. Consequently, the attitude of people to resources is primarily their attitude towards each other. Therefore, representatives of any direction in economic science wishing to create a holistic theory necessarily pay attention (although in varying degrees) and the attitude of people to resources and the attitude of people to each other.

You can try to give a synthesized definition: economic theory - This is the science that studies the relationship between people, developing in the process of using limited resources.

By its structure, modern economic theory, which studies mainly the patterns of the market system of the economy, is divided into two main sections:

microeconomics - study of the behavior of individual business entities - people and firms;

macroeconomics - Studying the functioning of the country's economy (or groups of countries, or even the world economy) as a whole.

Allocate four main functions of economic theory (Fig. 8).

1. Cognitivefunction. As any science, economic theory deals with objective facts, phenomena, economic processes. Their description and analysis constitute a cognitive function of economic theory.

2. Prognosticfunction. With the processes and phenomena of current economic development, economists may predict the future, extrapolating the current trends that are currently observed.

3. Critical (ideological) function. Social sciences (and the economy including) not only state the existence of certain patterns in the existing social system, but also give it a certain assessment. Economic theory, in particular, does not simply describe the market economy, but also solves the problem, whether this economic system is fair, whether it is necessary to improve it or change it.

4. Practical (constructive) function. Formulating the idea of \u200b\u200bthe desired state of society, economists are then looking for ways to achieve it, actively participating in the development and implementation of economic policies.

Evolution of economic science with antiquity up to the 20th century.

For several millennia of its development, economic science repeatedly changed its name, and the main objects of their research.

Neither the ancient world nor the era of feudalism knew economic concepts in the strict sense of the word. The whole period from ancient times before the new time constitutes the prehistory of economic theories, since economic knowledge was dissolved in the mass of knowledge about the state, about morality, on practical management.

The first elements of economic scientific knowledge arise shortly after the origin of the first states. In the public thought of the societary and medieval east societies, economic problems were analyzed in the framework of the science of the state. In an antique society, the study of economic problems was expressed in another form. On the one hand, the question was analyzed how to create an exemplary private farm, which would supplied the owner with everything necessary or ensure the maximum income (working as Katon, Varona, Columella). On the other hand, scientists began to show interest in the purely theoretical problems of the economy, which is not directly applied. The root of economic theory can be found in Aristotle, who, for example, for the first time, formulated the problem over which then many generations of economists were reflected in (which determines the proportions of the merchandise of goods?).

As quite independent science, economic theory developed only during the occurrence of capitalism, in the 17-18th centuries. Until the end of the 19th century, the generally accepted name of the economic theory was the term "political economy". This term itself introduced the French thinker A. De Montouyne , which in 1615 published Treatise of political economy. The political economy began to be called science on state economy (or about the Company's economy), since the "political" means "state" here (from Greek. "Politia" is a state).

At the dawn of capitalist economic, the first economic school is formed - mercantilism. The main provisions of mercantilism were reduced to the fact that the production serves only a condition for creating wealth, and the direct source of wealth is the sphere of trading, where produced goods turn into money. It is in circulation and a profit arises. Inside the country, buying and selling only moves wealth from hand to hand. Only foreign trade moves wealth from the country to the country. Therefore, it is necessary to sell as much as possible abroad and not buy foreign goods.

In 18 V. Mercalistists were criticized by classical political economy. As part of this direction, two main schools are allocated - French (physiocrats) and English (A.Smit, D. Ricardo).

The first holistic theoretical concept of economic life has been proposed as a school. physicraftswhich was formed in France in the middle of the 18th century. The founder of the teachings of physiocrats, F.Kene, first approached the society as a living organism, believing that the economy has its own laws of natural functioning, independent of the will and the desire of people. The physiocrats argued that trade only moves real benefits, and does not create them. Therefore, economic analysis should be focused on the production area. In contrast to Mercaltiles, physiocrats rejected government regulation of the economy. It is from physiocrats that the history of economic liberalism begins.

A genuine coup in economic science was caused by the publication in 1776 the books of the Great English Economist Adam Smith Wealth of peoplesWhere knowledge of the economy was first presented in a systematic form.

A. Smita with an explanation of economic phenomena used model "Human Economic"which still remains largely the foundation for economic thinking. The basis of all economic processes, in his opinion, is human egoism. The overall benefit of spontaneously develops due to the actions of individual individuals, each of which seeks to maximize their benefits. From here it follows the concept of "invisible market hand". According to this concept, seeking to multiply only the personal welfare of the individual more effectively serves as a market economy in the interests of society than if he consciously sought to serve the public good. Since the "invisible market's hand" provides an optimal organization of production, its conscious regulation is not only excess, but also harmful. Therefore, the state in the economy of the classics was given the role of "night guard" - the guarantor of observance of market "rules of the game", but not its participant.

If mercantlers and classical school representatives paid primary attention to the formation of wealth, marxism Moved the focus on the relationship between the main social groups - the hired workers and capitalists. In 1867 the first volume came out Capital - the fundamental monograph of the Great German scientist and the revolutionary Karl Marx. Marx did not have time to fully realize his creative idea, but also in a conceptually unfinished form of his work, he had a huge impact on the evolution of economic ideas. The main merit is the creation formation theory, Historical and dialectical understanding of the economy: If earlier economists have not seen the principal differences between the economic system of various eras, then Marxists began to emphasize their qualitative differences, thereby laying the foundation of the theory of economic systems.

The followers of Marx, unfortunately, did not have it ingeniousness, as a result, Marxist political economy began to gradually degenerate into scholastic dogma (this is especially noticeable in the development of Soviet Political Economy 1930-1980s).

In the 20th century The path of development of economic ideas is splitted: if the analysis of social problems of the economy was carried out mainly by Marx's followers, then the study of the mechanism of operation of the market economy became the prerogative of A. Marshall.

The 1870s in the history of economic thought it is customary to call the epoch "Marginalist Revolution". If representatives of classical political economist and Marxist analyzed mainly the behavior of manufacturers, the marginists have undergone attention to the attitude of a person to the benefits that manifests itself in the field of personal consumption. The value of any good is determined, according to marginists, its ability to satisfy human needs.

In 1890, the work of the English economist Alfred Marshall is published Principles of economicsIn which the market balance was deeply analyzed for the first time. Marshall managed to combine both previously proposed approaches to explaining the mechanism of market prices: the proposal from Marshall is determined by the costs of production (as the classical school's political economy), and the demand - the usefulness of the goods (as marzhinalists believed). Under the influence of Marshall's ideas, the theory of price displaces the theory of prices - an analysis of economic equilibrium.

After Marshall, the term "political economy" (Political Economy) gradually comes out of consumption as the name of the general economic theory, by changing the term "economy" (Economics).

As a result of the "Marginalist Revolution" in the economic theory of West, firmly established neoclassical direction. Economic theory is rapidly mathematicized, since the basis of rational behavior recognized the limit values \u200b\u200b- estimates of utmost utility, limit costs and maximum income.

Evolution of economic thought in the 20th century.

Born in a period of free competition, neoclassical teachings reflected the features of this period and faith in unlimited possibilities of a self-regulating market economy. The "Great Depression" 1929-1933 largely discredited this teaching. The search for new doctrines ended "Keynesian revolution". Thus, the development of a period of free competition was replaced by the teachings of the period of state regulation of market economy.

The theoretical substantiation of the system of state regulation of economic life was the work of an outstanding English economist J. M.Kanes General Employment Theory, Percentage and Money (1936). Keynesians argued the impossibility of self-defense of the economic downturn, the need for state intervention capable of equilibrate the total demand and supply, to bring the economy from the crisis state, to contribute to its further stabilization.

The Keynesian concept also rejected the situation of the classical theory, according to which the proposal creates demand. Keynes argued that there is a reverse cause-effect relationship: cumulative demand creates a proposal. If aggregate demand is not sufficient, then the volume of production will not be equal to potential at full employment. With the inflexibility of prices, the economy can be in a state of depression with a high level of unemployment.

Unlike neoclassical school, Keynes believed that the state could regulate the economy, affecting aggregate demand, since the market mechanism cannot lead the system to an equilibrium state corresponding to complete employment.

The ideas nominated during the Keynesian revolution caused a coup in the views on the market economy and in economic practice. In the 1930-1960 century, Keynesian ideas were hardly generally recognized. However, in the 1970s, there was a disappointment in Keynesian recipes associated in many ways with the economic crisis of 1973-1975. Neoclassics were able to take revenge, heading "Conservative counterrevolution".

Modern neoclassics seek to prove that the market system of the economy is if not ideal, then at least the best of all types of economic systems. Focusing on criticizing state regulation, they indicate that it does not liquidate the flaws of the market (for example, unemployment), how many new, more dangerous negative phenomena (for example, inflation and infringement of economic freedoms).

At the same time, modern neoclassics, as a rule, do not require the government to perform the functions of only "night guard". For example, monetarists Justify the idea that at the macroeconomic level it is necessary to carry out a fiscal-budget policy (state regulation by rate of interest, taxes and expenses), and active monetary credit, that is, the use of indirect methods of state regulation.

Thus, the Keynesians, and modern neoclassics do not reject state regulation. The difference lies only in opinions on the efficiency of using various methods of state intervention.

If the main schools of economic theory of 20 V. were Keynesianism and the neoclassical direction, then institutionalismshe held a long time peripheral position. Originated at the beginning of the 20th century, this direction is the main subject of its research considers the study " institutions"- social factors of the economy (psychological and legal norms, activities of corporations, trade unions, etc.). If neoclassics and Keynesians consider mainly the current problems of market economy as such, the institutionalists are engaged in understanding the global trends in economic development, emphasizing the revolutionary shifts in economic life.

In the current period, attention to institutional issues is growing, which may be the foresight of the conquest in the future by this direction the role of the "main flow" of economic theory. "Reply" of neoclassics on the "call" of institutionalists was the accelerated development neoSinstitutionalism - The new direction of neoclassics, whose representatives are learn, like traditional institutionalists, the world of social phenomena, but using neoclassical methodology.

Thus, in the modern world there is no "the only right" economic theory. There is a competition of various economic schools that differ in both regulatory values \u200b\u200band basic methods, and the objects of analysis (Fig. 9). The most objective knowledge of the economy can be obtained only in the process of the synthesis of approaches of different scientific directions.

It should be borne in mind that if the development of a positive economic theory in a decisive degree depends on the purely scientific consistency of the researcher, then its subjective social and political addictions, belonging to a certain scientific school play a huge role in the field of regulatory economic theory. Therefore, economists can, for example, to come to a single opinion on the scale of unemployment, but sharply divide into opinions on its reasons and the desired state policy events in this period.

Yuri Latov, Rakia Kosovo