Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation
Federal Agency for Education GOU VPO
All-Russian Correspondence Financial and Economic Institute
Department of Story
TEST
according to cultural studies
"Western culture of the XIX century"
Vladimir - 2008.
Work plan
Introduction
Development of science and philosophy
Romanticism in the artistic culture of Europe
Critical realism in the literature and art of France, England, USA
Impressionism and postpressionism in the 19th century artistic culture
Conclusion
List of used literature
Introduction
In the development of European literature, art, science XIX century. - The time of the appearance of works that have become a huge treasury of culture and the conquest of human genius, although the development conditions were complex and contradictory.
Factors that influence the main processes and directions of artistic creativity were diverse. They included changes in basic relations, in political life, the development of science, industrial revolution and its results, religious aspect.
Development of science and philosophy
XIX in became a century of continuous revolutionary coups in science. First of all, it is a flourishing of classical natural science, creating a unified system of sciences. The connection of science with production is strengthened, the science of small turns into a large - here it is now occupied significantly more personnel than before. A significant development of philosophical thought was achieved, a universal interest in historical science was manifested, linguistics, archeology; The basics of scientific folkloristic, art and literary studies are laid.
The strengthening of atheistic trends leads in society to a serious crisis of the Church - new religions penetrate into Europe, the concepts of separation of the church from the state, freedom of conscience, religion, securities of education, etc. All this undermines the influence of religion as an integrating principle, changes the nature of public relations - the unity of society. It is largely as national unity and professional - cultural convergence by vertical, within the same professional activity.
The Great Shifts occurring in the XIX century. In the economic basis, the development of philosophy, science and technology has enormous influence on the development of the literature and art of Europe.
A feature of the development of European culture XIX century. There was an exceptional diversity of species, directions and genres of artistic creativity. Classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism, realism, symbolism, naturalism, impressionism, postpressionism - these are the main directions that have engulfed all types of art - literature, painting, music of Europe XIX century. However, despite the diversity of styles that pretended in this century, the realistic artistic direction, which gave brilliant results in all types of creativity in all countries is considered.
Romanticism in the artistic culture of Europe
1. Romanticism in literature, music and art - style that makes emphasis on imagination, emotions and creative individuality of the artist; Nature and folklore serve as sources of inspiration. The term is often used to characterize the culture of the XIX century. As opposed to classicism of the XVIII century. In music reached its apogee in the works of Shuman and Wagner.
2. Romanticism - The direction in the art of the first quarter of the XIX century, who spent against the canons of classicism, reflected in the artworks of the inner world of heroes, ideal feelings and passions.
3. Romanticism - Creative direction in the European literature of the XIX century; Its characteristic features: idealization of the past (Middle Ages), individualism, exclusivity of images and plots.
ART
In Germany, romanticism emerged earlier than in other countries. Many of the German romantics were alien pathos of advanced social ideas. They idealize the medieval past, are given to unrecognizable spiritual impulses, argued about the strugnure of human life. The art of many of them was passive and contemplative. These artists created their best works in the field of portrait and landscape painting.
An outstanding portraytist was Otto Runge (1777-1810). Portraits of this master with external peace of mind are striking intense and tense inner life. Landscapes Caspar David Friedrich (1774-1840) The beauty of mountain landscapes of the south of Germany and the melancholic ghosts of northern coasts filled with lunar light are open.
The romantic essence of romanticism is brighter than everything in France. There, in this artistic course, deep disappointment was reflected in the results of the French revolution, protest against the bourgeois reality, who broke the dream of the "the kingdom of reason and freedom", which the enlighteners of the XVIII century said. French romanticism has developed in the early 1820s, on the eve of the new revolutionary lift. French artists were fascinated by strong and active heroes, people of deep experiences and passionate temperament. Representatives of the romantic direction defended the right of the artist directly express their thoughts and feelings, fought against the creation of creative freedom of the academic rules of classicism. " Obey nature, truth and inspiration " became the main rule of romantics. Academic concerns, they contrast the emotionality and drama images, bold dynamic compositions of their paintings; Dry drawing - saturated bright paint. French romance sought to find a large theme in modern times, their exoticism of the East and the liberation struggle of the enslaved peoples also attracted them.
The artist, with the name of which the first brilliant successes of romanticism in France were connected, was Theodore Zheriko (1791-1824). Already in his early pictures (portraits of the military, images of horses), antique ideals retreated before the immediate perception of life.
In 1816, the fault of the French government killed the frigate "Medusa", from which only a few people were saved on the raft. This event shocked all France, and Zhriko dedicated him his most significant work "The raft" Medusa "(1818). He portrayed the experiences of the desperate and newly acquired at the sight of an approaching ship hope to save people with such power of drama, which never knew the art of David.
The head of French romanticism in painting was destined to become Eugene Delacroix (1798-1863). The inexhaustible imagination of this artist created a whole world of images, still living on the canvas of their tense, complete struggle and passion life. Here and the scene from Datovsky Hell, and the heroes of the works of Goethe, Shakespeare, Bairon, depicted at the moments of sharp experiences. Delacroix captured numerous images of people of the East, mainly Algerians and Moroccans, whom he saw during his trip to Africa. In the work of "Massacre on the island of Chios" (1824), Delacroix reflected the struggle against the Greeks against Turkish rule, which worried then all of Europe. The group of suffering prisoners of the Greeks in the foreground of the picture, among which the woman who distorted from grief, and a child crawling to the breast of the dead mother, the artist opposed the arrogant and cruel figures of punishers; A burning destroyed city is visible. The picture struck contemporaries and the exciting force of human suffering, and its extraordinarily bold and sonorous flavor.
The events of the July Revolution of 1830 inspired Delacroix to create a widely known picture "Freedom on barricades" (1830).
The largest representative of romanticism in the French sculpture was Francois Ryud (1784-1855). His famous sculptural group "Marselyza" (1833-1836), adorning the triumphal arch on the star Square in Paris, is devoted to the heroic revolutionary days of 1792
In the work of English artists of the beginning of the XIX century, first of all landscape players, romantic hobbies are combined with a more objective and sober look at nature.
Romantically raised landscapes creates William Turner (1775-1851). He especially loved to portray thunderstorms, shower, storms at sea, bright, flaming sun sets. The Turner often exaggerated the effects of lighting and strengthened the sound of the color even when he wrote a calm condition of nature. Using watercolor equipment, Turner began to put the oil paint with a very thin layer and wrote right on the ground, seeking rainbow overflows of the tones.
In the watercolor technique, it worked initially Richard Bonington (1802-1828). In marine landscapes performed by oil, simple and deprived of dramatic effects, Bonington sought to catch the features of solar lighting, a grayish chimney of wet air.
The most consistently new attitude towards nature was embodied in his work John Constable (1776-1837). An important innovation of the constable was its large (in the size of the picture) sketches of oil, wonderful on the immediacy and subtlety of observations, on the freshness and wealth of the flavor. In them, he managed to transfer the complexity of the inner life of nature in her everyday life, reaching this technique of a picturesque letter. He wrote bold moving strokes, then thick and rough, then smoother and transparent. The innovative painting of constable had a huge influence on the works of Delacroix, as well as on all the development of the French landscape of the XIX century.
LITERATURE
Romanticism was a whole epoch in the history of European culture. For several decades, he dominated the literature, music, painting. In romanticism, the exception of heroes, individualism, deep interest in the past, the desire and ability to view the colors of remote times (historicism), attraction to an unusual, to exotic, implantation, lyricism, penetration into the depths of " Soul.
About romantics often say that they oppose the reality of the dream, replace life with a fairy tale.
Romantics despised all the bourgeois lifestyle, they considered him the subject, unworthy of the poetic image. They portrayed big feelings, mighty passion, unusual feats. Bourgeois was cold, soulless, calculating. Romance revealed the wealth of the human soul, tirelessly reminding about how tragically lonely real people in the outside world.
The first half of the XIX century. It was noted the rise of the national liberation movement in many countries, and the romance was excitedly responded to the call of time. This is the main topic of many outstanding works of the XIX century. ("GRAZIN" Mitskevich, "Pilgrimage to Child Harold" Bairon, etc.).
Passionately expressing his attitude towards peace, romance did not hide their public positions. All of them despised the bourgeois society, but they were often sharply opposed to each other. Some of them glorified the old, medieval. These were conservative romance. They assured that the French revolution brought only new vices, destroying the patriarchal ease of morals. The French conservative romantic Shatubrean called on to return to God, the faith in which the enlighteners were undermined. The German writer novalis drew an idealized picture of the daepending Middle Ages.
The outstanding merit of progressive romantics was that, despising the bourgeois world, they even more resolutely noted all the old, who had been historically doomed and called forward, although their dream of the future was vague and deeply subjective.
Romanticism was dominated by many decades in European literature. It was an important stage in the development of human culture. Lyrics bloomed violently. Romantics conquered readers with the wealth of intonation, the diversity of poetic forms, the penetration in the transfer of human feelings.
Romance created a historic novel. They aroused interest in national culture, to the oral folk art. They have achieved great success in the art of translation into the native language of artworks of other peoples.
Writers of England
In the English literature of the end of the XVIII-early XIX century. There was a new course - romanticism. In the lyric epic poems and lyrical dramas of Bayron and Shelly, the images of unprecedented romantic heroes were brought against unfair public orders, people of hot hearts, turbulent, titanic passions.
In these works were deep meditation about the fate of humanity.
George Gordon Byron (1788 - 1824)
His creative life coincided with the years of the reaction, which tried to erase the ideas of freedom, equality, fraternity, proclaimed by the revolutionary French people from the memory of people. However, the resistance of democratic forces continuously increased. The wave of the national liberation movement was poured through the countries of the European continent; In England itself, spontaneous speeches of Luddite - destroyers of cars. From the very beginning of his creative activities, Byron called for the struggle in lyric verses, in the Laro-epic poem "Pilgrimage to Child Harold", in political speech in defense of Luddites, which he said in the winter of 1812 in the House of Lords.
In the "Palcommunication of China Harold" (the first two songs - 1812, the third - 1816, the fourth - 1818) Byron, exposing the reaction, glorified the peoples of Spain, Italy, Greece, who fought for their liberation from the power of the Alien. He inspired to fight those who slowed to take on the weapon.
In Gaya, Corsaire, Lara - the romantic heroes of the same name "Eastern poems" (1813 - 1816) Bairon is not difficult to find out, according to V.G. Belinsky, "the colossal, proud and adamant person" of the poet itself. In the images of romantic heroes - the sufferer of Boniv, sharpened in Schilon Castle for republican beliefs (Poem "Shilon Prisoner", 1816), tragically lonely Manfred (Dramatic Poem "Manfred", 1817), Bogobor Kain (dramatic poem "Cain", 1821) - Byron picked the human mind and will, the courage of the rebounds against the earthly orders or against the laws of the universe itself.
Unfinished poems "Don Juan" (1818-1823) Pushkin considered the masterpiece of Bairon, and Goethe is "endless in a brilliant work". Young Don Juan is not similar to the former romantic heroes - he is the most ordinary person. Its numerous adventures in different countries give Byron a reason for criticizing the public and political life of Europe, so lyrical retreats sometimes completely obscure the narration of the Hero's life. Byron - Lyric, chanting the poetic love Juan and Gaide, expressing his own feelings and thoughts about the life and nrules of people, about nature; He and satirik, a ridicule of a tradality, hypocrisy, a hypocrisy, the bile of fools of freedom - the reactionary rulers of European states.
Persi Beach Shelly (1792 - 1822)
Spirit of Protest and Freedom of Sheavy Revolutionary and Romantic Poetry Persity Beach Shelly. He was forced to leave his homeland: the revolutionaryness of his first creations scared the British ruling classes and they raised the company and slander against him.
In early poems, Shelley expressed freedom-loving thoughts and feelings. Junior he rejected religion. For the treatise "The need for atheism" (1811), he was excluded from Oxford University. He treated the ideas of the French revolution. In political views, Shelley took the ideas of utopian socialism.
By refringing the injustice, the oppression of the church, the monarchy, Shelley was inspired by the ideal of the future free classotant society. In the symbolic poem "Islam's outrage" (1818), he captured the struggle of the people of the fantastic golden city and created the revolutionary and romantic images of the leadership of the uprising - a girl cyting and young men. Confident in the future victory over tyranny, they fearlessly met death.
In the lyrical drama "Liberated Prometheus" (1819) Shelley in the fate of her hero embodied suffering, courage, feats of humanity.
Just and strongly wrote Shelly "Song People of England" (1819), expressing fair angles against the drutones - capitalists who assign the fruits of works of workers and peasants. He calls on the workers of the force of the weapon to free himself from the power of the drone.
Walter Scott (1771 - 1832)
Walter Scott became the subject of historical novel - a new genre in the literature. Watching modern life and studying the story, he realized that the past centuries in society had a continuous struggle between old, thorough and new, progressive principles. In his novels, Walter Scott portrayed the fracture historical moments when the fates of individuals and entire peoples were solved. So, in Puritans (1816), the Scottish people rebel against the despotism of the church and the monarchy. In Ibergo (1820), where England XII centuries is shown., There is a continuous struggle of the Saxon landowners and peasants against the Norman feudal feudals that feel like the owners of England. In Quentine Dorvarde (1823), the action of which takes place in France the second half of the XV century, reflects the formation of an absolute monarchy in the fight against feudalism.
With great skill, Walter Scott historical and national features of different eras, countries, peoples. In "Waverli" (1814), "Rob-Roe" (1818), "Edinburgh Domotnica" (1818), as a living, the Motherland of the writer is rising - Scotland, its harsh and majestic nature. The writer expressed their sympathies to the people in the novel "Ivango" in the images of Gurt's pigs, the jester of Vabby, the legendary Robin of Hood, called in the novel by the free shooter Locksley.
Robert Lewis Stevenson (1850 - 1894)
Robert Lewis Stevenson elected the adventure novel genre. He invented interesting, tangled plots saturated with secrets. The extraordinary adventures of Heroes Stevenson opposes the reality of the bourgeois society, which he hates. These features of creativity allow us to call Stevenson by a representative of neoromantism. The most famous novel - "Treasure Island" (1833) - about the expedition, which went on a ship to search for treasure.
The effect of Romans of Stevenson "Kidnapped" (1886) and "Catrion" (1893) occurs in the XVIII century, but the writer is not interested in historical events. At the heart of these novels - complete adventures The life of the young Scots David Belfura.
Noble, courageous, decisive and resourceful heroes of Stevenson always win the evil with which their life is confronted.
In the work of the writer, his love for people, respect for peoples, whatever races they were not. The opponent of racism, he defended the people of Samoa Islands, proving his right to independence.
Stevenson was also a poet. In the collection "Flower bed poems for children" he reproduced the joyful world of childhood.
Rudyard Kipling (1865 - 1936)
The books of Reddiard Joseph Kipling, like the books of Stevenson and Conrad, also carry readers in exotic countries. However, the ideological focus of Kipling's creativity is completely different.
The action of many of its works occurs in India, the morals, customs, the culture of which he knew well, as he was born in Bombay.
Kipling Heroes - Ordinary People: English officers, officials, sailors, doctors, etc. They selflessly fulfill official debt, it is constipated by loneliness, cut off from the family, bored with monotonous everyday life. Kipiling has another hero - a simple soldier, whose name is Tommy Atkins - has become a nominal (collections of poems "departmental songs", 1886; "barren ballads", 1892). Kipling sympathizes him, respects him. He and from others requires the same respect for the soldier: after all, the power of Tommy Atkins is mined and protected by the power of England. Anglo-Saxes Kipling considers the highest race. It sympathizes only the Indian men and women who are submracting, as due, the British power is adopted. But he never embellishes the reality of colonial everyday life, and therefore in his works there are many truthful descriptions of cruelty and arrogance of English colonialists, as well as the plight of the indigenous population of India (the stories "luspet", "on hunger", etc.).
Cyling works in which his reactionality is completely moving into the background. The best works of the writer include two "Jungle Books" (1894 and 1895), telling the history of the Human Young Mowgli, who found and won the Wolf.
The most attractive and poetic works of kipling belong to the "fairy tales just so" (1902).
Writers in Germany
Novovis (1772 - 1801)
Novalis - the pseudonym Friedrich von Hardenberg, the short life of which is surrounded by a legend. The "Poet of the Blue Flower", filled with everything earthly, directed towards the highest spheres.
Novalis lived not in the separation from reality, but in a very energetic contact with it, although this reality was for obvious reasons of the Tesne.
In the work of the poet it is difficult to separate philosophy from poetry, actually artistic from the theoretical. "Pupils in Sais" (1797) - a fragment of an unfinished novel - rather a treatise about nature, about the relationship between a person with her and the ways of her knowledge
For novisa, any kind of creative work (artisan, for example) there is already poetry, from here - the confidence that "everyone can become a poet" and the idea of \u200b\u200bthe future as the "kingdom of poetry".
He was a lyric, strong, immediate, truly philosophical. The poetic cycle "The Hymns By Night" (1797-1799) is parting with faith in the infallibility of the mind, with the boring clarity of his thinking.
Symbolists were considered to be novissed by their forerunner: symbolic multigalism is laid in the artistic organization of its poetry and prose. To a lesser extent, it is felt in "spiritual songs" (1799-1800). Where the influence of the literary and religious tradition is stronger. "Heinrich Foundation of Anterdingen" is a novel, which entered the story as the encyclopedia of ideological and artistic search for early romanticism.
Jacob Grimm (1785 - 1863), Wilhelm Grimm (1786 - 1858)
Collectors, compilers and editors of the famous meeting of German folk fairy tales, the largest scientists of philologists who have devoted life to the study of German culture. Their scientific activities were very diverse. They developed a relatively historical method of studying German languages; Jacob makes the fundamental linguistic works "German grammar" and "History of German". Brothers Grimm are the compilers of the first historical dictionary of German (1852), they published the first monument to the German poetry "Song of Hildebrante and Hadubranta" and the works of the medieval writer Gatman von Away. Especially wide fame won their "children's and family fairy tales" - the fruit of many years and closest studies of the German folklore. In the "fairy tales", published in 1812, since then repeatedly reprinted and translated into many languages, the brothers Grimm retained their folk basis, democratic, imagery, fiction, juicy and laid language. "Red Cap", "Boy-C-Finger" and many other fairy tales of the Grimm brothers who are familiar with everyone since childhood, entered the treasury of world children's literature.
Ernst Theodore Amadeus Hoffman (1776 - 1822)
The largest master of German romanticism of the XIX century, lived and worked at the response time, when many writers tried to hide from the gloomy modernity in the kingdom of romance and dreams. But in his work, fiction is intertwined with the realistic and satirical image of the surrounding world. "Gofman with its fantastic cartoons always and invariably keeps earthly reality," heine wrote about him. Fancy fantastic gofman sometimes carries a seal of gloomy and painful sentiment, which were subsequently picked up decadent writers. But Hoffman acts as an acute satirization-realist, the satire of which is directed against the feudal reaction of the meshness of limitations, stupidity and complacency of the German bourgeoisie. It is this quality of saticaries highly appreciated in his work Marx, Heine, Belinsky. Heroes of the Herofman - modest and poor workers, most often intellectual intellectuals suffering from stupidity, ignorance and cruelty of the environment.
The most famous works: "Golden Pot", (1815); "Kroashka Tsakhs for Nicking Cinnober", (1819); "Brothers Serapion", (1819-1821) "Notes of Cat Murra", (1820-1822).
Heinrich Heine (1797-1856)
The Great German Poet, who combined deep and thin lyrical talent with journalistic passion. In 1818, the first poems of the poet appeared.
The political and social conquests of the Great French Revolution became the impressions of the early adolescence of the poet and supported his opposition sentiment and during the restoration period. From the beginning of the 1820s. Heine is in print. In Berlin, the systematic literary activity of the poet begins; In the publishing house, Maurer published the book of "Heine's poem", which then entered the "Book of Songs". In 1823-1824 He travels a lot in Germany and Italy, takes a trip to Garz. Impressions, observations, historical reminiscence of the journey became the images of his books. "Travel paintings." The second stage of the creative path of Heine begins with the 1830s. Showing the most important interest in the revolutionary events of the era, Heine responded to the events of the July Revolution of 1830. The most directly went to Paris to take part in it.
From the late 30s. Charged a fracture in the evolution of the creativity of Heine. His journalistic prose ("Ludwig Bern", "Lutection") was marked by a deep analysis of the social situation in Europe, a political topic prevails in poetry ("Modern poems", "Germany, Winter Tale").
Heine deeper than other German writers realized the pattern of sunset of romanticism and became one of the priests of critical realism in German literature. Throughout the creative path, realism and romanticism worked closely in his poetics. The Great Lirik, Female Publicist, Ruthless Satir, he entered the new chapter in the history of world poetry of the XIX century.
France writers
In the XIX century In France, literature joined a new period of development. The activity of folk masses and significant progress in the enlightenment led to the fact that the works of advanced artists sounded as "ringing echo" of the era, according to the expression of the Hugo.
Victor Hugo (1802 - 1885)
The National Poet of France, one of the favorite writers of the French people - dedicated his life of the artist and a public figure to the fight against the reaction, for the triumph of the principles of humanism and democracy. Hugo in his youth passed through the passion for monarchical ideas, which was reflected in his early poems. However, he very soon he moved away from royalism and became the head of the progressive and romantic flow in French literature, whose representatives fought with the epigons of classicism, supporters of the restoration. His "Preface" to the Drama "Cromwell" (1827) was the manifesto of romantic drama. The premiere of the Drama of the Hugo "Ernani" was the isna of the battle with the classics that ended the victory of the new school. The reformer of the French verse, the creator of the romantic drama, a wonderful prose, Hugo in his best works talks about the deepest sympathy humiliated and offended, about hatred for tyranny and social injustice. Hugo's novels, striking the wealth of creative imagination, usually built on sharp contrasts, their plots are confused and complex, the junction is spectacular, the feelings of the heroes are strong and tragic. During the bourgeois revolution of 1848, Hugo stood in the ranks of the defenders of the republic. After her defeat, he was forced to go to the exile, where he spent nineteen years old. The events of the Franco-Prussian war and the Paris Commune of the Hugo responded with a collection of verses "Terrible Year" (1872). In the days of the bloody massacre with communites, he protested against the actions of the Versailles Palays.
The most famous works: "Cathedral of the Parisian Our Lady" (1831), "King is amused" (1832), "Ryui Blas" (1836), "Retribution" (1853),
"Molded" (1862), "sea workers" (1866), "Man who laughs" (1869), "93rd year" (1874).
Georges Sand (1804 - 1876)
Georges Sand - Pseudonym Aurora Dupin-Dupievan. The daughter of the nobleman and the whitestone, J. Sand received education in the estate of grandmother-aristocrats and in the Catholic monastery, early was married. Pouring with her husband, she moved to Paris.
Starting with the novels to protect the rights of a woman in a bourgeois family, J. Sand in the late 1830s and in the 1840s the pre-revolutionary years became a journalist, prominent by the public activity, who separated the left-republican views, the author of a number of social novels. She was fascinated by the ideas of utopian socialism. J. Sand took part in the revolution of 1848. In recent years, the writer moved away from public life. The carriers of the idea are the positive heroes of J. Sand are often idealized, conflicts are solved sometimes artificially, society transformation plans are utopian. Despite this, her work has always been widely popular with world readers; Of great interest in the books of Georges Sand showed in the XIX century. and the Russian democratic community.
Works: "Indiana" (1832), "Oras" (1841), "Consuelo" (1843),
Alexander Duma (1803 -1870)
The most popular and extremely prolific novelist, won world famous adventure historical novels.
Having moved to Paris, Dumas became close to the writers of the French romantic school, headed by V. Hugo; The first literary success of Dumas was associated with the romantic drama "Heinrich III and his courtyard" (1829). His drama "Anthonia" (1831) and "Kin" (1839) were a significant phenomenon in the history of the romantic theater. Duma's creative flourishing belongs to the 40th GG, when "three musketeers" came out with continued, "Count Monte Cristo" and other novels. Relying in his books on a large historical material and discovering an outstanding living and rich imagination, Dumas in a fascinating and dynamic form reproduces life, morals, costumes of the era, the characters of historical personalities. However, his novels do not differ in depth of historical and psychological analysis. The most important historical events, he often explains with a random coincidence, creating spectacular situations, intricate intrigues. Its cheerful and energetic, bold lucky heroes invariably overcome any difficulties. The literary heritage of Dumas is huge: except for novels and plays, they have written memories, way essays (including the description of the journey to Russia) and the works of various genres.
Prospere Merim (1803-1870)
Outstanding Master Novels. In the period preceding the revolution of 1830, Merim, opposed towards the restoration regime, wrote a number of works in which he opposed the Catholic Church and the feudal reaction. Merime was widely used by the receptions of the literary hoax. His "Theater Clara Gazul" (1825) - a collection of plays, assigned to Peru of the fictional Spanish actress, and the next book, a collection of Illyrian folk songs "Guzlo" (1827), is a masterful role to the Serbian folklore. Merima appealed to the historical past of France in the dramatic chronicle "Jacceria" (1828) - about the peasant uprising of the XIV century. And in the novel "Chronicle of the reign of Charles IX" (1829). In the 30s. The writer began to develop a novel genre.
Creative manner Merim, although the author explored, as a rule, the world of large human passions, externally dry, calm, strictly objective. Its prose is simple and elegant, the characteristics are accurate and concise. A large connoisseur and popularizer of Russian literature in France, Merime translated into French a number of works of Pushkin and Turgenev.
XIX century In music began as a century of romanticism. All the bright for composers of this time focused on the beauty of nature, in the poetry of a person's feelings, in the images of folk fantasy. Creativity of the first romance - Austrian composer Schubert It also breathes with touching naivety and immediacy, reflecting the psychology of a simple person. His traditions continued composers Schuman, Mendelssohn, Wolf. Their art amazes with refinement and diversity of sentiment: here and tender dreaminess, and acute irony, and gloomy sarcasm, and despair of tragic loneliness. Schubert and Schumani developed new musical genres - songs and piano miniatures.
German composer-romantic Wagner Dedicated his work Opera. He sought to synthesize various arts, i.e. To a combination in one product of the elements of the theater, painting and music.
In recent decades of the XIX century. In France, serious instrumental music begins to gradually push the opera, chamber and symphony genres are put forward on the fore.
Of the most significant composers of this period, two - Saint-Sans and Frank are still to the romantic branch of the art of the XIX century., How would it be completed.
Camille Saint-Sans (1835-1921) Already in the Ten-Year Age, he acted as a pianist-virtuoso, and then a conductor. In 1871, the National Society of Music was created on the initiative of Saint-Sansa to promote the creativity of young French composers.
Overactions of Saint-Sansa, virtuoso, brilliant, distinguished by the purely French grace, quickly won recognition throughout Europe. Sometimes the works of Saint-Sansa are close to the classic traditions of Bach, Mozart, but most often romantic traits prevail. Saint-Sans willingly use oriental melodies in music, heard in traveling in the Arab East.
In the "Animal Carnival" (1886) - a suite for two piano and orchestra - a lot of humor, the sound of various tools reminds the votes of animals and birds, draws their habits. Suite includes the famous "Swan" - a dreamy singing song for a soling cello. Based on this wonderful music, outstanding ballet vessels created a masterpiece of ballet art - the dance "Dying Swan".
The most famous Opera Saint-Sanson - Samson and Dalila (1868), written on the biblical plot, was on the scenes of Russian theaters for a long time.
Belgian by origin, Cesar Frank (1882 - 1890) Another boy came to France, where he began the path of the pianist. He sought to compose symphonic and chamber music. Becoming the church organist, the Frank became famous as an unsurpassed improviser.
Frank created its best works in the last 15 years of life. He found only the dawn of his future glory. The first essay who met hot welcome was sonata for violin and piano (1886)Deeded by the famous Belgian violinist Eugene Izai. Cheerful music Sonata, as if amized by the Sun, full of romantic gusts, fine lyrism.
Later became known symphony (1888) and software symphony poems Frank. Their plots are borrowed from literature, from legends and myths ("Damned Hunter", "Psyche", etc.). "Symphony Variations" (1885) For piano with the orchestra, this is a kind of concert, in which, as they believed, the ancient myth of the ORFE, who testers the forces of hell with its art.
Music franc can be sincere, soft, and sometimes worries listeners with drama, passion. Some features relate to her with the majestic music Baha: depth, seriousness, tendency to reflections.
Critical realism in the literature and art of France, England, USA
1. Realism - Direction in art, which is reflected by its task, reflection of reality in its typical features.
2. Realism - The artistic method based on the truthful image of the most characteristic phenomena of life.
3. Realism - The truthful image method of objective reality.
ART
The term realism in applied to artistic work went into use only in the XIX century. It was then in a number of European countries for the first time a desire to appear objectively and truthfully to depict reality. The beginning of the realistic direction in France laid landscape painting artists so-called barbizon school. In the early 1830s, a group of landscape players settled in the barbizon village 60 km from Paris. They painted rural landscapes. "Ordinary nature is an inexhaustible material for art," said the head of the barbizon school Theodore Rousseau (1812-1867).
Rousseau demanded a deep study of nature. He did accurate sketches from nature, carrying them later into his paintings. Barbizons found poetry in everything: in the Gloomy Day, in pre-trinome calm, in the dark silhouette of the pahahar against the background of the evening sky.
Jules Dupre (1811-1889) He wrote mainly uncomplicated by the motive landscapes, but it was often fascinated by natural phenomena of nature. Favorite motifs Diaz de la Peña (1807-1876) There were forests with lawns, and Trina (1810-1865) Preferred rural types of animal herds. Charles Kunovy (1817-1878) For a long time, worked by traveling in the boat on Seine and Uaz. He especially managed to have a calm smooth of water, fields and villages, stretching along the banks of the rivers.
Besides to the barbizons were one of the largest landscape players of the XIX century. Camille Coro (1796-1875). He was interested in one or another landscape as a whole, the mood he creates. A subtle understanding of the beauty of the surrounding world permeates all the creativity of the landscape player. Coro was not limited to landscapes, he wrote shapes against the interior background, as well as portraits.
The closest friend of Theodore Rousseau, who worked with him in Barbizon, was Jean Francois Mill (1814-1875). The theme of his work is significant and important is an image of severe rural labor. Mille himself came out of the peasant environment and lived for a long time in the village, so he knew the life of his humble heroes well. In the painting "Collaborators" (1857), poor women choose the spikelets left on the field; Their inclined figures, heavy stepping on Earth, personify the diligence and humility of fate. High mastery and monumentality of images make the art of Mill one of the vertices of the French realism of the last century.
Criticism of social injustice and protest against her found their expression in the art of wonderful French graphics and painter Onor houses (1808-1879).
As a schedule, the housework worked in the technique of lithography and was a master of political caricature. The works of the artist appearing in satirical magazines had a huge public resonance in the 30s of the XIX century.
The head of the realistic direction in the French painting of the middle of the XIX century. Was Gustave Kourbe (1819-1877). The democratic art of Kourbe caused attacks by representatives of bourgeois circles. The tastes of bourgeois regulars of salons (official exhibitions in Paris) Kurba contrasted with art, which handed the morals, ideas and appearance of the era. He wrote genre scenes, portraits, landscapes, still lifes, can convey the strength and fortress of the human figure, the diverse surface of the earth, the foaming crest of the sea wave.
Kurba rightly argued that "realism is essentially a democratic art." Faithfully faithful convictions, he in 1871 without hesitation fell on the side of the rebeling proletariat and actively participated in the activities of the Paris commune.
IN Germany The largest realist artist XIX century. Was Adolf Mentsell (1815-1905). The honed mastery of Mentsell manifested itself not only in painting, but also in various fields of graphics - drawing with a pencil, watercolor, gouache, in engravings on a tree. In the picture "Iron rolling plant" (1875), he was one of the first to addressed the subject of labor of industrial workers.
LITERATURE
Realism of the XIX century. Critical. Engels noted its main features: loyalty to parts, typics of characters, typical of circumstances.
Realists of the XIX century. With almost scientific accuracy, the relationship between the human environment is explored. Human tastes, his interests and aspirations, his views on the world are due to the peculiarities of the medium in which he grew up and lives.
Realists of the XIX C.: Dickens, Tekcakere, Standal, Balzac - revealed the social sense of evil: They realized that evil does not exist at all, it is in the bourgeois lifestyle, in the material dependence of the person.
Realists of the XIX century. Soberly, mercilessly and rather depicted life. Where the enlighteners saw the struggle of the mind and ignorance, writers of the XIX century. Detected a class struggle. The man appeared in all the complexity and controversy of his spiritual world.
Writers of England
Charles Dickens (1812-1870)
In the novels of Charles Dickens, the life of England XIX cent is widely shown. With its conflicts and contradictions. Writer-realist dreamed that his work would help eradicate social ulcers and makes the lives of people happier and better.
The first book of Dickens - "Pykvik Club Posthumous Notes" (1836-1837). His naive heroes - Mr. Pykvik, Snodgrass, Tapmman and Wincl - then and then fall into comic provisions because of their misunderstanding of real life. Some episodes of the novel open and the dark sides of reality: Pykvikists met more than once with a distortion, they had to face the false election system. Mr Pikvik learned the injustice of the English court and the horrors of the English prisons. The heroes of many of his novels were children: the sirota Oliver twist, the pupil of the shelter with a workline ("Adventures of Oliver Twist", 1839), a gentle and courageous girl Nell Trent, the only support of his old grandfather ("Pniewie of antiquities", 1840), Florence and Paul Dombee, Children of the arrogant merchant ("Dombi and Son", 1848), David Copperfield, whose fate lived a lot of young years of Charles Dickens ("David Copperfield", 1850). Angrily tells the author of schools, which were kept by ignorant people, where the little pupils were tied (the "Life and Adventures of Nicolas Nikkkby", 1839). Dickens accused a society that made the death of street-top Joe ("Cold House", 1853), created sharp satirical portraits of those who were guilty of the suffering of the people. The writer exposed the crime of affairs and thoughts of the Dark Delfa Ralph Nikkby, the hypocrisy of Peksnif, the Otseubytsy Jonas Ceselvita ("Life and Adventures Martin Ceselvit", 1844). He condemned the rootless and arrogance of Mr. Dombey, who pushed the daughter and destroyed a small field.
But Dickens is also a friend of the poor, simple workers ("Christmas Song", "Bells"). He was convinced that a man from nature is kind and generous, and gave the reader the wonderful images of such heroines, as a dedicated Florence Dombee, as an active in his love for people, Dorrit.
Dickens did not become a supporter of revolutionary coups, did not dream of creating a new society. But he believed in the people, was his defender and a champion of his rights.
William Makepis Tekkerei (1811-1863)
"Vanity Fair" (1848) - the so-called the most significant work of the Great English Satirik-Realist William Meykpis Tekkesey. The hero of this novel is the bourgeois-aristocratic society of England. The writer shared his fair, on which everything is sold and bought: Honor, conscience, good name, related relationship, love and friendship.
The heroes of the "Vanity Fair" are the bright creatures of the Satyric Talent of the Writer. He exposes the moral ugliness of the "Piples of the Company" - despotic, depraved, ignorant and nursing aristocrats. Does not spare tekreki and representatives of trading bourgeoisie - London merchants. And the aristocrats and bourgeois are bowing to rich, even if they are insignificant and stupid. To the poor, smart, talented and kind, relate to contempt. Such a relationship to life and people of Tekcrech called snobbery and mercilessly decorated this vice.
"Vanity Fair" is an angry book. Such and other books of Tekkesey. Whether he writes about the England of his time (the novels "Penennis", 1848-1850; "Newcoma", 1855), whether it looks in the past (Roman "Henry Esmond", 1855), he everywhere notes the triumphant power of money, the moral corruption of representatives of the bourgeois society .
Thomas Gardi (1840-1928)
Thomas Garde can rightly be called the heir to the realistic achievements of Dickens and Techkeea.
Care, egoism, coarse material calculations determined the relationship between people, destroyed the ancient, poetic foundations of the patriarchal farm life. This gave birth to the writer the feeling of tragic life. His novels were painted in pessimistic tones. In misfortunes of the heroes, which he found among the people, Gardi Vinyl is not only a society, but also a mystical rock. The death of Tess ("Tess from the family d'Erberville", 1891), daughters of a poor farmer, predetermined by Hangehogo morality of society, the cruelty of his laws. Tragic and the fate of Juda invisible, the hero of the novel of the same name (1895).
Creativity Gardi, and most of all his novels about Tess and Judea invisible is the passionate impact of the English bourgeois society, which Gardi declared an immoral writer.
France writers
Realistic direction in the literature of the XIX century. He headed the great French novelists Standal and Balzac.
Frederick Standal (1783 - 1842)
Frederick Standal (pseudonym Marie Henri Beil) with Napoleon's army visited Italy, Germany and Austria. In 1812, with the main forces of the French army, he passed the way to Moscow.
Restoration of Bourbon found a stand in Italy. Hot friendship tied him with Italian carbonaries - members of the secret revolutionary organization. In the story of "Vanina Vanini" (1829), the reader arises a romantically attractive image of the Republican Pietro Missrylli, brave and proud Italian patriot.
Two Heroes of Standal entered world literature as an impersonation of dismissed, freedom-loving adolescence. One of them is Julien Sorel, the Son of the carpenter from the French province ("Red and Black"), the other - the Italian Aristocrat Fabrizio del Dongo ("Parm Resident").
In the image of Julien, Soro, Standal captured the most essential features of the character of a young man beginning of the XIX century. His soul is fighting good and bad inclinations, careerism and revolutionary ideas, a cold calculation and a romantic feeling.
In the novel "Red and Black" Standal with all the finest shades, analyzes the thoughts and acts of a person, his contradictory impulses. As an artist-psychologist, Standal opened new ways in the art of the XIX century.
Onor de Balzac (1799-1850)
The head of realistic school of the 30-40s. was onan de balzac .
From the 30s. XIX century And until the end of the life, Balzac worked on the creation of a large cycle of works, novels and stories, which subsequently united under the general name "Human Comedy". The writer assumed to make the "human comedy" encyclopedia of modern life.
European glory brought Balzak novels: "Shagreen leather" (1830), "Eugene Grande" (1833), "Father Gorio" (1834), "Lost illusions" (1837-1843); Tale and stories: "Gobsek", "Unknown masterpiece", "Colonel Shabra", "Case about guardianship" and others.
Balzac sat down his works with details, household details. More than other artists of the 30s. He insisted on the image of everyday life, on the truthful reproduction of the social environment.
Moral drop in people, their mercenary interests in the conditions of the capitalist society of France found a mapping in all works of Balzak. The writer often lacked one novel to tell how the fate of some person had developed, so he endured his heroes from one job to another.
The genius of Balzac also manifested itself in the fact that he created unusually living, human characters, sharply feeling the individuality of each of his heroes and a special, characteristic of each of them a speech.
Impressionism and postpressionism in the artistic culture of the XIX century.
1. Impressionism - Movement in painting arising in France in the 1860s. and dominated in painting in Europe and North America until the end of the XIX century. Impressionists wanted to display real life, writing directly to nature, capture the changeable effects of light. The term was first applied in a negative sense with a critical assessment of the work of Monet "Impression. Sunrise "1872 (stolen in 1993 from the museum Marmottan, Paris); The impressionists were also Renoir and Sisnye, later they joined Cezanne, Mana, Degas and others.
2. Impressionism - The course in the art of the last third of the XIX - early XX century, whose representatives sought to convey their fleeting impressions, portraying the world in its mobility and variability.
3. Postpressionism - Various styles of paintings that followed impressionism in the 1880s and 1890s. The term was first used by the English critic of Roger Frem in 1911. To describe the work of the Cezanne field, Vincent Van Gogh and Gauga fields. These artists left the spontaneity of impressionism, trying to give their work more serious importance.
ART
Impressionism (from the French word Impression - the impression) was for the beginning of the 1870s. The sharpness of the visual impression of impressionists made the chief criterion of their art. They noticed that the same landscape seems completely different with different lighting - a sunny day and in cloudy weather, in the morning and evening light, and put their task to keep the freshness of a direct impression in the picture. Therefore, the impressionists wrote their works (first of all landscapes) entirely outdoors, and not in the workshop. Studying the effect of light in the landscape, they found that black and deaf tones are found in nature only when the illumination of objects is insufficient, and drove the black paint from their palette. In an effort to convey in the landscape, the reverent movement of the air, they wrote pictures with a small rolling smear.
Impressionists chased their native nature, but by catching the increased role of large cities, the first began to portray the scenes of fussy and dynamic urban life. However, focusing all his attention on the picturesque fixation of impressions, representatives of impressionism inevitably came to the well-known limitations and one-sidedness of their art, to narrowing his ideological significance and purposefulness. Nevertheless, the art of impressionists always retained the high poetry and life-affirming nature of the images, and the purely picturesque conquest of these artists was so significant that their creative heritage was firmly included in the treasury of world art.
The whole path of development of impressionism is inextricably linked with the work of the landscapeist Claude Monet (1840-1926). Monet often wrote the same view at different times of the day. These are his series "Stacks of Sena" and "Ruran Cathedral". Rayless, as if negligent strokes, he created the impression of a quenching field from the breeze or the full movement of the street of Paris. He could capture the sultry of the summer day, and the humid snow of soft French winter.
The cheerful and clear perception of the world inherent in the whole of all impressionism, clearly manifested in the work of one of the main masters of this current Augusta Renoara (1841-1919), Which was nusted "singer of happiness." His art is joyful and radiant. Little painting little fascinated Renoire, the spotlight was in the center of the painter.
In one of the best works - "Ball in the Garden of Moulin de la Galet" (1876) - Renoir gave a wide panorama of the moving crowded mass, illuminated by uneven glare of light, even more enhancing the impression of the continuous movement of people. High picturesque skill were marked by Renohar genre scenes and still lifes with the image of flowers.
The image of a person attracted attention Edgar Degas (1834-1917). He also entered the group of impressionists. But people on the canvas of Degas know the severity of exhausting labor, they are the knowledge of the prose of life of the bourgeois city. The main means of characteristics of their characters degi chooses movement. An excellent drawingman, he laughes the professional gesture of the smooth carrier or bars, the ballerina's pose, planting jockey on the races. Its works seem randomly grated pictures, however, their compositions are always strictly thought out.
Degi was a subtle colorist, brilliantly owned both oil painting and tender pastel technique.
One of the best paintings of the outstanding representative of Impressionism Camille Pisserro (1830-1903) - "Montmartre Boulevard in Paris" (1897). It captures one of the central sections of large boulevards of the French capital - Montmartre Boulevard. The viewer sees a long street, so characteristic of Paris, on early spring day. Thanks to the free and rapid smears, the artist managed to preserve the loyalty of the visual observation: to convey the living sensation of the street filled with pedestrians and the flow of rolling crews - and this was determining in the creative aspirations of Pissaro and other impressionists.
The world of deep dramatic images creates in its works the largest sculptor XIX century. Auguste Roden (1840-1917). He was associated with impressionists and borrowed a number of fine techniques. But, unlike impressionists, the focus of Roden was the people of deep experiences, large and strong feelings. The sculptor perpetuated the feat of the defenders of the city of Kale, about which the old chronicle was told, created portraits of Hugo, Balzak, show.
For many years, Roden devoted work on the huge corner of the "Gate hell" (1880-1917). Her images inspired by Dante's "Divine Comedy" allowed the artist to transfer the power and variety of human passions. One of the central figures of this composition is "thinker" (1880). This is a kind of personification of human thought, painfully trying to penetrate the mystery of the unknown. Repeatedly attracted Roden the theme of love. She is dedicated to such sculptures like "Kiss", "Eternal Song", "Romeo and Juliet". Repeated in different years by the artist in marble and bronze, they are in many museums of the world.
More complex and contradictory than the impressionists were creative searches in the art of such famous artists of the end of the XIX century., Like Van Gogh, Gauguin, Cezanne. They are called postimigresionists (from Latin post - after). But this term is conditional, because these artists worked not after, and in parallel with impressionists. Unlike impressionists, they did not constitute a single group, and each of them was its own way.
Vincent Van Gogh (1853-1890) - Dutchman by nationality is inextricably linked to a French picturesque school. Observing the surrounding reality, complete contradictions, the artist in his paintings expressed that deep tragedy with whom he perceived life, his images are agitated, anxious character. Any portrait, landscape or still life of Van Gogh is filled with hidden dramatic power. The feeling of depression and anxiety is expressed in the sharp sound of the paints, in the dynamization and the trepacy of smears.
Paul Gajen (1848-1903), as deeply disappointed in the bourgeois civilization, like Van Gogh, leaves Europe and spends many years on the Polynesian Islands. The nature and life of the native tribes, which seemed to be full of primary purity, become the source of his creative inspiration. Its picturesque manner is inherent in a generalized contour pattern, the conditional simplistic image and the bright soundness of individual colorful spots.
Paul Cesanne (1839-1916), Began his creative path in the 60s. Having learned the lessons of impressionism, Cezanne entered into the fight against it. Instead of the eternal volatility of random impressions of impressionists, Cezann sought to reveal the constant basics of the visible world in his works. He found them in bulk forms of items. Cezann wanted to return the art of the definition of forms, strict well thought-out of the composition of composite painting.
He always worked with nature, not putting on canvas not a single smear, not confirmed by visual perception. But, unlike impressionists, transmitted shape with color, regardless of lighting at the moment, only based on alternating warm and cold tones. The most fully Cezanne could embody these principles when he wrote inanimate and still nature, so still lifes and landscapes are the most characteristic genres of his work.
The new period of development of French music opens Debussy and Ravel - two different, but complementary artistic nature.
Claude Debussy (1862-1918) He graduated from a conservatory of 22 years with the highest award. In his writings, from the very beginning, the original, unique talent was felt, they were full of unusual innovations.
For the first time, the moods and feelings born by alive and bright impressions of the fields and forests, a variety of sea landscapes, urban streets and parks were full of challenge. Debussy causes his sound images in the imagination aromas and paints, captures the diverse corners of the Earth and as if animated elements - the wind, the sea.
He created the piano plays "Sails", "Wind on the plain", "Gardens in the rain", "Steps in the snow", "reflections in water", "Golden Fish".
The top of the work of Debussy is the poem's symphony "Sea" (1903-1905). This full colors and poetry music story could create only an artist enthusiastically in love. Creative fantasy often entails him to antique or fabulous plots. And in the children's ballet "Box with toys" and the piano cycle "Children's corner" (1906-1908) a lot of humor, merry fiction.
In the music of Debussy, the intonation of folk songs or vintage melodies is captured, oriental entrances, similar to floral patterns, are woven into it.
Name Maurice Ravenvae (1875-1937) Also connected with musical impressionism, but in his work, he more noticeably reflected new trends.
One of the early piano pies Ravel - "Pavan" (1899), ancient Spanish dance, deploying in slow motion.
"Spanish Rhapsody" for the orchestra (1907) is full of grace and gloss. In the first part ("by night") recreated the poetic picture of the Southern Nature, resting after a hot day. In the following parts - Dancing: air-light melting and full of Tomny Naga Khabanner. Final ("Ferry") - Scenes of the People's Holiday. Melts the motley of the carnival masks, especially violent, temperamental becomes dancing.
Peru Ravel belongs to several ballets, each of which is characterized by a special musical flavor and continuity of musical development.
The ballet "Daphnis and Chloe" (1912) on the ancient plot won the scenes of the largest theaters of the world. His magnificent music is colorful and at the same time exquisite.
The romantic manner created a choreographic poem "Waltz" (1919-1920): brightly lit room, masquerade clothing, rapid movement of dancing couples.
One of the vertices of symphonic music was the famous "Bolero" (1928).
Miraculously embodied in the music of the world of fairy tales. In the ballet "Mother Gusanya" (1908) there are fabulous characters: a C-finger boy, a beauty, a monster - enchanted prince. And in the opera "Child and Magic" (1925), the animals are talking, birds, things come to life.
LITERATURE
With regard to the literature, impressionism is considered widely as a stylist phenomenon that has been characteristic of writers of various beliefs and creative methods, narrowly as a course of a certain method and to the decadence of the world that prevail at the turn of the XIX - XX centuries.
Gi de Maupassan (1850 - 1893)
in the 70s, Maupassan was improved in literary skills under the guidance of Flaubert. Fame came to Moopassana with the advent of his novels "Push" (1880), distinguished by anti-bourgeois or sharpness of social analysis. Until his death in 1893, the writer published more than fifteen novel collections, several books of travel essays, the famous novels "Life" (1883), "Cute Friend" (1885), "Pierre Oriol" (1886), "Pierre and Jean" (1888) and other works. In his work, Maupassan managed to express critical, deprived of illusions, attitude towards the bourgeois society, an understanding of the falsity of the bourgeois democracy, the dirty essence of militarism and the colonial adventure. Maupassan revealed and demonstrated spiritual poverty, vulgarity, borestip and false moral of the bourgeois owner. For most of its works, the depth and accuracy of analyzing the social nature of human relations are characterized. Singing the power and beauty of earthly love ("Moonlight", "Happiness"), Maupassan wrote many times with bitterness about the profanation of love, turning it into a means of profit or dirty fun, about adulter and prostitution - human satellites ("loneliness", "riding ", "Stroll").
A number of simple people are devoted to the lives of ordinary people. Maupassant showed that only in their environment you can find genuine humanity and cleanliness of feelings ("Pope Simona", "Boytel"). In the stories about the Franco-Prussian war, it is ordinary people who are capable of heroic and patriotic deeds ("paddy", "Mademoiselle Fifi", "Uncle Milon"). The writer depicted not only the greed and ignorance of village owners ("barrel", "Devil"), but also the eternal drama of the peasant the poor man ("Father Amabl"), and the tragic fate of people who were on the "bottom" of life ("Tramp", " "," In Porto "). In his stories, he brought the Gallery of Bourgeois Oils, exposing their spiritual poverty and hypocrisy ("My Uncle Jules", "Rain Umbrella", "awarded the Order").
Edmond (1822-1896) and Jules (1830-1870) de Goncurs
Their creative principles, image of thoughts, artistic tastes, interests and habits coincided completely. The richest material for studying the literary life of the era and creative views of the authors contain "diaries" of the gangurs, which were conducted daily from 1851 for almost half a century and amounted to more than 20 volumes. Their programming Early Roman "Germini Laserta" influenced the young Zol and deserved his enthusiastic review. Under the influence of the ideas of positivistic philosophy, the gangra brothers proclaimed the slogan "documented to reproduce life" and with all the reliability described the lives of various layers of the modern Society; They first turned to the life of social bases, depicting the spiritual world of the poor and the tragic conditions of their existence. The brothers of goncars had a deep interest in art, which they considered above reality. Brilliant experts and collectors, they left a number of significant works: "Art of the XVIII century" (1859-1875), "Actresses of the XVIII century", a monograph dedicated to the gavarin, books about Japanese artists of Utamaro and Hokusan. After the death of Jules Gekra in 1870, Edmon continued literary activities. He wrote a few more novels, in which new motives close to the decadence literature appeared. The best of his books are devoted to the image of the life of people of art, creative talented natures and their environments - this is the "juggling brothers" (1879) and "Actress Fosten" (1882). After the death of Edmon de Goncur, his condition, in accordance with the will of the deceased, was transferred to the Foundation for the annual literary premium.
Emil Zol (1840-1902)
Zola boldly introduced data from natural science discoveries, medicine and physiology into the literature. Based on the theory of heredity, he partly replaced the social and historical factors for the formation of a personality of biological conditionality. In the 60s. He published the first novels and several collections of literary-critical and art historical articles directed against Academism, in defense of impressionists. In the preface to the novel "Teresa Raken" (1867), Zola first formulated his method of naturalism. In 1868, he began his grandiose work - a series of novels about the second empire. For twenty-five, he worked on the creation of a social epic "Ruggig Makcara. Natural and social history of one family in the era of the second empire "(1871-1893). Its initial plan included 10 novels, but the subsequent historical events prompted Zola to push the cycle framework, bring new types and social strata, to discover the class antagonism of the bourgeois society. In final form, the series includes 20 novels. Moreover, during the work, the idea of \u200b\u200bheredity gradually lost its dominant role, her historical and social point displaced it. In the 80s, during the spelling of "Zerminal" - the first novel on the working movement - Zola increasingly "pushed" to socialism. In the 90s. He wrote a cycle of "Three cities" novels - "Lourdes" (1894), "Rome" (1896), "Paris" (1898), united by ideological searches of the chief hero of Pierre Froman. In the Social Utopia "of the" Four Gospels "in the social utopia of the" Four Gospels "in the social utopia of the" Four Gospels ":" work "(1901)," Truth "(1903), the last novel of which" justice "remained unlipped. For his courageous social speeches, later collected in the book of articles "Truthful" (1901), the writer was sentenced to imprisonment. In Russia, his work in the journal "Journal of Europe" (1875-1880) was promoted by the wide lifelong fame of Saint in Russia (1875-1880), where many of his literary and critical articles were published.
Thomas Mann (1875-1955)
Thomas Mann was not only the author of world-famous works, but also a defender of a democratic culture, a wrestler for peace and cooperation between nations. In his works, he seeks to resolve the problems of great socio-political importance. The fate of the German people, the historical responsibility of the intelligentsia, the role and importance of art, the place of the artist in society is the constant themes of his works. In the books and articles written in exile, in public speeches, the writer was angry with fascism. His anti-fascist activity has reached its special scope during the Second World War. Thomas Mann is known as the theoretical of literature and art. He owns a number of critical articles analyzing the work of German and foreign writers and musicians. He knew perfectly and loved the classic Russian literature, which had a noticeable impact on his own creativity. Large Dating Artist, Thomas Mann created monumental works included in the Golden Foundation of World Literature.
Test
Which of these religions got the greatest distribution in India?
1. Christianity;
3. Buddhism;
4. Hinduism;
5. Shinto;
6. Judaism;
7. Jainism.
Answer: 3, 4, 7. Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism received the greatest distribution in India.
Conclusion
Thus, a feature of the development of European culture of the XIX century. There was an exceptional diversity of species, directions and genres of artistic creativity. Romanticism, realism, impressionism, postpressionism - these are the main directions that have engulfed almost all kinds of art - literature, painting, music of Europe XIX century. Both writers, and artists, and musicians reflected life in their works with all its difficulties, nuances of economic and political life, revolutionary coups. Art figures with their works published broadcasting encyclopedia of the life of the XIX century.
List of used literature
1. Children's Encyclopedia of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the USSR. Volume 12 - art. M.: "Enlightenment", 1968.
2. Children's encyclopedia of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the USSR. Volume 11 - language. Fiction. M.: "Enlightenment", 1968.
3. Basic works of foreign fiction: lit.-bibliogr. Manager / All-Union. State B-ka Forers. Lit.; Ot. Ed. L.A. Gwishiani. - M.: Book, 1980.
4. Cultural Science: Tutorial. / Ed. A.N. Markova. - M.: Uniti, 2001.
5. Short encyclopedic dictionary. - M.: "AST", 2002.
6. Modern dictionary of foreign words / I.V. Nechaeva. - M.: "AST", 2002.
Sociocultural situation.The European XIX century is the century of a developed mature culture. The century of a complex sociocultural situation, when the past is encountered for the future, and traditional culture is on new tastes. This is the age of revolutions and restorations, a century of old social classes and a new work movement, the century of approval of capitalist economy with all its forms and relationships. This is a triumph of organized capitalism. The industry develops a rapid pace, financial operations, the number of banks is growing, allegations of bankers are approved. The need for qualified specialists stimulates the development of the education system.
Unlike the XVI and XVIII centuries of the XIX century, it was not a witness to the appearance of great pedagogical ideas, rather, it was an eyelid of their specific implementation and organization of the education system, during which an attempt was made to the synthesis of existing institutions, new ideas and the urgent needs of society in this area.
Especially indicative experience of the evolution of the French education system. The law of May 2, 1802 set a clear border between primary and secondary school, the best students of which received the right to enter the lyceum. Laws 1806 and 1808. Provided the creation of an imperial university, the main Matra which was appointed by the emperor, as well as the organization of academies led by rectors and general inspectors in Paris and the province. From this time, the highest and secondary education in Europe acquires the final structure, the initial education remains under the jurisdiction of the Church. In the second half of the century, a number of laws appeared in the field of education, which provided the opening of public schools for girls, as well as those who launched the idea of \u200b\u200b"free", "mandatory", "secular" education into the public consciousness. These laws (Ferry Law 1881 and 1882 and the GOBLE law of 1886) contributed to genuine progress in the field of education, which allowed historians to note that the total of the eyelid in the field of education was deeply positive. From now on, education is not just value, but a total rate.
Requirements for objective knowledge and science.It was time for the refusal of philosophers and scientists from metaphysical debates in favor of a dialogue on the conditions of objective knowledge of reality in all its forms. Mathematics and philosopher Auguste Cont (1798 - 1857) Posted by "Course of Positive Philosophy", Philosist Claude Bernard (1813 - 1878) In the work "Introduction to the study of experimental medicine" outlined the fundamental principles of leadership by any science, Louis Pasteur (1822 - 1895), founder Microbiology and immunology are engaged in search of a rational method for studying biological phenomena, the founder of the cultural and historical school IPPOLIT TEN (1828 - 1893) is trying to give a positive explanation for artistic, literary and historical facts.
Technical Progress contributes to the development of all areas of science, affecting an innumerable amount of discoveries: in the study of gas and optics - the opening of the Lebon (1769 - 1804), Dulga (1785 - 1838), Gay Loussa (1778 - 1850), Sadi Carno (1796 - 1832) , the opening of the laws of conservation and conversion of energy by Meyer (1814 - 1878), gelmgolat (1821 - 1894), Joem (1819 - 1889), the study of electromagnetism by amper (1775 - 1836), the invention of the Dynamo Machine grams (1826 - 1901), cell creation Theories of Schwann (1810 - 1882) and Shleden (1804 - 1881). In the field of natural science, three powerful intelligence dominate: Lamarc (1744 - 1829), which introduced the term "biology" (1802), Saint-Ilher and Kuwier (1769 - 1832), Darwin's predecessors (1809 - 1882), the author of the evolutionary teaching in biology.
The use of electricity gives rise to a new world. Inside the railway, photography, telegraph, typewriters, telephone, and at the end of the century - radio, car, movies. Scientific progress is accompanied by a wonderful development of technology, and there are no contradictions between them, they complement each other.
Scientific discoveries and their brilliant practical incarnation in life with simultaneous universal enthusiasm give birth to almost mystical faith in the future of science. E. Renan (1823 - 1892) In the work "The Future of Science" left a testimony of such a state of mind.
Yes, he wrote Renan, "the day comes, when ... Humanity recognizes the metaphysical and moral world as the world is already knowing the world, the day, when the government will not be appointed by chance or as a result of intrigue, but as a result of choosing the best effective means. And if this is the goal of science, and if its means are to teach a person to understand their intentions and the law, understand the true meaning of life, to teach it to compose, teach poetry, art and virtue, the divine ideal, which is only worth human existence, whether she will have Serious loans.
For a more complete characteristics of the sociocultural situation in Europe XIX century. Acute political and social processes should be noted in countries such as Italy, surviving at the beginning of the century, the Napoleonic conquests, restoration, activities of secret societies and, finally, the powerful movement of the risorgemento, which ended with the national association of the country. In France, over the course of the century, each other replaced each other Directory, Consulate, Empire, Restoration, Republic, Paris Commune.
All these economic, social, political, scientific, educational factors, along with the cultural achievements of the previous century, predetermined the nature, trends, styles, content, directions, dominants and preferences of the humanitarian European culture of the XIX century.
Socio-political collisions of the revolutionary era.
Formation and development of public consciousness, main
philosophical directions, cultural concepts.
Reorganization of the education system and science. Expansion
technical equipment of artistic culture.
From an ampyr to romanticism. Evolution of impressionism.
The development of capitalism in the countries of Western Europe of the first half of the XIX century was accompanied by the formation of a powerful working movement. In France, twice the weaves of Lyon. In England, the first working party in the world was created. Under these conditions, Marxism arose, which had a huge impact on the socio-political life of Europe and the whole world. Under the leadership of K. Marx and F, Engels, I was formed by the I International - the International Workers Association. In 1871, the workers of the French capital have established their power in it for several months. After the defeat of the Paris commune and the dissolution of the I of International in all European countries, social democratic parties began to emerge, guided by the ideas of Marxism. In the public consciousness of the XIX century, Marxism took a leading place.
Other views are formed in the public consciousness. The philosophy is the main ideas of positivism. Positivism (Latin. - Positivus is a positive, actual) - one of the main directions in which Western philosophy develops throughout the XIX-XX centuries, outgoing from the fact that only using data from scientific experience is able to know the facts and phenomena of life. The founders of positivism - French philosopher Auguste Cont (1798-1857) and the English sociologist Herbert Spencer (1820-1903) formulated a number of cultural and aesthetic theories that have had a serious impact on the formation at the end of the century in the United States "mass culture".
In the Western European culture of the second half of the XIX century. A decent place occupies an irrationalistic line in philosophy, presented by Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860) and Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900). In their philosophical and cultural essays, they:
Replaced the reasonable foundation of the world of unreasonable, irrational, intuitive will;
The meaning of the mind and thinking, emphasizing the immoral arbitrary personality.
Schopenhauer and Nietzsche belongs to the authorship of the T. N. "Elite concept" of cultural development. The manufacturer and the consumer of elite culture, from their point of view, is the highest preferred layer of society - elite (from Franz. Elite - the best, selected, favorites). The elite is in each public class, the social group. It is the most capable of spiritual part of the society, gifted by high creative making. It was the elite, according to the thought of philosophers, provides public progress. Therefore, culture should be focused on meeting its requests and needs. In its fundamental work "Peace as a Will and Presentation", completed in 1844, A. Schopenhauer in sociological terms shares humanity into two parts:
- "people of genius", that is, capable of aesthetic contemplation and artistic and creative activity;
- "Use of benefits", that is, oriented only for purely practical, utilitarian activities.
In the cultural concept of F. Nietzsche, formulated by him in famous works: "Birth of the tragedy from the spirit of music" (1872), "Human, too human" (1878), "Cheerful Science" (1872), "So said Zarathustra" (1884) The elite concept manifests itself in the idea of \u200b\u200b"superman". This "superhuman", having a privileged position in society, is endowed with the thought of F. Nietzsche, and unique creative susceptibility.
In the XIX century, and Europe is finally approved by the capitalist form of management, the desire to be useful society is traced in the minds of people, and the culture acquires democratic and secular features. The dominant city culture contributed not only to the intensive development of industrial production: mechanical engineering, energy, metallurgy, etc., but also stimulated the processes of education and science. Throughout Europe, a system of school and vocational education is being formed, the number of students studying at universities increases. The norm of European culture becomes a desire to increase its educational level.
From the beginning of the XIX century. Science becomes in demand by the European Community in full. The most fundamental scientific achievements of the century are:
Opening by the German microbiologist Robert Koh (1768-1839) of the pathogen of tuberculosis (koch stick);
Description of the English botany Robert Brown (1773-1858) of the plant cell nuclei and the opening of the disorderly movement of the smallest particles (Brownian movement);
Creating an English physicist Michael Faraday (1791-1867) of the exercise on the electromagnetic field;
Justification of the English naturalist Charles Darwin (1809-1882) of the main factors of the evolution of the organic world from the monkey to a person;
development of French microbiologist and immunologist Louis Pasteur (1822-1895) method of prophylactic vaccination against Siberian ulcers and other infectious diseases;
Prediction of English physics of James Maxwell (1831-1879) of the existence of an electromagnetic field.
Since the second half of the XIX century, the social status of science is changing. Public scientific centers appear in Europe, which included research institutes and laboratories. The practice includes scientific conferences, symposia and world exhibitions, as new forms of international cultural exchange.
In the last quarter of the XIX century. There is an expansion of the technical equipment of artistic culture. The result of massization of production and achievements of the scientific and technical revolution was the emergence of modern design or artistic design. For its appearance, this type of artistic and creative activity is obliged, on the one hand, the rapid development of technology and the improvement of technological production processes, on the other, the penetration of artistic creativity in new areas of activity and the expansion of the borders of aesthetic reality. It is these processes that the new human attitude towards the environment to the environment in which any technical designs and items should have become carriers of harmony and beauty.
Prerequisite appearance of cinema appeared at the end of the XIX century. Cinematographic technology. In March 1895 in France, with the help of a film package, the Lumiere brothers implemented the first film instrument. With an unprecedented activity at the end of the century, experiments were carried out on the connection of music and color. Color energy dynamics in the work of A. Scriabin, M. Churlenis became a new constructive method of musical composition.
In the artistic culture of the XIX century, a number of pan-European styles and directions were functioning. We give them a brief characteristics.
Ampire (Franz. Empire - Empire) - style in European architecture and decorative art, completing the era of classicism and most brightly manifested himself during the Napoleon Empire (1804-1815). Samples of ancient Greek archaic, ancient Egyptian architecture, the art of the imperial Rome, were based on the motifs of the decor and architectural forms of Empire style. Developed an ampir in the Napoleonic era of French architects Sh. Persion and P. Fonten. True, they embodied their ideas not in theoretical concepts, but implemented through the publication in Paris in 1801 and 1812 albums of architectural and decorative samples.
For an ampyr architecture, massive volumes, geometrically correct forms, magnificent stucco and carved decor, which has found its embodiment in the palace structures, triumphant arches, columns. Ampire's artistic techniques contributed to the development of mass production of tissues, porcelain, table silver.
Romanticism (Fr. Romantisme) is a wide ideological and artistic movement in the spiritual life of the European and American society, which began at the turn of the XVIII-XIX centuries, which existed until the 40s of the XIX century., And then revived in a variety of neoromantic forms.
Romanticism, originating in Germany, spread throughout the world, was nationally multiple, complicated, internally contradictory and heterogeneous. At the beginning of the XIX century. In Europe existed:
Romantic art (D. Bayron, V. Hugo, V. Zhukovsky);
Romantic philosophy and aesthetics (Brothers A. and F. Schlegel, F. Shelling, S. Kierkegan);
Romantic political and economic concepts (we are talking about the views of representatives of European utopian socialism and Russian populists).
Romanticism found its expression not only in the field of ideology, but also in the field of public psychology, speaking as a certain worldview and the worldview of the era. He created a new idea of \u200b\u200bthe wealth and inexhaustibility of a human spiritual world. Romanticism postulated reality, political indifference, mysticism, melancholy, attention to the internal life of the personality.
Romanticism is a powerful artistic direction, which was based on the creative method, which proclaimed his main principle absolute and limitless personality freedom. The essence of the romantic world perception is the recognition of a dramatically intractable contradiction between the low-body reality and a high ideal incompatible with her, and sometimes unrealized. In romanticism, the main thing is not a show of individualism, but the heroic is a pathetic glorification of loneliness.
For romanticism as an artistic style, it is characterized by opposition to the classic "imitation of nature" of the artist's creative activity, with his right to transformation of the real world. Romanticism stimulates the denial of normality in creating works of art and stands for updating artistic forms. The artist creates exactly its special world, more beautiful than the real one. Understanding the art as a higher reality, romanticism stimulates the associativity of artistic thinking and interpenetration of various types of art genres. The works of romantics are filled with feelings of delight and disappointment, inspiration and despair. These spiritual oscillations created a feeling of incomprehensibility of reality, the eternal riddle of the world, recognizing the impossibility of his full spiritual knowledge. The heterogeneity of the romantic style gave rise to the instability of the entire artistic system as a whole.
The romantic era is the time of the unprecedented heyday of the music (F. Chopin, Berlioz, F. Schubert, F. Sheet), Painting (E. Declarac, T. Zheriko, D. Consthebl, O. Cyprossky) and literature (V. Scott , A. Duma, E. Gofman, G. X. Andersen, F. Cooper). In the romantic era, people felt the movement of time, social changes, which was accompanied by unprecedented interest in popular culture, its origins and the growth of national self-consciousness in many European countries. Classical countries of romanticism were Germany, France, England.
Realism (from Late. Realis is a real, valid) - a creative process and a method characteristic of the artistic culture of European countries, according to which the task of art is a comprehensive vitality.
Understanding the realism as the truth of life has a long cultural tradition and a number of historical stages take place. The first attempt to theoretical understanding of the concept of "realism" can be considered an antique Mimesis ("Imitation of Nature" in the interpretation of Aristotle), then this problem has become the key in the theoretical heritage of the Renaissance thinkers. Special interpretation of realistic "free imitation" receives in the works of Lamsing and D. Didro. However, a holistic understanding and the term "realism" itself occurs in the 20s of the XIX century. And its value is intensified by the middle of the century.
Realism of the XIX century. It is customary to be called critical realism. It is characteristic:
Deep comprehension of life;
Wide coverage of reality;
Artistic understanding of all its contradictions.
The realist artist shows the relationships and mutual influence of a person and the medium, showing genuinely encyclopedic knowledge. It is not by chance that many writings acquire the nature of social research: ("Red and Black" F. Standal, "Auditor" N. Gogol). In realistic art, the character of a person is interpreted as contradictory and developing unity. The manifestation of the nature is due to the habitat and the circumstances of life. Character may vary from the content of these conditions, depending on the moment experienced. For the realism of the XIX century, an exacerbated interest is characterized precisely to the social start in reality (O. Balzac, F. Dostoevsky, I. Kramskaya, A. Chekhov, L. Tolstoy, etc.). The art of this era is actively on this concentrated.
In the XX century Art faced with a complicated reality, with global (political, environmental, moral) problems affecting the interests of each person. Realism XX century Filled with humanistic content, helping a person to overcome the absurdity of being and loneliness.
Naturalism (Franz. Naturalisme, from Latin. Nature - Nature) - Humane method that has developed in the Western European and American culture of the last third of the XIX century under the influence of the philosophy of positivism O. Kont, Spencer, I. Tan, and others.
In accordance with the methodology of positivism, the nature of art was explained through the ideas borrowed from natural science. In his works, an artist-naturalist must absolute primary existence, strive for the external plausibility of the details, the protocol description, the image of single phenomena. At the same time, the influence of the social factor is clearly understood. The primary importance of naturalists attached to the exact description of the facts of reality, "lumps of life", seeing in such a description the indispensable condition for the truthfulness of art. Thus, naturalism put two tasks in front of the artist:
Achieve truthful, or rather a life-like image of modern life;
In the artistic product, its true interpretation based on the method and achievements of natural sciences.
Naturalism arose and programmatically took shape primarily in France. The work of I. Tan "Introduction to the history of English literature" (1864) was a kind of naturalism manifesto, in which the author put forward Triad - "Race", "Wednesday", "moment" as the only possible and real causes of the evolution of an individual in the field of culture. Moreover, the peculiarity of the "race" was reduced to the effect on a person as a biological environment - medium, climate, nutrition, the nature of the terrain, etc. The adherents of naturalism in art considered a person as a passive result of the inevitable impact of heredity and material environment. It should be noted that during this period, naturalism begins to documency, the document in art is quite widely introduced. In the 70-80s of the XIX century, naturalism raised very important topics:
It showed the life of disadvantaged and oppressed;
Investigated the mechanisms of human interaction and environment for the purpose of its reasonable organization;
Intensified attention to the role of unconscious moments in the human psyche.
At the turn of the XIX-XX centuries, artistic techniques of naturalism will be in demand in certain directions of modernism. Among the writers, the most famous adherents of naturalism are the French - the E. Brothers and J. Gekura, E. Zola, G. de Maupassan; Germans - A. Holz and G. Hauptman; Englishman -
J. Moore. In Russia, the influence of naturalism was tangible in the work of P. Boborakina, D. Mamin-Sibiryak, I. Panayev.
Impressionism (from FR. IMPRESSION - the impression) is an artistic direction arising in France in the 60-70s of the XIX century and received the most vivid embodiment in visual arts, fiction, music, sculpture. Impressionism appears as the last one-piece artistic flow in France of the XIX century, marked by common persistent stylistic signs. Among the artists of the next generation there was no such unity.
Signs of impressionistic style is:
Refusal of closetness and stability of objects of objects;
Fragment of compositions fixing instantaneous, as if random situations;
Unexpected perspectives, cuts of figures and items.
Impressionism especially pronounced himself in painting. Artists-Impressionists (O. Renoir, E. Manne, E. Degas, K. Monet, K. Pissero) With the help of new picturesque techniques, they sought to convey the beauty of the fleeting states of nature, the mobility and variability of human life. His landscape work (and the landscape - reproducing the dynamic and colorful life of nature - became the leading genre of impressionism) artists wrote outdoors (pleasing), transmitting with clean, light painting a feeling of sparkling sunlight. It should be noted that work at the please, creative contact with nature caused a new picturesque technique, which was especially manifested in the colors of the canvase. The plenier developed in impressionists not only the aggravated perception of local color, but also the thinnest feeling of the color scheme, which was modified depending on the illumination and state of the air. The French writer E. Zola very subtlely noticed about the essence of the art of impressionism, that this is a "a piece of nature, considered through one or another temperament." In his work, the impressionists proceeded from confidence in nature as objective. They were convinced that the world of nature could not be separated from his perception. And they realized themselves as peculiar mediators between the world of nature and people who are designed to disclose the beauty of this world.
During his ascent on the artistic Olympus, impressionism was treated with theoretization in art and did not do it. The focus was focused on the affairs of artistic vision and the paths of its incarnation. Therefore, for the initial stage of the functioning of impressionism, group exhibitions were characterized, which periodically united various artists and supported a certain relationship between them. The wide cultural and philosophical-aesthetic understanding of this phenomenon occurred only at the beginning of the 20th century, during its creative sunset.
Impressionistic techniques were used in other art types. At the turn of the XIX-XX centuries, the principle of painting is one of the decisive and literature, and in sculpture, and in the music of impressionism. In poetry, he sounded in the work of Ya. Vellen, having reached apogee in his famous collection "Romances without words" (1874), in music - in the brilliant miniatures M. Ravel and K. Debussy. Used this style in their work - sculptors O. Roden and P. Trubetskoy, writers E. Duzharden, M, Proust, K. Gamsun and I. Annensky. Russian artists-impressionists were K. Korovin and I. Grabar. Written by them in the bright, shining colors of the canvas with rare force transmit the beauty and joy of life.
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Western European culture of the XIX century.
Century nineteenth, rusty,
Truly the cruel eyelids!
A. Blok.
Culture XIX century. It is the culture of the prevailing bourgeois relations. Capitalism as the system has been fully formed. It covered the industry of material production, which resulted in appropriate transformations in the non-productive sphere (politics, science, philosophy, art, education, everyday life, public consciousness). For the culture of this period, the reflection of the internal contradictions of the bourgeois society is characteristic. The collision of opposite trends, the struggle of basic classes - bourgeoisie and the proletariat of the polarization of society, the rapid rise of material culture and the above-mentioned personality determined the nature of the spiritual culture of the time. European culture XIX century. It is a reflection of those contradictory principles, which is a developed bourgeois society, but, nevertheless, it is not equal in the depths of penetration into Genesis and the spiritual world of a person on creative tension in science, literature, philosophy and art
Among the socio-economic and political facilities were determining social revolutions and revolutionary traffic. In the XIX century The bourgeois revolutions covered many European countries and were one of the most important stages of class struggle. ʜᴎʜᴎ contributed to the assertion and development of capitalism, the solution of the urgent historical tasks, in particular, the combination of Italy and Germany, was awakened in progressive humanity a desire for freedom from social oppression and injustice.
A huge impact on the development of the Western European world had industrial Revolution which ended in the XIX century., which led to a significant restructuring of labor and objective world. Its direct result is an unprecedented growth in the performance of social labor. Practical needs stimulated the rapid development of science. XIX century - ϶ᴛᴏ flourishing classic natural science, Create unified System Sciences . At this time, the connection of science with production becomes closer. The first research laboratories operating to industry appear. Opening in various fields of natural sciences in all means more affect the development of leading industries: metallurgy, energy, mechanical engineering, instrument making, transportation of the chemical industry.
To the most striking achievements of the Industrial Revolution of the XIX century. The use of electricity in the industry, new communications (body and telephone, telephone), drive devices of work machines, in many technological processes of various industries, in the creation of incandescent lamps for lighting premises and streets. Creation of a locomotive, internal combustion engine, body, radio, radio, cinema and much more amounted to a coup in science and technology.
The formation began industrial society , radically distinguished from the preceding preindustrial. Industrial production related to constantly developing equipment, with the release of new goods and the creation of the service sector, as the K. Marks emphasized, played a great civilizing role. Underling the huge masses of people from the previous social structures, undermining these structures themselves, industrialization becomes the driving force that introduces the masses into new relationships and tends them to a new way of life, the rhythm of labor, disciplines, expands literacy and horizons of being.
Stormy political and social processes predetermined in many countries a change in the forms of the state device. Especially significant perturbations have undergone France, where the directory, the consulate, the twice empire was installed during the century, was restored by the Bourbon dynasty, the republic was proclaimed twice and even the Paris Commune took place when the working class took the power for a short time.
Spiritual culture XIX in. developed and functioned under the influence of two essential factors: success in the field philosophy and natural science. The leading dominant culture of the XIX century. was the science.
Continuous revolutionary coups occurred in the XIX century. in science. At this historical period, science glorified R. Mayer, J. Joil, Gelmgolts, opened laws of conservation and transformation of energy, which ensured a single basis for all sections of physics and chemistry. The creation of great importance in the knowledge of the world T. Svanne and M. Shleden cell theory, which showed the uniform structure of all living organisms. Ch. Darwin who created an evolutionary teaching in biology, introduced the idea of \u200b\u200bdevelopment in natural science. Thanks to the periodic system of elements, open in brilliant Russian scientists D. I. Mendel -yeev , the internal relationship between the All-Way known species was proved. Opening of the electron, radium, transformation of chemical elements, creation A. Einstein Theories of relativity and quantum theory M. Plancam marked the breakthrough in the area of \u200b\u200bthe microworld and high speeds.
In the XIX century Significant development has been achieved philosophical thought. It was prepared by the teachings of I.Kanta and I. Fichte. Based on their provisions, a romantic theory was created, the foundations of objective and idealistic philosophy decorated into a slim doctrine were laid F. D. Shelling (1775-1854). Shelling saw in the art of the sphere, where the opposites of theoretical and moral and practical, are overcome; The aesthetic beginning appears as'' Eravnisy''''''''', full harmony of conscious and unconscious activities, the coincidence of nature and freedom, the celebration of feelings and moral began.
An objective and idealistic concept has been further developed in the works of the largest German philosopher Gegel The completion of the basic laws of dialectics attached to it.
XIX century gave peace K. Marx and F. Engels who created in middle a century materialistic doctrine. K. Marx and F. Engels argued the primacy of matter and, using Hegel's dialectics, developed the concept of historical materialism, according to which the history of mankind appears as a change of formations (methods of production) and the struggle of classes. Their doctrine that has been further developed has entered the history called Marxism.
Under the influence of atheistic trends in society, a serious crisis is experiencing church. New religions penetrate Europe, the concepts of the church department are born from the state, freedom of conscience, religion, secularization of education, etc.
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Secularization processes undermine the influence of religion as an integrating start. Religious conflicts weaken, but at the same time the feeling of the unity of believers is also undermined. These processes do not mean breaking public relations, but they largely change the nature of these ties. The unity of the Company is largely developing as national unity.
The development of production meant the introduction of two more complex technologies, which was impossible without a certain minimum of public education. Enlightenment contributed to the abolition of many medieval remnants in the field of law, proceedings, art, morality, political culture. It led to a gradual democratization of society, since all the broad layers of the population began to enjoy legal protection, they acquired the opportunity to participate in civilian life, could acquire to the achievements of culture.
Artistic culture XIX in. The main artistic directions in the development of European culture of the XIX century. There were classicism (which resumed his romanticism, realism.
Romanticism- (Franz. Romantisme; from the CP.-century, Roman - novel). Expressed disappointment in the ideas of the Great French Revolution. The romantic art is characterized by a disgust for bourgeois reality, a decisive refusal to the rationalistic principles of education and classicism, distrust of the cult of mind. Romantics argued the dignity of the human person, the intrinsicness of its inner world and spiritual and creative life. This was embodied in the image of uncommon characters and strong passions, aspirations for unlimited freedom. The revolution proclaimed the freedom of personality, but the same revolution gave rise to the spirit of compassion and egoism. These two sides of the person (Paphos of Freedom and Individualism) were very difficult to manifested themselves in the romantic concept of peace and man.
Romantics denied it is extremely important to draw and the possibility of objective reflection of reality, they proclaimed the basis of the art of a subjective arbitrary of creative imagination. Scenes for romantic works were elected exceptional events and an extraordinary environment in which heroes acted.
Burning in Germany, where the foundations of the romantic worldview and romantic aesthetics were laid, romanticism rapidly spreads to Europe. It covered the sphere of spiritual culture: literature, music, theater, humanitarian sciences, plastic arts. Representatives of Romanticism - Byron, Heine, Hoffman (in literature), Schumannaya, Wagner, Chopin - in music, Delacroix, Zhero - in painting, etc.
Realism. In realistic lighting, the phenomenon of reality is appeared in all their complexity, polynescence and wealth of aesthetic properties. The principle of generalization becomes typification. The truth of the details and the show of the typical characters operating in the typical circumstances is the main principle of realism. Realism did not oppose romanticism, he was his ally in the fight against the idealization of bourgeois public relations, for the national and historical originality of works of art (flavor of the place and time).
For the middle century, realism becomes a dominant direction in European culture.
Realism arose in France and England in the context of the established capitalist relations. Social contradictions and disadvantages of the capitalist system determined the sharply critical attitude towards the writer-realisti writer. ʜᴎʜᴎ have denied the compound, blatant inequality, egoism, hypocrisy. On its ideological focality he becomes critical realism. At the same time, the creativity of great writer-ie-realists is permeated with the ideas of humanism and social justice. Representatives of realism: O. Balzac, V. Hugo, Flaubert, B. Show, Ibsen, and others.
In the second half of the XIX century there are new feathers and aesthetic theories.
Symbolism. Symbols, focusing on artistic terms through ideas outside the sensual perception of a person, sought to break through the visible reality to '' widged realities'''' ', an uncertime ideal essence of the world. Here, the leading trends of contemporary art - longing for spiritual freedom, the tragic premonition of social disaster, distrust for centurious cultural and spiritual values, mysticism.
The painful decline of civilization is an obviousness, undoubtedable for an outstanding French poet. Charles Bodler . He is a harbinger of french symbolism. His main book was named the flowers of Evil. It is hatred for bourgeois world, anarchic tanning, longing for harmony. The poet combines these feelings with the recognition of the insurmountability of evil:''navidate travelers those who are started into the path leaving the past''''''''''''
Naturalism. Transformation, specific to the end of the XIX century, occurs with a realistic tradition - rebirth of realism in naturalism. Supporters of this area proceeded from the idea of \u200b\u200bthe complete predefination of fate, will, the spiritual world of a person with a social medium, life, heredity, physiology. The largest representative and theorist of this flow - Emil Zol . Zola drew a wide panorama of the French society, covered in it the life of the Country Non-Layers. In her best novels''chrevo Paris''''zapadnyny'''''zpadnyny''''znintermin''''Dengy'''''Zhrazgrom'''''''''Zhrom''''''da with great realistic power portrayed social contradictions. At the same time, the idea of \u200b\u200bthe laws of society as biological law limited its realism.
Impressionism. Under the influence of representatives of painting of critical realism (KURB, DOMUE), a new direction appeared in art - impressionism (from Franz. Impression - impression). The aesthetic attitudes of this direction characterized the desire to combine cognitive tasks with the search for new forms of expression of the unique subjective world of the artist, transfer their fleeting perceptions, to capture the real world in its volatility and mobility. His story is relatively short-lived - 2 years old. Representatives - Claude Mana, Camille Pissarro, Edgar Degas, Pierre Auguste Renoir, Alfred Sisaley. The contemporary and comrades of the Impressionists was a great French sculptor Auguste Roden.
The main features of impressionism received their development in postpressionism . Bright representatives of this destination were artists P. Sezann, V. Van Gogh, P. Gogen . ʜᴎʜᴎ began to work simultaneously with impressionists and experienced their effects in their work. Each of them, however, was a bright personality and left a deep mark in art.
Τᴀᴋᴎᴍ ᴏϭᴩᴀᴈᴏᴍ, the company's industrial structure meant a deep high-quality transformation of not only the nature of production, but also the prevailing social structures and cultures of society. The Great Shifts occurring in the XIX century. The development of philosophy, science and technology, has enormous influence and on the development of the literature and art of Western Europe.
The value of the culture of the new time for the development of global culture is seen as follows:
· Formation of bourgeois society and industrial type of civilization. This era of bourgeois revolutions discovered tragedy and the inhumanity of violent change in society;
· Formation and strengthening of the rationalistic approach to reality, which was expressed in the formation of new science, both experimental and theoretical. Scientific achievements of the XVII century created prerequisites for the further development of fundamental sciences. The main direction of the development of philosophical thought becomes the theory of knowledge;
· Enlightenment woke in Europe social thought and social sense;
· Great social shocks. The French Revolution, which began as a triumph of the mind and not affected by the multilateral inner world of man, ended tragically;
· Formation of classical philosophy (end of the XVIII- Start of the 19th Century) in Germany; The emergence of Marxism;
· XIX century became a century of contrasts: the flourishing of spiritual culture and spiritual impoverishment of society was noted not only by philosophy, but also art, as well as sciences about a person arising in this period;
· New styles and directions are formed in the art of the new time, seeking to embody in their images of a person as a deep and strongly feeling as a creature of freedom-loving and proud;
· The artistic development of the world in the XIX century created the type of a romantic and realistic hero. Art is deepened in understanding the foundations of the world, while moving the movement from''Svustive'''''''De-''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''' "
Western European culture of the XIX century. - Concept and species. Classification and features of the category "Western European culture of the XIX century." 2017, 2018.
Socio-political collisions of the revolutionary era.
Formation and development of public consciousness, main
philosophical directions, cultural concepts.
Reorganization of the education system and science. Expansion
technical equipment of artistic culture.
From an ampyr to romanticism. Evolution of impressionism.
The development of capitalism in the countries of Western Europe of the first half of the XIX century was accompanied by the formation of a powerful working movement. In France, twice the weaves of Lyon. In England, the first working party in the world was created. Under these conditions arose marxismwho had a huge impact on the socio-political life of Europe and the whole world. Under the leadership of K. Marx and F, Engels, I was formed by the I International - the International Workers Association. In 1871, the workers of the French capital have established their power in it for several months. After the defeat of the Paris commune and the dissolution of the I International in all European countries began to occur social Democratic PartyGuided by the ideas of Marxism. In the public consciousness of the XIX century, Marxism took a leading place.
Other views are formed in the public consciousness. The philosophy is the main ideas of positivism. Positivism (Latin. - Positivus is a positive, actual) - one of the main directions in which Western philosophy develops during the XIX-XX centuries, coming out of the fact that only using data from scientific experience is able to know the facts and phenomena of life. The founders of positivism - French philosopher Auguste Cont (1798-1857) and English sociologist Herbert Spencer (1820-1903) Formulated a number of cultural and aesthetic theories that have had a serious impact on the formation at the end of the century in the US "Mass culture".
In the Western European culture of the second half of the XIX century. A worthy place occupies irrationalist line in philosophyrepresented by works Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860) and Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900). In their philosophical and cultural essays, they:
Replaced the reasonable foundation of the world of unreasonable, irrational, intuitive will;
The meaning of the mind and thinking, emphasizing the immoral arbitrary personality.
Schopenhauer and Nietzsche belongs to the authorship of the T. N. "Elite Concept" development of culture. The manufacturer and the consumer of elite culture, from their point of view, is the highest preferred layer of society - elite (from Franz. Elite is the best, selected, Favorites). The elite is in each public class, the social group. It is the most capable of spiritual part of the society, gifted by high creative making. It was the elite, according to the thought of philosophers, provides public progress. Therefore, culture should be focused on meeting its requests and needs. In its fundamental work "Peace like will and performance"Completed B. 1844, A. Shopenhauer In sociological terms, humanity is divided into two parts:
- "People of Geniya", that is, capable of aesthetic contemplation and artistic and creative activities;
- "Passion people", that is, oriented only for purely practical, utilitarian activities.
In the cultural concept of F. Nietzsche, formulated by him in famous works: "The birth of tragedy from the spirit of music" (1872), "Human, too human" (1878), "Cheerful Science" (1872), "So said Zarathustra" (1884) The elite concept manifests itself in the idea of \u200b\u200b"superman". This "superman"having a privileged position in society is endowed with the thought of F. Nietzsche, and unique creative susceptibility.
In the XIX century, and Europe is finally approved capitalistic form of managementIn the consciousness of people, the desire to be useful society can be traced, and the culture acquires democratic and secular features. The dominant city culture contributed not only to the intensive development of industrial production: mechanical engineering, energy, metallurgy, etc., but also stimulated the processes of education and science. Throughout Europe is formed school and vocational education system, the number of students enrolled in universities increases. The norm of European culture becomes a desire to increase its educational level.
From the beginning of the XIX century. the science It becomes in demand by the European Community in full. The most fundamental scientific achievements of the century are:
Opening a German microbiologist Robert Koh (1768-1839)pathogen tuberculosis (koche stick);
Description english botany Robert Brown (1773-1858) nuclei of the plant cell and the opening of the disorderly movement of the smallest particles (Brownian movement);
Creating an English physicist Michael Faraday (1791-1867) the exercise on the electromagnetic field;
Justification of the English scientist Charles Darwin (1809-1882) the main factors of the evolution of the organic world from the monkey to a person;
development of French microbiologist and immunologist Louis Pasteur (1822-1895) method of prophylactic vaccination against Siberian ulcers and other infectious diseases;
Prediction of English physics James Maxwell (1831-1879)the existence of an electromagnetic field.
Since the second half of the XIX century, the social status of science is changing. In Europe appear state scientific centerswho included research institutes and laboratories. In practice included scientific conferences, symposia and world exhibitionsas new forms of international cultural exchange.
In the last quarter of the XIX century. occurs expansion of the technical equipment of artistic culture. The result of massization of production and achievements of the scientific and technical revolution was the emergence of modern design or artistic design. For its appearance, this type of artistic and creative activity is obliged, on the one hand, the rapid development of technology and the improvement of technological production processes, on the other, the penetration of artistic creativity in new areas of activity and the expansion of the borders of aesthetic reality. It is these processes that the new human attitude towards the environment to the environment in which any technical designs and items should have become carriers of harmony and beauty.
Prerequisite appearance cinema appeared at the end of the XIX century. Cinematographic technology. In March 1895 in France, with the help of a film package, brothers Lumiere implemented the first film. With an unprecedented activity at the end of the century, experiments were carried out. by connecting music and color. Color energy dynamics in creativity A. Scriabin, M. Churlenis It became a new constructive method of musical composition.
In the artistic culture of the XIX century, a number of pan-European styles and directions were functioning. We give them a brief characteristics.
Ampir (Franz. Empire - Empire) - style in European architecture and decorative art, completing the era of classicism and most brightly manifested himself in the days of Napoleon I (1804-1815). Samples of ancient Greek archaic, ancient Egyptian architecture, the art of the imperial Rome, were based on the motifs of the decor and architectural forms of Empire style. Developed an ampir in the Napoleonic era of French architects Sh. Perce and P. Fonten. True, they embodied their ideas not into theoretical concepts, but implemented through edition in Paris in 1801 and 1812 Albums of architectural and decorative samples.
For ampira architecture Characterized massive volumes, geometrically correct forms, magnificent stucco and carved decor, which has found its embodiment in the palace structures, triumphant arches, columns. Ampire's artistic techniques contributed to the development of mass production of tissues, porcelain, table silver.
Romanticism (FR. Romantisme) - a wide ideological and artistic movement in the spiritual life of the European and American society, which began at the turn of the XVIII-XIX centuries, which existed until the 40s of the XIX century, and then revived in a variety of neoromantic forms.
Romanticism, originating in Germany, spread throughout the world, was nationally multiple, complicated, internally contradictory and heterogeneous. At the beginning of the XIX century. In Europe existed:
- romantic art (D. Bayron, V. Hugo, V. Zhukovsky);
- romantic philosophy and aesthetics (Brothers A. and F. Scherghel, F. Shelling, S. Kierkegore);
- romantic political and economic concepts (We are talking about the views of representatives of European utopian socialism and Russian populists).
Romanticism found its expression not only in the field of ideology, but also in the field of public psychology, speaking as a certain worldview and the worldview of the era. He created a new idea of \u200b\u200bthe wealth and inexhaustibility of a human spiritual world. Romanticism postulated reality, political indifference, mysticism, melancholy, attention to the internal life of the personality.
Romanticism is a powerful artistic direction, which was based on the creative method, which proclaimed his main principle absolute and limitless personality freedom. The essence of the romantic world perception is the recognition of a dramatically intractable contradiction between the low-body reality and a high ideal incompatible with her, and sometimes unrealized. In romanticism, the main thing - not showing individualism, and heroic - Panthetic glorification of loneliness.
For romanticism as an artistic style, it is characterized by opposition to the classic "imitation of nature" of the artist's creative activity, with his right to transformation of the real world. Romanticism stimulates the denial of normality in creating works of art and stands for updating artistic forms. The artist creates exactly its special world, more beautiful than the real one. Understanding the art as a higher reality, romanticism stimulates the associativity of artistic thinking and interpenetration of various types of art genres. The works of romantics are filled with feelings of delight and disappointment, inspiration and despair. These spiritual oscillations created a feeling of incomprehensibility of reality, the eternal riddle of the world, recognizing the impossibility of his full spiritual knowledge. The heterogeneity of the romantic style gave rise to the instability of the entire artistic system as a whole.
Romantic era - this is the time of unprecedented heyday music (F. Chopin, Berlioz, F. Schubert, F. Sheet), Painting (E. Decrakura, T. Zheriko, D. Consthebl, O. Cyprossky) and literature (V. Scott, A. Duma, E. Gofman, G. X. Andersen, F. Cooper). In the romantic era, people felt the movement of time, public changes, which was accompanied by unprecedented interest in folk culture, Its origins and to the growth of national self-consciousness in many European countries. Classical countries of romanticism were Germany, France, England.
Realism (from Late. Realis - real, valid) - the creative process and method characteristic of the artistic culture of European countries, according to which the task of art is a comprehensive vital truth.
Understanding the realism as the truth of life has a long cultural tradition and a number of historical stages take place. The first attempt to theoretical understanding of the concept of "realism" can be considered an antique mimesis ("Imitation of Nature" in the interpretation of Aristotle), then this problem has become key in the theoretical heritage of the Renaissance thinkers. Special interpretation of realistic "free imitation" receives in the works of Lamsing and D. Didro. However, a holistic understanding and the term "realism" itself occurs in the 20s of the XIX century. And its value is intensified by the middle of the century.
Realism XIX century Call called critical realism. It is characteristic:
Deep comprehension of life;
Wide coverage of reality;
Artistic understanding of all its contradictions.
The realist artist shows the relationships and mutual influence of a person and the medium, showing genuinely encyclopedic knowledge. It is not by chance that many writings acquire the nature of social research: ("Red and Black" F. Standal, "Auditor" N. Gogol). In realistic art, the character of a person is interpreted as contradictory and developing unity. The manifestation of the nature is due to the habitat and the circumstances of life. Character may vary from the content of these conditions, depending on the moment experienced. For the realism of the XIX century, an exacerbated interest is characterized precisely to the social start in reality. (O. Balzac, F. Dostoevsky, I. Kramskaya, A. Chekhov, L. Tolstoy and etc.). The art of this era is actively on this concentrated.
In the XX century Art faced with a complicated reality, with global (political, environmental, moral) problems affecting the interests of each person. Realism XX B.. Fill humanistic content, helping a person to overcome the absurdity of being and loneliness.
Naturalism (Franz. Naturalisme, from Latin. Nature - Nature) - the artistic method, which established in the Western European and American culture of the last third of the XIX century under the influence of the philosophy of positivism O. Kont, Spencer, I. Tan and etc.
In accordance with the methodology of positivism, the nature of art was due to the ideas borrowed from natural science. In his works, an artist-naturalist must absolute primary existence, strive for the external plausibility of the details, the protocol description, the image of single phenomena. At the same time, the influence of the social factor is clearly understood. The primary importance of naturalists attached to the exact description of the facts of reality, "lumps of life", seeing in such a description the indispensable condition for the truthfulness of art. Thus, naturalism put two tasks in front of the artist:
Achieve truthful, or rather a life-like image of modern life;
In the artistic product, its true interpretation based on the method and achievements of natural sciences.
Naturalism arose and programmatically took shape primarily in France. A peculiar manifest of naturalism was the work I. Tan "Introduction to the history of English literature" (1864)in which the author put forward the triad - "Race", "Wednesday", "moment" As the only possible and real causes of the evolution of an individual in the field of culture. Moreover, the peculiarity of the "race" was reduced to the effect on a person as a biological environment - medium, climate, nutrition, the nature of the terrain, etc. The adherents of naturalism in art considered a person as a passive result of the inevitable impact of heredity and material environment. It should be noted that during this period, naturalism begins to documentaryThe document is widely introduced into art. In the 70-80s of the XIX century, naturalism raised very important topics:
It showed the life of disadvantaged and oppressed;
Investigated the mechanisms of human interaction and environment for the purpose of its reasonable organization;
Intensified attention to the role of unconscious moments in the human psyche.
At the turn of the XIX-XX centuries, artistic techniques of naturalism will be in demand in certain directions of modernism. Among the writers, the most famous adherents of naturalism are the French - brothers E. and J. Gonkura, E. Zola, G. de Maupassan; Germans - A. Holz and Hauptman; Englishman -
J. Moore. In Russia, the influence of naturalism was significantly in creativity P. Boborakina, D. Mine-Sibiryaka, I. Panayev.
Impressionism (from FR. IMPRESSION - Impression) - the artistic direction arising in France in the 60-70s of the XIX century and received the most vivid embodiment in visual arts, fiction, music, sculpture. Impressionism appears as the last one-piece artistic flow in France of the XIX century, marked by common persistent stylistic signs. Among the artists of the next generation there was no such unity.
Signs Impressionistic style is:
Refusal of closetness and stability of objects of objects;
Fragment of compositions fixing instantaneous, as if random situations;
Unexpected perspectives, cuts of figures and items.
Impressionism stated especially brightly painting. Artists-Impressionists (O. Renoir, E. Manne, E. Degas, K. Monet, K. Pissero) With the help of new picturesque techniques, they sought to convey the beauty of the fleeting states of nature, the mobility and variability of human life. Their landscape work (and the landscape - the reproducing dynamic and colorful life of nature - became the leading genre of impressionism) artists wrote outdoors ( plenager), transmitting with clean, light painting a feeling of sparkling sunlight. It should be noted that work at the please, creative contact with nature caused a new picturesque technique, which was especially manifested in the colors of the canvase. The plenier developed in impressionists not only the aggravated perception of local color, but also the thinnest feeling of the color scheme, which was modified depending on the illumination and state of the air. French writer E. Zola Very thin noticed on the essence of the art of impressionism, that this is a "a piece of nature, considered through one or another temperament." In his work, the impressionists proceeded from confidence in nature as objective. They were convinced that the world of nature could not be separated from his perception. And they realized themselves as peculiar mediators between the world of nature and people who are designed to disclose the beauty of this world.
During his ascent on the artistic Olympus, impressionism was treated with theoretization in art and did not do it. The focus was focused on the affairs of artistic vision and the paths of its incarnation. Therefore, for the initial stage of the functioning of impressionism was characteristic group exhibitionswhich periodically united various artists and supported a certain connection between them. The wide cultural and philosophical-aesthetic understanding of this phenomenon occurred only at the beginning of the 20th century, during its creative sunset.
Impressionistic techniques were used in other art types. At the turn of the XIX-XX centuries, painting principle performs one of the defining and in the literature and in sculpture and in music Impressionism. In poetry, he sounded in creativity J. Vellenhaving achieved apogee in his famous compilation "Romance without words" (1874), in music - in brilliant miniatures M.. Ravel and K. Debussy. Used this style in your work - sculptors ABOUT. Roden and P. Trubetskoy, writers E. Duzharden, M, Proust, K. Gamsun and I. Annensky. Russian artists-impressionists were K. Korovin and I. Grabar. Written by them in the bright, shining colors of the canvas with rare force transmit the beauty and joy of life.
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