The abolition of serfdom posed new serious problems for the authorities. For centuries, the serf system determined in Russia the organization of the system of administration and judicial proceedings, the principles of manning the army, etc. The collapse of this system dictated the need for further reforms. Zemskaya and city reforms. The abolition of serfdom created many empty spaces in the previously existing system of local government, since this latter was closely connected with serfdom. So, before, each landowner on his estate was for his peasants the personification of power. And in the district and provincial administration, most of the posts since the time of Catherine II were filled at the choice of the nobility and from among its representatives. After the abolition of serfdom, this entire system collapsed. Some landowners who maintained schools for their peasants closed them immediately after the abolition of serfdom. Therefore, it was decided to meet the liberal public (especially from the non-black earth provinces), which petitioned for the introduction of local all-estates self-government. These ideas were expressed by N.A. Milyutin in a note addressed to the emperor. Once approved by the latter, they became the guiding principles of the reform. These principles were expressed in the formula: to give local government as much confidence as possible, as much independence as possible and as much as possible unity. On January 1, 1864, the law on zemstvo self-government was approved. Zemstvo reform began, during which a system of local self-government bodies was created in Russia at two territorial levels - in the county and the province. The administrative bodies of the zemstvo were uyezd and provincial zemstvo assemblies, and the executive bodies were uyezd and provincial zemstvo councils. Elections of zemstvo bodies were held every three years. In each uyezd, three electoral congresses (curiae) were created for the election of members of the county zemstvo assembly. The first curia (private landowners) included persons, regardless of class, who had at least 200-800 acres of land (the land qualification for different counties was not the same). The second (rural societies) - elected from the volost gatherings. The third curia (city voters) included city owners with a certain property qualification. Each of the congresses elected a certain equal number of vowels (for a period of three years). The county zemstvo assemblies elected members of the provincial zemstvo. To fulfill their tasks, the zemstvos received the right to impose a special tax on the population. As a rule, nobles prevailed in the zemstvo assemblies. The functions of the zemstvos were quite diverse. They were in charge of the local economy (construction and maintenance of local roads, etc.), public education, medicine, statistics. However, they could deal with all these matters only within the boundaries of their county or province. The shortcomings of the zemstvo reform were obvious: the incompleteness of the structure of the zemstvo bodies (the absence of a higher central body), the artificial creation of a numerical advantage for the local nobility, and the limited scope of activity. At the same time, this reform was of great importance. The election of the zemstvo bodies, their relative independence from bureaucratic structures made it possible to count on the fact that these bodies, with all their shortcomings, would proceed from the interests of the local population and bring them real benefits. On the whole, these hopes were justified. Soon after the creation of zemstvos, Russia was covered with a network of zemstvo schools and hospitals. With the advent of the zemstvo, the balance of power in the provinces began to change. Previously, all affairs in the counties were handled by government officials, together with the landowners. By law, zemstvos were purely economic organizations. But they soon began to play an important political role. Government policy towards the zemstvo in the second half of the 1860s - 1870s. was aimed at depriving him of any independence. The governors received the right to refuse to approve the office of any person elected by the zemstvo; even greater rights were given to them in relation to "employees for hire" - zemstvo doctors, teachers, statisticians: at the slightest provocation they were not only expelled from the zemstvo, but also expelled from the province. City status (law on the reform of city government). Trusteeship of city councils and administrations were subject to issues of improvement (lighting, heating, water supply, cleaning, transport, arrangement of city passages, embankments, bridges, etc.), as well as the management of school, medical and charitable affairs , care for the development of trade and industry. The City Duma was charged with the mandatory costs of maintaining the fire brigade, police, prisons, barracks (these costs absorbed from 20 to 60% of the city budget). his property qualification. electoral congresses (curiae) (small, medium and large taxpayers) with equal total payments of city taxes. Judicial reform. In 1864, a judicial reform was carried out, which radically transformed the structure of the Russian court and the entire process of legal proceedings. The previous courts existed without any significant changes since the time of Catherine II, although the need for judicial reform was realized by Alexander I. opportunities for abuse and lawlessness). The defendant was not always informed even of all the grounds on which the charges brought against him were based. The verdict was passed on the basis of the totality of the system of formal evidence, and not on the inner conviction of the judge. It was possible to take up the reform only after the abolition of serfdom, which forced to abandon the principle of estate and change the conservative Minister of Justice Gr. V.N. Panin. The author of the judicial reform was a longtime supporter of changes in this area, State Secretary of the State Council Sergei Ivanovich Zarudny. In 1862, the emperor approved the main provisions of the judicial reform developed by him: 1) the lack of class of the court, 2) the equality of all citizens before the law, 3) complete independence of the court from the administration (which was guaranteed by the irremovability of judges), 4) careful selection of judicial personnel and their sufficient material support. The old estate courts were abolished. Instead of them, a magistrate court and a crown court were created - two systems independent from each other, which were united only by subordination to one supreme judicial body - the Senate. The new ones differed from the old courts, which conducted business in a purely bureaucratic manner, primarily in that they were public, i.e. open to the public and the press. In addition, the court procedure was based on an adversarial process, during which the accusation was formulated, substantiated and supported by the prosecutor, and the interests of the defendant were defended by a lawyer from among the sworn lawyers. The Magistrate's Court, whose task was to provide the Russian people with a "quick, right and merciful" court, consisted of one person. The magistrate was elected by zemstvo assemblies or city councils for three years. The government could not, by its own power, remove him from office (as well as the judges of the district crown court). The task of the magistrate's court was to reconcile the guilty, and if the parties did not want to, the judge was given considerable scope in sentencing - depending not on any external formal data, but on his inner conviction. The introduction of magistrates' courts significantly relieved the crown courts from the mass of small cases. Yet the judicial reform of 1864 remained unfinished. For the analysis of conflicts in the peasant environment, the estate volost court was retained. This was partly due to the fact that peasant legal concepts were very different from general civil ones. In addition, soon after the start of the implementation of the judicial reform, largely under the influence of the unprecedented scale of terrorism, the authorities began to subordinate the courts to the dominant bureaucratic system. In the second half of the 1860s - 1870s, the publicity of court hearings and their coverage in the press was significantly limited; increased dependence of judicial officials on the local administration: they were ordered to unquestioningly “obey the legal requirements” of the provincial authorities. And yet, one can admit without hesitation that the judicial reform was the most radical and consistent of all the Great reforms of the 1860s. Military reforms. General Dmitry Alekseevich Milyutin was appointed Minister of War in 1861. Taking into account the lessons of the Crimean War, he carried out a number of military reforms in the 1860s - I half of the 1870s. creating an opportunity for its significant increase in wartime.At the same time, a harmonious, strictly centralized structure was created to streamline the system of military command.In 1862 - 1864 Russia was divided into 15 military districts directly subordinate to the War Ministry. the central body of command and control of troops. education: instead of closed cadet corps, military gymnasiums were established, close in program to a secondary school (gymnasium) and opened the way to any higher educational institution. Those who wanted to continue their military education entered the schools established in the 1860s. specialized cadet schools - artillery, cavalry, military engineering. An important feature of these schools was their all-estate, which opened access to the officer corps to persons of non-noble origin. Higher military education was given by academies - the General Staff, artillery, military medical, naval, etc. The army was rearmed (the first rifled breech-loading guns, Berdan rifles, etc.). Military reforms met with strong opposition from the conservative circles of the generals and society; the main opponent of the reforms was Field Marshal Prince. A.I. Baryatinsky. Military “authorities” criticized the reforms for their bureaucratic nature, diminishing the role of command personnel, and overthrowing the age-old foundations of the Russian army. Results and significance of the reforms of the 1860s - 1870s The reforms of the 60s and 70s did not affect the upper echelons of power. The autocracy and the police system inherited from past eras were preserved.
"Great reforms in Russia 1856-1874" ed. Zakharova M 1992
Eroshkin N. “History of the state. Institutions in pre-revolutionary Russia "M 1997
Nardova V. A. "Urban government in Russia in the 60s-early 90s of the XIX century" M 1994
The reforms were caused by the voids in legislation created by the elimination of the serf system.
Local government reforms
On March 27, 1859, a commission was created under the Ministry of Internal Affairs, which was supposed to develop a law on economic and administrative management in the county. N.A.Milyutin became the chairman of the commission. The draft law was supposed to take into account the government's order that local government bodies deal only with issues of economic importance. These newly created or reformed bodies were not supposed to deal with political issues. This ran counter to the aspirations of the liberals, who hoped that parliamentarism would emerge from the zemstvo administration as a result.
In April 1860, a draft law was presented to Alexander II. Local government bodies were to be built on the principle of electiveness and lack of word. In March 1863, the draft "Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions" was prepared and in January 1864 was approved by the emperor.
In the course of the zemstvo reform, a system of uyezd and provincial bodies of local self-government was created. The government deliberately did not go to the introduction of volost self-government, fearing the loss of control over the volost administration.
The administrative bodies of the zemstvos were uyezd and provincial zemstvo assemblies, the executive bodies were uyezd and provincial zemstvo boards. Elections to the zemstvo assemblies were held every 3 years. Members of the zemstvo assemblies were called vowels (who had the right to vote). Elections to county zemstvo assemblies were held in three curia (electoral groups): curiae of county landowners, curiae of city voters, curia of elected from rural societies. The first curia included landowners who owned at least 200-800 dessiatines, depending on the territory of the county. The same curia included persons who owned real estate for at least 15,000 rubles or had an annual income of at least 6,000 rubles. Accordingly, the first curia included landowners and representatives of the commercial and industrial bourgeoisie. To protect the small landed nobility, the state allowed landowners who did not have 200 dessiatines to unite.
The curia of urban voters included merchants of all three guilds, owners of urban real estate worth at least 500 rubles in small towns and at least 2,000 rubles in large cities. It was mostly homeowners. Landowners and clergy could also run for this curia.
For the third curia, the elections were multi-stage: at the village meeting, representatives were elected to the volost gathering, at the volost gathering, electors were elected, at the county congress of electors, vowels were elected to the district zemstvo assembly. There was no property qualification.
For the first curia, the same number of vowels was chosen as for the aggregate in the second and third curia. The district leaders of the nobility became the chairpersons of the district zemstvo assemblies, in the provincial zemstvo assemblies - the provincial leaders of the nobility.
Zemstvos were introduced in 34 provinces, which for the most part were noble provinces; zemstvos in Siberia, Pomorie, did not exist.
The competence of zemstvos included issues of education, medicine, agronomy, veterinary medicine, road construction and repair, statistics. Zemstvos were forbidden to correspond with each other.
Thus, the zemstvo institutions did not have a complete structure. There was no central body that coordinated the activities of the zemstvos, and there was no lower volost zemstvo structure. On the other hand, giving the zemstvos political functions would hardly lead to a positive result.
After the opening of zemstvos in Russia, a developed network of zemstvo hospitals, schools, veterinary stations and so on appeared. If earlier all power in the province was in the hands of the provincial bureaucratic apparatus, then after the reform, altruists and enthusiasts came to the province. In addition, a "third element" appeared - commoners - people who are not bound by any class status, who are opposed to the authorities.
Already in the 2nd half of the 60s - 70s, the government pursued a policy of restricting the activities of zemstvos. The governors received the right to refuse to approve any person elected by the zemstvo. Governors used this right quite often, removing unreliable people from zemstvos. In addition, the provincial government acted as a censor for all zemstvo print media. There were numerous cases of dissolution of zemstvo institutions in the event of a conflict with the provincial authorities.
Urban reform
In 1870, the "City Regulation" was published - an act that reformed the bodies of city self-government. The new "position" builds self-government bodies on bourgeois principles. Bodies of city self-government began to be formed in an elective way on the basis of a property qualification. Only men over 25 years old could vote. The elections were held in three curiae: the curia of large, medium and small taxpayers. The curiae were compiled on the basis of the principle of equality of the total sums of city taxes. The number of city councils depended on the number of citizens and ranged from 30 to 72 vowels across Russia. In Moscow there were 380, in St. Petersburg - 250 vowels. At a meeting of the city duma, the mayor, comrade (deputy) mayor and representatives of the council were elected. The head headed both the Duma and the city council. Urgent economic issues of city administration were in the competence of councils and councils. Also, the city government was in charge of medical affairs, was concerned about the development of trade, and so on. Also contained were fire brigades, police, prisons, which took up to 60% of the city budget.
Judicial reform
Judicial reform was carried out in 1864. This is the most consistent, thoughtful and complete reform of all that was carried out during that period. The reformed judicial system has become one of the most liberal and advanced in the world.
1) The absoluteness of the court
2) Equality of citizens before the law
3) Independence of the court from the administration
4) Sufficient material support of judges and qualified selection of personnel
The old estate courts were abolished. Two court systems were created: the magistrate court and the crown court, independent of each other, subordinate to the Senate as the highest judicial body.
The magistrates' court was introduced in the counties and dealt with minor criminal and civil cases. The magistrate's court consisted of one person - the magistrate. The magistrate was elected by the Zemsky Assembly or the City Duma for 3 years. The magistrate had broad powers when making a decision, often focusing not on the letter of the law, but on the spirit of the law and his convictions. The territory of the county was divided into sections coinciding with the boundaries of the volosts, each of which had its own magistrate. At the county level, there was a county congress of justices of the peace.
The Crown Court had two instances. The first instance was the district court, while the judicial district coincided with the boundaries of the province. The second instance was the judicial chamber, which united several districts and consisted of the criminal and civil departments.
The judicial procedure was based on an adversarial process. The accusation was formulated and supported by the prosecutor, the interests of the defendant were defended by a lawyer and a sworn attorney.
A jury trial was also introduced. The jury, 12 in number, was to deliver a verdict, one of three options: guilty, innocent, guilty, but deserves leniency. On the basis of the jury's verdict, the Crown Court rendered the verdict. If the opinions of the jury were divided equally, the court sided with the accused.
The judicial reform, in spite of the lack of estates, preserves the peasant volost court. The logic behind this decision was that traditional peasant ideas about correctness often ran counter to the letter of the law.
In the second half of the 60s - 70s, some restrictions were introduced - restrictions on attendance at meetings, on the coverage of trials in the press, the dependence of judges on the local administration increased, the principle of the irremovability of judges was undermined.
In general, the judicial system for the first time in Russia became open, court decisions were covered in the press.
Military reforms
In 1861, General D.A.Milyutin, N.A.Milyutin's elder brother, was appointed Minister of War. Milyutin was a professor at the Academy of the General Staff, chief of staff of the Caucasian Army.
In 1862, Milyutin presented to Alexander II a program of military reforms. According to it, the term of soldier's service was reduced to 15 years, and after 7 years of service the soldier was given leave, corporal punishment was abolished.
In 1864, the military command and control system was reorganized. The country was divided into 15 military districts, thus eliminating the excessive centralization of command and control and creating conditions for the operational command of the troops.
In 1867, the Ministry of War was transferred to the management of the guard, engineering troops, artillery, as well as the management of military educational institutions. In the same year, a military-judicial charter was adopted, based on the principles of the judicial reform of 1864.
In the 60s, a reform of the army's educational institutions was also carried out. The cadet corps were transformed into military gymnasiums. In 1864, military schools were established, new military academies were created.
In 1874, Alexander II approved the "Charter on military service". The Armed Forces of Ingushetia were divided into 4 categories: regular troops, irregular troops (Cossacks), reserve troops, and the militia. Compulsory military service was introduced for men over the age of 20. For the ground forces, a six-year term of active service and 9 years of being in the reserve was established, after which a soldier was enlisted in the militia until he reached 40 years. In the Navy, the term of active service was 7 years, and the stay in the reserve was 3 years. Such a system made it possible to seriously reduce the peacetime army without a significant loss of combat effectiveness. There were delays - the only son in the family, if the older brother served or serves, if the person is the only breadwinner.
In 1880 there were 809,000 people of draft age, of whom only 219,000 were drafted, the rest were enrolled in the reserve.
Those who graduated from primary school served 4 years, gymnasium students - 1.5 years, persons with higher education - 6 months.
For those who voluntarily entered the army, the service life was reduced by 2 times - for volunteers - up to 3 months.
The army was of great educational value - up to 80% of the conscripts from the peasants were illiterate.
In the 60s, the rearmament of the army was carried out, the need for which had ripened for a long time. Smoothbore guns were replaced with rifled rifles of the Berdan system.
In the 80s, under Alexander III, some changes were made - the service life was reduced to 5 years, the draft age was increased to 21 years.
The modernization of the army was not completed in full, which backfired already at the beginning of the 20th century during the Russo-Japanese War.
Financial reforms
The goal of financial reforms was to centralize financial management. In May 1860, the State Bank was established. The State Bank received the preemptive right to lend to trade and industrial establishments. Since 1862, the Ministry of Finance began to monitor the income and expenditures of the state. The state budget has been discussed annually in the State Council since 1862. Until 1862, instead of the budget, there was a Secret List of state revenues and expenditures. Since 1864, control chambers were created in the provinces - government bodies subordinate to the state controller and monitoring the expenditures of local government institutions.
In the late 50s - 60s, the buy-back system was abolished. In fact, it has been replaced by an indirect taxation system. In 1858-60, a wave of protests against tax farmers took place across the country. In 1863, an excise system was introduced, primarily on wine and vodka products, and at the same time the free sale of wine was introduced.
After the reform, the poll tax introduced by Peter I, which was abolished under Alexander III, continued to collect. In the 60s, the capitation tax accounted for 25% of the country's income, in the 80s, after the abolition of the capitation tax, these gains were offset by an increase in indirect taxes, mainly excise taxes on alcohol.
Reforms in the field of education and printing
Education reform
In 1864, the "Statute on elementary public schools" was approved. Primary schools could be opened by private individuals and public institutions. The founders took on the responsibility for the material contentment of teachers, providing the school with premises and equipment. In the counties, school councils were created, which included 2 representatives of the county zemstvo assembly and 1 representative of the county government. A chairman was elected from these 3 people. In the provinces, provincial school councils were created, which included the governor, the bishop, directors of the public schools of the province and 2 representatives of the provincial zemstvo assembly. The bishop was appointed chairman of the council.
In the primary schools, reading, writing, arithmetic, the law of God, church singing were studied.
In the same year, 1864, the "Charter of gymnasiums and pro-gymnasiums" was approved. It proclaimed the principle of the lack of class in education. According to the charter, gymnasiums were divided into classical and real - respectively, with humanitarian and natural science and mathematical biases. These were seven-grade educational institutions. Graduates of classical gymnasiums had the right to enter universities without exams, graduates of real schools were required to pass the exam.
Gymnasiums are educational institutions corresponding to the first four grades of a classical gymnasium. Their graduates had the right to continue their education in gymnasiums from the 5th grade.
Tuition fees were quite high, 60% of high school students were children of wealthy people, peasants were only about 5%.
At the end of the 50s, women's schools appeared. Since 1862, such schools have been called women's gymnasiums. These gymnasiums were also seven-grade, but had a more simplified curriculum due to the curtailment of natural science disciplines. There was also a voluntary 8th grade that trained teachers
In 1863, the "University Charter" was approved. This charter extended its effect to 5 universities - Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kazan, Kharkov and Kiev. Universities in the national outskirts (Dorpat, Helsinki, Warsaw) had their own charters.
Each university was supposed to have a history and philology, physics and mathematics, law and medical faculties. At Moscow University, instead of the medical faculty, there was an oriental faculty. The number of departments and teachers was increased.
The charter gave universities broad autonomy. The supreme governing body of the university was the Council. This council independently resolved scientific, educational, financial and administrative issues. Faculty councils functioned at the faculties. University workers and the university itself had the right to subscribe literature from abroad without customs inspection. The election of rectors, vice-rectors and deans was introduced, but the elected had to be confirmed in office by the minister of public education. Students were forbidden to create associations that did not pursue scientific goals and were not supervised by teachers.
In the 60s - 70s, women's courses were created. The first were opened Lubyanka higher women's courses in 1869 in Moscow. In 1870 and 72, women and medical courses were created in St. Petersburg.
In 1871, a new charter for gymnasiums was published. Education became eight-grade, the number of hours for studying classical languages was increased. In 1872, real grammar schools were replaced by real six-grade schools.
Reform of the press
In 1865, the Provisional Regulations for the Press were approved, which were in effect until 1905. Pre-censorship was lifted for essays less than 10 printed pages. Central periodicals could be exempted from censorship with the permission of the Minister of Internal Affairs, for which the publisher paid a deposit of 2500-5000 rubles. Periodicals could be subject to administrative penalties - warnings (after three warnings, the newspaper was closed), fines and suspension of activities for six months. From 1873, newspapers and magazines were prohibited from discussing sensitive political issues.
Question 1. Why, after the abolition of serfdom, the state faced the need to carry out other reforms?
Answer. Initially, it was clear that for the modernization of Russia, a whole complex of reforms was needed, the basis for which should be the peasant, but besides it, other reforms were needed using the abolition of serfdom. For example, Russia lost the Crimean War largely because its soldiers used outdated smoothbore guns. The emancipation of the peasants in itself could not re-equip the army; this required a special reform.
Question 2. What circumstances caused the creation of local self-government? Give a description of the Zemstvo reform. Where do you see its pros and cons?
Answer. Before the reform, all power was in the hands of officials, who did not follow the state of affairs on the ground, but to look good in front of the authorities (this is perfectly shown in the "Inspector General" by N.V. Gogol), therefore, economic life, education, health care in the province fell into complete decline. At the same time, the nobles needed some kind of compensation for the way the peasant reform was carried out. Under these conditions, the zemstvo reform was developed. In general, the reform was carried out in such a way that representatives of the wealthy strata received local power. However, in the conditions of those years, this was reasonable, because it was the propertied strata who were often more educated and at the same time were against revolutionary transformations, because they were afraid for their property. Nevertheless, zemstvos were elective bodies of power, elected among a relatively limited circle of people, which made it easier to defend their opinions, that is, in general, they accustomed Russians to the use of civil rights. It was not for nothing that at the beginning of the twentieth century, the supporters of the legal political struggle for reforms (the Cadets) relied mainly on the zemstvos. It is not known what Russia could have come to thanks to the zemstvos if fate had given these local governments more time.
Question 3. What principles were taken as the basis for judicial reform? Why do you think the judicial reform has been the most consistent?
Answer. Judicial reform reproduced a ready-made system that was successfully applied in some Western countries. Therefore, it was the most consistent: the government clearly saw what result should come and what principles should be observed in this case. The theoretical elaboration of basic principles was also taken care of long before in the West. These are principles such as:
1) equality of all estates before the law;
2) publicity of the court;
3) independence of judges;
4) the adversarial nature of the prosecution and defense;
5) the electivity of some judicial bodies.
Question 4. What changes have occurred in the army? Why did the recruitment service cease to meet the needs of the state?
Answer. First of all, the rearmament of the army and navy took place, henceforth they received new items in a timely manner in accordance with the latest achievements of world military thought. This was especially costly in the case of the fleet, because it had to actually be rebuilt every few years. The most important change was the change in the approach to officer training. The cadet corps created in the course of the reform made it possible to train really competent personnel for the army. But in society, most of all, they noticed, naturally, the replacement of conscription by general military service. When recruiting, the army remained almost the same in size at all times. Because of this, in a war, its numbers could not be enough, and in the years of peace, it demanded too large expenditures of the treasury. Now the current tasks were performed by those who were in active service, and in the event of war, those who were in the reserve could be called up. However, the long service life did not cause much outrage in society, because all men were subject to conscription, but in fact not all were conscripted. Each year, the state determined how many soldiers and sailors it needed, and among young people of the appropriate age those who were drawn to wear uniforms. Among other things, such a system encouraged people to get education because it significantly reduced the length of active service.
Question 5. What do you see the advantages and disadvantages of the reform in the field of education?
Answer. Advantages:
1) the creation of primary public schools by institutions and individuals was allowed, due to which educational institutions of various types appeared;
2) gymnasiums were divided into classical and real ones with graduates' specialization in fundamental scientific knowledge, or in practical skills (also related to engineering) and natural sciences (thus, real gymnasiums gave education no worse than classical ones, just of a different orientation);
3) children were admitted to the gymnasium regardless of class, title of parents and religion;
4) women's gymnasiums also appeared;
5) the direct management of the universities was in the hands of professors who elected the main officials, that is, self-government was actually introduced in the universities, which had not happened before in Russia;
6) instead of universities, higher courses for women were opened for graduates of female gymnasiums.
Disadvantages:
1) the amount of knowledge in women's gymnasiums was much lower than in men's;
2) certain levels of education remained paid (and there were no opportunities that exist today in some Western countries, for example, to take a loan and then give it back from the salary that you receive thanks to your education), because in fact they were not available for all classes ...
Question 6. Give an assessment of the project Μ. T. Loris-Melikova. Can this draft be considered constitutional?
Answer. The project can be called an attempt to draft a constitution. This statesman did not offer specific foundations for the future structure of the state, he proposed principles on the basis of which these foundations could be developed democratically. Further, everything would depend on the work of the commissions described by Loril-Melikov, the State Council and the goodwill of the emperor himself. The developed mechanism could even lead to the adoption of a constitution, but only if the monarch shared his power voluntarily. However, the Loris-Melikov project itself, I repeat, was only a possible mechanism for drafting a constitution, but not the constitution itself.
Description of the presentation Liberal reforms of the 60s-70s of the 19th century on slides
Study plan of the topic 1. Reasons for the reforms of the 60–70s. XIX century. 2. Reforms of local government. a) Zemskaya reform b) Urban reform 3. Judicial reform. 4. Reforms of the education system. a) School reform. b) University reform 5. Military reform.
Reforms of Alexander II (1855 - 1881) Peasant (1861) Zemskaya (1864) City (1870) Judicial (1864) Military (1874) In the field of education (1863 - 1864)
* Historians of the XIX - early XX century. assessed these reforms as great (K. D. Kavelin, V. O. Klyuchevsky, G. A. Dzhanshiev). * Soviet historians considered them incomplete and half-hearted (M. N. Pokrovsky, N. M. Druzhinina, V. P. Volobuev).
Title The content of the reform Their meaning Their shortcomings Peasant (1861) Zemskaya (1864) City (1870) Judicial (1864) Military (1874) In the field of education (1863 -1864)
6 Peasant Reform: Manifesto and Regulations February 19, 1861 Results of the Peasant Reform Opened the way to the development of bourgeois relations in Russia Wore an unfinished character, gave rise to social antagonisms (contradictions) "Will" without land
Reforms Their meaning Their shortcomings Peasant (1861) A turning point, the line between feudalism and capitalism. Created the conditions for the establishment of the capitalist system as the dominant one. Preserved survivals of serfdom; the peasants did not receive full ownership of the land, had to pay a ransom, and lost part of the land (pieces of land).
Reform of local self-government In 1864, the "Regulations on Zemstvo Institutions" were introduced. Bodies of local self-government - zemstvos were created in the counties and provinces.
9 Zemskaya reform (Zemskaya reform (1864). “Regulations on provincial). "Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions" and uyezd zemstvo institutions "The content of the reform Creation of provincial and district zemstvos - elected bodies of local self-government in rural areas Zemstvo functions Maintenance of local schools, hospitals; construction of local roads; organization of agricultural statistics, etc.
11 Zemskaya reform (Zemskaya reform (1864).). "Regulations on provincial" Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions "and uyezd zemstvo institutions" on a census basis on a class basis, collected annually
Zemskaya reform In the zemstvo, including in its permanent bodies (councils), representatives of all estates worked together. But the leading role was still played by the nobles, who looked at the "man's" vowels from top to bottom. And the peasants often treated participation in the work of the zemstvo as a duty and voted for the debtors. Zemsky assembly in the province. Engraving after a drawing by K. A. Trutovsky.
Curies are the categories into which voters were divided according to property and social characteristics in pre-revolutionary Russia during elections.
Zemskaya reform 1 vowel (deputy) for the landowning and peasant curiae was elected from every 3 thousand peasant allotments. For the city curia - from the owners of property equal in value to the same amount of land. How many voices of peasants were equal to the voice of a landowner with 800 dessiatines. , if the shower allotment was 4 dess. ? In this case, 1 vote of the landowner = 200 votes of the peasants. Why was it not ensured equal suffrage for peasants, townspeople and landowners during the creation of zemstvo bodies? Because in this case, the educated minority would "drown" in the illiterate dark peasant masses. ?
Zemsky reform Zemsky assemblies met once a year: uyezd assemblies for 10 days, provincial assemblies for 20 days. The estates of the Zemsky assemblies? Why was the proportion of peasants among the provincial vowels noticeably lower than among the uyezd ones? Noblemen Merchants Peasants Others Uyezd Zemstvo 41, 7 10, 4 38, 4 9, 5 Provincial Zemstvo 74, 2 10, 9 10, 6 4, 3 The peasants were not ready to deal with provincial affairs that were far from their daily needs. And getting to the provincial town was far and expensive.
Zemsky reform Zemsky assembly in the provinces. Engraving after a drawing by K. A. Trutovsky. Zemstvos received the right to invite specialists in certain sectors of the economy - teachers, doctors, agronomists - zemstvo employees were introduced at the level of counties and provinces.
Your comments. Zemstvos. The Moscow nobleman Kireev wrote about the zemstvos: “We, nobles, are vowels; merchants, philistines, clergy - agreeable, peasants - voiceless. " Explain what the author wanted to say?
Zemstvo reform Zemstvos dealt exclusively with economic issues: building roads, fighting fires, agronomic assistance to peasants, creating food supplies in case of crop failure, maintaining schools and hospitals. For this, zemstvo taxes were collected. Zemsky assembly in the province. Engraving after a drawing by K. A. Trutovsky. 1865? What groups are the zemstvo vowels in the picture of K. Trutovsky divided into?
Thanks to the zemstvo doctors, the villagers for the first time received qualified medical care. The zemstvo doctor was a universal: therapist, surgeon, dentist, obstetrician. Sometimes operations had to be done in a peasant hut. Off-road in the Tver province. Zemsky doctor. Hood. I. I. Tvorozhnikov.
Zemstvo reform Teachers played a special role among zemstvo officials. What do you think this role was? The zemstvo teacher not only taught children arithmetic and literacy, but was often the only literate person in the village. Arrival of the teacher to the village. Hood. A. Stepanov. ? Thanks to this, the teacher became a bearer of knowledge and new ideas for the peasants. It was among the zemstvo teachers that there were especially many liberal and democratically inclined people.
Zemskaya reform In 1865-1880. in Russia there were 12 thousand rural zemstvo schools, and in 1913 - 28 thousand zemstvo teachers taught literacy to over 2 million peasant children, including girls. True, elementary education never became compulsory. The training programs were developed by the Ministry of Education. Lesson in the zemstvo school of the Penza province. 1890s ? What, judging by the photograph, distinguished the zemstvo school from the state or parish school?
23 Zemskaya reform (Zemskaya reform (1864).). "Regulations on the provincial" Regulations on the provincial and district zemstvo institutions "and uyezd zemstvo institutions" Significance contributed to the development of education, health care, local improvement; became centers of the liberal social movement Limitation was introduced initially in 35 provinces (by 1914 they operated in 43 out of 78 provinces) volost zemstvos were not created they acted under the control of the administration (governors and the Ministry of Internal Affairs)
Zemskaya (1864) The most energetic, democratic intelligentsia was grouped around the zemstvos. The activity was aimed at improving the situation of the masses. The class of elections; the range of issues solved by zemstvos is limited. Reforms Their meaning Their shortcomings
Preparations for the city reform began in 1862, but due to the assassination attempt on Alexander II, its implementation was delayed. The city status was adopted in 1870. The City Duma remained the supreme body of city self-government. Elections were held in three curiae. The curiae were formed on the basis of a property qualification. A list of voters was compiled in descending order of the amount of city taxes paid by them. Each curia paid 1/3 of the taxes. The first curia was the richest and smallest, the third - the poorest and most numerous. ? What do you think: were the city elections held on an all-estates or non-estates basis?
City reform City government: Voters of the 1st Curia Voters of the 2nd Curia Voters of the 3rd Curia. City Council (administrative body) City government (executive body) elects the Mayor
City reform The head of the city government was the elected mayor. In large cities, the mayor was usually a nobleman or a wealthy guild merchant. Like zemstvos, city councils and councils were in charge of exclusively local improvement: paving and lighting streets, maintaining hospitals, almshouses, orphanages and city schools, care for trade and industry, water supply and urban transport. Samara mayor P. V. Alabin.
28 City reform of 1870 - - “City status” “City status” Essence Creation of bodies in cities similar to zemstvos in functions and structure City mayor headed City government elected City Duma as part of vowels were elected by the population on a non-qualifying basis
City (1870) contributed to the introduction of broad strata of the population to government, which served as a prerequisite for the formation of a civil society and the rule of law in Russia. The activities of the city government were controlled by the state. Reforms Their meaning Their shortcomings
Judicial reform - 1864 Zemsky assembly in the province. Engraving after a drawing by K. A. Trutovsky. Principles of legal proceedings Inequity - the court's decision does not depend on the estate of the accused Election - the magistrate and the jury Glasnost - the public could be present at the court sessions, the press could report on the progress of the trial Independence - the administration could not influence the judges Competitiveness - the prosecutor's participation in the trial (prosecution) and lawyer (defense)
33 Judicial Reform 1864 Judge appointed by the Ministry of Justice (principle of the irremovability of judges) Sentences in accordance with the law on the basis of a jury's verdict Basis of reform Judicial Statutes Introduction of a jury
34 Judicial reform of 1864. Jurors are selected from representatives of all estates (!) On the basis of property qualification 12 people Pass a verdict (decision) on the guilt, its degree or innocence of the defendant
Judicial Reform Judges received high salaries. The decision on the guilt of the accused was made by the jury after hearing witnesses and debates by the prosecutor and lawyer. A juror could be a Russian citizen from 25 to 70 years old (qualifications - property and residence). The court decision could be appealed.
36 Judicial reform of 1864 Additional elements of the implementation of judicial reform: Special courts for military personnel Special courts for clergymen Magistrates' courts for minor civil and criminal offenses
37 Judicial reform of 1864 The structure of the judiciary in Russia Senate is the highest judicial and cassation (cassation - appeal, protest against the judgment of a lower court) body of the Judicial Chambers courts for considering the most important cases and appeals (complaint, appeal for review of the case) against decisions of district courts District Courts First Instance Courts. Handles complex criminal and civil cases Lawyer Prosecutor Magistrates' courts minor criminal and civil cases 12 jurors (qualification)
Judicial reform Minor offenses and civil litigation (the amount of the claim up to 500 rubles) were examined by the magistrate's court. The magistrate decided cases alone, could sentence to a fine (up to 300 rubles), arrest for up to 3 months, or imprisonment for up to 1 year. Such a trial was simple, quick, and cheap. World judge. Modern drawing.
Judicial reform The magistrate was elected by zemstvos or city dumas from among persons over 25 years old, with at least secondary education, and judicial experience of at least three years. The magistrate was supposed to own real estate for 15 thousand rubles. It was possible to appeal against the decisions of the magistrate at the county congress of justices of the peace. District Congress of Justices of the Peace of the Chelyabinsk District.
Judicial Reform Public Participation: 12 lay jurors participated in the trial. The jury passed the verdict: "guilty"; "Guilty, but deserves leniency"; "Innocent." Based on the verdict, the judge passed the verdict. Modern drawing.
Judicial reform Jurors were elected by provincial zemstvo assemblies and city councils on the basis of property qualifications, without regard to class affiliation. Jurors. Drawing of the beginning of the twentieth century. ? What can be said about the composition of the jury, judging by this figure?
Judicial reform Adversarial: In criminal proceedings, the prosecution was supported by the prosecutor, and the defense of the accused was carried out by a lawyer (attorney at law). In a jury trial, where the verdict did not depend on professional lawyers, the role of the lawyer was enormous. Major Russian lawyers: K. K. Arseniev, N. P. Karabchevsky, A. F. Koni, F. N. Plevako, V. D. Spasovich. Fyodor Nikiforovich Plevako (1842–1908) appears in court.
Judicial reform Glasnost: The public began to be allowed into court sessions. The court reports were published in the press. Special court reporters appeared in the newspapers. Lawyer V. D. Spasovich: “We are, to a certain extent, knights of the word of the living, free, freer now than in the press, which the most zealous ferocious chairmen will not calm down, because while the chairman thinks about stopping you, the word has already skipped three miles and his cannot be returned. " Portrait of the lawyer Vladimir Danilovich Spasovich. Hood. I. E. Repin. 1891.
44 Judicial Reform of 1864 Significance of Judicial Reform The most advanced judicial system in the then world was created. A big step in the development of the principle of "separation of powers" and democracy The preservation of elements of bureaucratic arbitrariness: administrative punishment, etc., preserved a number of vestiges of the past: special courts.
45 Military reform of the 60s - 70s. XIXXIX century. Military reform of the 60s - 70s. XIXXIX century Immediate impetus - the defeat of Russia in the Crimean War of 1853-1856.
Areas of military reform Result - a massive modern army
Military reform The first step in military reform was the abolition of military settlements in 1855. In 1861, on the initiative of the new Minister of War, D.A.Milyutin, the service life was reduced from 25 years to 16 years. In 1863 corporal punishment was abolished in the army. In 1867, a new military-judicial charter was introduced, based on the general principles of judicial reform (publicity, competition). Dmitry Alekseevich Milyutin (1816-1912), Minister of War 1861-1881
Military reform In 1863, a reform of military education was carried out: the cadet corps were transformed into military gymnasiums. Military gymnasiums provided a broad general education (Russian and foreign languages, mathematics, physics, natural science, history). The training load has doubled, but physical and general military training has been reduced. Dmitry Alekseevich Milyutin (1816-1912), Minister of War 1861-1881
1) Creation of military gymnasiums and schools for the nobility, cadet schools for all classes, the opening of the Military Law Academy (1867) and the Naval Academy (1877)
According to the new regulations, the task was set to teach the troops only what is necessary in the war (shooting, loose formation, sapper), the time for drill training was reduced, corporal punishment was prohibited.
Military reform What measure should have become the main one in the course of military reform? Cancellation of recruitment. What were the disadvantages of the recruiting system? The inability to quickly increase the army in wartime, the need to maintain a large army in peacetime. The recruitment was suitable for serfs, but not for free people. Non-commissioned officer of the Russian army. Hood. V.D. Polenov. Fragment. ? ?
Military reform What could replace the recruiting system? General conscription. The introduction of universal conscription in Russia, with its vast territory, required the development of the road network. Only in 1870 was a commission created to discuss this issue, and on January 1, 1874, the Manifesto was published on the replacement of recruitment with universal military service. Sergeant-Major of the Dragoon Regiment. 1886?
Military Reform All men aged 21 were subject to conscription. The service life was 6 years in the army and 7 years in the navy. The only breadwinners and only sons were released from the draft. What principle was taken as the basis of the military reform: all-estates or non-estates? Formally, the reform was non-estate, but in fact, the estate was largely preserved. "Lagged behind." Hood. P.O. Kovalevsky. Russian soldier of the 1870s in full marching gear. ?
Military reform In what way were the remnants of the estate in the Russian army manifested after 1874? The fact that the officer corps remained mainly of the nobility, while the rank and file remained peasant. Portrait of Count G. Bobrinsky, lieutenant of the Life Guards Hussar Regiment. Hood. K. E. Makovsky. Drummer of the Pavlovsky Life Guards Regiment. Hood. A. Detail. ?
Military reform During the military reform, benefits were established for recruits with secondary or higher education. Those who graduated from the gymnasium served 2 years, those who graduated from the university - 6 months. In addition to the reduced service life, they had the right to live not in the barracks, but in private apartments. Volunteer of the 6th Klyastitsky Hussar Regiment
Smooth-bore weapons were replaced by rifled ones, cast-iron guns were replaced with steel ones, the Kh. Berdan rifle (Berdanka) was adopted by the Russian army, and the construction of a steam fleet began.
Military reform In which social groups do you think the military reform caused discontent and what were its motives? The conservative nobility was dissatisfied with the fact that people from other classes were given the opportunity to become officers. Some nobles were outraged that they could be called up as soldiers along with the peasants. Particularly dissatisfied were the merchants, who were not previously subject to recruitment. The merchants even offered to take over the maintenance of the disabled, if they were allowed to pay off the draft. ?
59 Military reforms of the 60s - 70s. XIXXIX century. Military reforms of the 60s - 70s. XIXXIX century The most important element of the reform is the replacement of the system of recruiting sets with universal military service. Compulsory military service for men of all classes from 20 years of age (6 years - in the army, 7 years - in the navy), followed by stay in the reserve. education (the rights of volunteers), clerics and some other categories of the population were freed Significance of the creation of massive combat-ready armed forces; increasing the country's defense
The meaning of the reform: the creation of a mass army of a modern type, the authority of military service was raised, a blow to the estate system. Disadvantages of the reform: miscalculations in the system of organization and armament of the troops. Military reform of 1874
62 Education reforms. Reforms of education School reform of 1864 Formation of a new structure of primary and secondary education Public schools County 3 years of study Parish church schools since 1884 3 years of study Progymnasiums 4 years of study Urban 6 years of study Primary education
School Reform (Secondary Education) Classical and real grammar schools were intended for the children of noblemen and merchants. "Charter of gymnasiums and progymnasiums" November 19, 1864 Progymnasium. The term of study is 4 years. The classical gymnasium is 7-grade, the period of study is 7 years. The real gymnasium is 7-grade. The period of study is 7 years. Ancient and foreign languages, ancient history, antique literature prevailed in the program of classical gymnasiums. Mathematics, physics and other technical subjects prevailed in the curriculum of real grammar schools. Prepared for admission to the gymnasium. They were located in county towns.
School reform In 1872, the period of study in classical gymnasiums was increased to 8 years (the 7th grade became two years), and from 1875 they officially became 8th grade. Real gymnasiums retained the 7-year term of study and in 1872 were transformed into real schools. If graduates of classical grammar schools entered universities without exams, then realists had to take exams in ancient languages. Without exams, they entered only technical universities. What caused such restrictions for graduates of real schools? In classical grammar schools, children of noblemen studied more often, in real ones - children of merchants and commoners. ?
The university reform was the first after the abolition of serfdom, which was caused by student unrest. The new university charter to replace the Nikolaev charter of 1835 was adopted on June 18, 1863. Minister of Education A.V. Golovnin was the initiator of the new charter. Universities received autonomy. Councils of universities and faculties were created, which elected the rector and deans, awarded academic titles, and distributed funds among departments and faculties. Andrei Vasilievich Golovnin (1821-1886), Minister of Education in 1861-1866
University reform Universities had their own censorship, received foreign literature without customs inspection. The universities operated their own courts and guards, the police did not have access to the university grounds. Golovnin proposed creating student organizations and attracting them to participate in university self-government, but the State Council rejected this proposal. Andrei Vasilievich Golovnin (1821-1886), Minister of Education in 1861-1866 ? Why was this proposal removed from the statutes of the universities?
Classic. Reform in the field of public education Changes in the education system University charter of 1863 School charter of 1864 Autonomy Gymnasiums Real Prepared for admission to university Prepared for admission to higher technical educational institutions. A university council was created, which decided all internal issues Election of the rector and teachers The restrictions for students were removed (their misconduct was considered by the student court)
Women's education In the 60s – 70s. higher education for women appeared in Russia. Women were not admitted to universities, but in 1869 the first Higher Courses for Women were opened. The most famous were the courses opened by V.I.Ger'e in Moscow (1872) and K.N. Bestuzhev's courses include mathematical and verbal history departments. 2/3 of the students studied mathematics. The student. Hood. N. A. Yaroshenko.
Reforms in the field of education (1863 -1864) Significance of reforms: expansion and improvement of education at all levels. Disadvantages of reforms: inaccessibility of secondary and higher education for all segments of the population.
Judicial (1864) The most advanced judicial system in the world of that time. She kept a number of vestiges: special courts. Military (1874) Creation of a mass army of a modern type, the authority of military service was raised, a blow to the estate system. Miscalculations in the system of organization and armament of the troops. In the field of education (1863 -186 4 years.) Expansion and improvement of education at all levels. Inaccessibility of secondary and higher education for all segments of the population. Reforms Their meaning Their shortcomings
71 The results and significance of the reforms They led to a significant acceleration of the country's development and brought Russia closer to the level of the world's leading powers. They were incomplete and incomplete. In the 80s, replaced by the counter-reforms of Alexander III
The significance of the reforms Zemsky assembly in the provinces. Engraving after a drawing by K. A. Trutovsky. The advancement of the country along the path of capitalist development, along the path of transforming the feudal monarchy into a bourgeois one and the development of democracy The reforms were a step from the landlord state to the rule of law.
Summing up What is the historical significance of the reforms of the 60s – 70s? ? Thanks to the reforms of the 60s and 70s. many issues of everyday life were transferred from the jurisdiction of the bureaucracy to the jurisdiction of society in the person of zemstvos and city councils; the equality of Russian subjects before the law has been established; the level of literacy of the population has significantly increased; universities have received a greater degree of freedom of scientific and educational activities; censorship for the central press and publishing has softened; the army began to be built on the basis of unescribed universal military service, which corresponded to the principle of equality before the law and made it possible to create prepared reserves. ?
The liberal reforms that were carried out in the 60s and 70s of the 19th century were a logical continuation of the abolition of serfdom. The new social structure required changes in administration and state structure.
The course of modernization of the state was supported by urban, zemstvo, military and judicial reforms. Thanks to such transformations, the Russian autocracy adapted itself to the rapid development of capitalism in the state.
Judicial reform
In 1864, a new judicial system was introduced in the Russian Empire, which was regulated by the law "On New Judicial Charters". The court became a democratic instance; it included representatives of all classes of society, the process became public, the procedure of a compulsory trial was maintained.
The jurisdiction of the courts was strictly delineated; civil claims were considered in the magistrates' court, criminal offenses in the district. The highest court was the Senate.
To consider political crimes, including those directed against the autocracy, special courts were organized, during which the principle of publicity was excluded.
Military reform
The crushing defeat of the Russian troops in the Crimean War showed that an army based on recruitment is ineffective and in many ways loses to the European armed forces. Emperor Alexander II initiated the creation of a new army with a reserve of personnel.
Since 1874, all men over the age of 20 were required to undergo general military training, which lasted 6 years. Citizens of the Russian Empire who had a higher education were often exempted from military service. By the end of the 70s, the material and technical base of the army was completely updated - smooth-bore weapons were replaced by rifled ones, a system of steel artillery was introduced, and horse reserves were increased.
Also during this period, the steam fleet was actively developing. Educational institutions were opened in the state, in which military specialists were trained. Due to the fact that the Russian Empire did not take part in military confrontations, the imperial army was able to significantly strengthen and raise its combat capability.
Zemskaya reform
After the adoption of the Peasant Reform, it became necessary to transform local government bodies. In 1864, the zemstvo reform began to be introduced in the Russian Empire. In the counties and provinces, zemstvo institutions were formed, which were elected bodies.
Zemstvos did not have political functions, mainly their competence included solving problems of local importance, regulating the work of schools and hospitals, building roads, controlling trade and small industrial facilities.
Zemstvos were controlled by local and central authorities, which had the right to refute the decisions of these bodies or suspend their activities. In the cities, city dumas were created, which had the same powers as the zemstvos. The leading role in zemstvos and city councils belonged to representatives of the bourgeois class.
Despite the fact that the reforms had a very narrow structure and did not actually solve the problems of social and economic life, they became the first step towards the introduction of liberal democracy in the Russian Empire. The further introduction of reforms was completely stopped by the death of the emperor. His son Alexander II saw a completely different path of development for Russia.
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