Laboratory work number 1
Subject: "Cooking and a description of microfrets of cells of various organisms."
Purpose of work: Secure the ability to prepare microscaps and view them under a microscope, find the features of the structure of cells of various organisms, own the topic terminology.
Equipment:skin scales of bulbs, human mouth epithelial cells, honeystand culture, glass with water, microscope, tea spoon, cover and slide, blue ink, iodine, micro-milking animal cells, notebook, handle, simple pencil, line,
Progress:
Work 1.
1. Consider in the figure the sequence of preparation of the peel scales of flashes.
2. Prepare glass glass, thoroughly rub it gauze.
3. Pipette apply 1-2 drops of water on the slide.
4. With the help of a vacuic needle, carefully remove a small piece of transparent skin from the inner surface of the scales of the bow. Put a piece of peel in a drop of water and straighten the needle tip.
5. Cover the skin with covered glass, as shown in the figure.
6. Consider the prepared drug at a small increase. Mark which parts of the cell you see.
7. Color the drug with a solution of iodine. To do this, apply an iodine solution on the slide glass. Filter paper on the other hand pull out the extra solution.
8. Consider the painted drug. What changes occurred?
9. Consider the drug with a large increase. Find chloroplasts on it in the sheet cells, the dark strip, the surrounding cell, the shell; Under it, a golden substance is a cytoplasm (it can occupy the entire cell or be near the walls). In the cytoplasm, the core is clearly visible. Find a vacuole with cellular juice (it differs from cytoplasm in color).
10. Draw 2-3 cells of the robe of the bow. Denote the shell, cytoplasm, core, vacuol with cellular juice.
In the cytoplasm of the plant cell there are numerous small tales - plasts. With a great magnification, they are clearly visible. In the cells of different organs, the number of plastids is different.
In plastics plants can be of different colors: green, yellow or orange and colorless. In the cells of the skin scales, for example, plastics are colorless.
Work 2.
1. Prepare the bacteria of the hay stick.
2. Consider drugs under the microscope.
3. Consider ready-made microsperats of cells of a multicellular animal organism.
4. Suspension seen with the image of the object in the picture.
Work 3.
Consider ready-made microspects of multicellular animal cells.
Match seen with the image of the object in the picture.
3. Indicate the cells of the cell depicted in Fig. four
^
Laboratory work number 2
Subject: "Observation of the phenomenon of plasmolysis and deplasmolysis"
Purpose:ensure that there is a phenomenon of plasmolysis and deplasmolysis in living plants cells and the speed of physiological processes.
Equipment: Microscopes, subject and coating glasses, glass sticks, water glasses, filter paper, salt salt, onion.
Progress
Remove the lower skin of the scales of the bow (4mm 2);
Prepare a micro-process, consider and sketch 4-5 cells seen;
On one side of the cover glass, apply a few drops of the solution of the table salt, and on the other hand, pull the water with a strip of filter paper;
Consider a micro-process within a few seconds. Pay attention to changes that occurred with cell membranes and the time for which these changes occurred. Draw a changed object.
Apply a few drops of distilled water at the edge of the cover glass and pull it out on the other side by filter paper, flushing the plasmolysis solution.
For a few minutes, consider the microscope under the microscope. Note the changes in the position of the cell membranes and the time for which these changes occurred.
Match seen with the image of the object in Figure 1.
Draw a studied object.
Make a conclusion in accordance with the aim of work, noting the speed of plasmolysis and deplasmolysis. Explain the difference in the speed of these two processes.
1. Where did the water move (in cells or from them) when placing a tissue into a salt solution?
2. Why can you explain the direction of the water movement?
3. Where did the water move when placing the fabric into the water? What is this explained?
4. What do you think it would happen in cells if they were left in solid solution for a long time?
5. Can I use a salt solution to destroy weeds?
6. Give the definition of the Terminams - Plasmoliz, Defosmoliz, Osmosis, Turgor.
7. Explain why apples are less juicy in jam?
Figure 1. Plasmolysis and deplasmolysis
Laboratory work number 3
Subject: "Comparison of the structure of plants and animal cells, mushrooms, bacteria."
Purpose:learn to find the characteristics of the structure of cells of various organisms, compare them among themselves; Own the topic terminology.
Equipment:microscopes, subject and coating glasses, glasses with water, glass sticks, elephant plant leaf, yeast, honeystand culture, micro-milking animal micro-cells.
Work 1.
1. Prepare the drug of the eldine leaf cells. To do this, separate the sheet from the stem, put it in a drop of water on the slide and cover the cover glass.
2. Consider the preparation under the microscope. Find chloroplasts in cells.
3. Draw the structure of the cell of the eldine sheet. Make inscriptions to your drawing. 4.Reat Figure 1. Take a conclusion about the form, cell sizes different organs of plants
Fig. 1. Color, shape and sizes of cells of different organs of plants
Work 2.
1. Cut the tea spoon a little mucus from the inside of the cheek. 2. Place the mucus on the slide and tun the blue ink diluted in water. Cover the preparation with coating glass. 3. Consider the drug under the microscope.
Work 3.
Consider the finished micro-cell of the cells of a multicellular animal organism.
 |  |  |
| Bacterial cell | Vegetable cage | Animal cage |
Compare these cells among them.
Comparison results Enter Table 1
Answer the questions:
What is the similarity and difference of cells?
What are the reasons for the similarities and differences in cells of different organisms?
Practical work
Subject : "Drawing up the simplest crossing schemes."
Purpose: learn to write out the types of weights formed by organisms with specified genotypes; briefly record the condition of genetic tasks; solve situational problems in genetics; Use genetic terminology skills.
Equipment: Tutorial, Notebook, Terms of Tasks, Handle.
Progress:
Exercise 1
Write all types of weights formed by organisms having the following genotypes: AABB, AA, MMPP, PPKK, AABBCC, AABBCCPP, AABBCC.
By writing the gametes, it is necessary to remember that the body is homozygous one (AA) or several (AABBCC) genes, all genets are the same for these genes, as they carry the same allele.
In the case of heterozygousness, one gene (AA), the body forms two types of hemes, carrying its different alleles. DiGaterozygous organism (AAVB) forms four types of weights. In general, the body forms the more types of hamets than at a greater number of genes he is heterosigoten. The total number of types of weights is 2 to the degree n, where N is the number of genes in the heterozygous state. By writing down gametes, it is necessary to be guided by the law of "cleanliness" of Games, in accordance with which each gamet carries one of each pair of allele genes.
Task 2.
Learn to briefly record the condition of the genetic situational problem and its solution.
With a brief record, the conditions of the genetic problem, the dominant feature is designated (a), and a recessive - a lower case (a) letter with the designation of the corresponding feature. The genotype of the body having a dominant sign, without additional instructions on its homo- or heterozygency in the condition of the problem, is denoted by a?, Where the question reflects the need to establish the genotype during the solution of the problem. The organism's genotype with recessive signs is always homozygoten on a recessive allele - AA. Symptoms adhered to the floor are denoted in case of x - linked inheritance as xª or ha
^ An example of a brief record Conditions and solutions
A task. In humans, the role of karelo color eye dominates over a blue color option. Blue-eyed woman marries a heterozygous carrage male. What is the eye color of the eye?
Summary Conditions Summary Solution
A - Karya eye color parents - p aa x aa
A - Blue eye color Gameta - G A, and
Parents: AA X AA offspring - F aa aa
Offspring? Karya color blue color
Task 3.
Briefly record the condition of the genetic situational problem and its solution.
Task: Accounting Myopia dominates normal vision. A child with normal vision has been born from myntic parents. What is the genotype of parents? What other children can be from this marriage?
Practical work
Subject : "Solution of genetic tasks."
Purpose: learn to solve genetic tasks; explain the effect of external factors on the manifestation of a trait; Use genetic terminology skills.
Equipment: Tutorial, Notebook, Terms of Tasks, Handle.
Progress:
1. Recall the basic laws of inheritance of signs.
2. Collective analysis of tasks on monohybrid and digabid crossing.
3. Independent solution of problems on mono-librid and digibrid crossing, describing in detail the course of the solution and formulate a complete answer.
4. Collective discussion of solving tasks between students and teacher.
5. Make output.
Tasks for mono-librid crossing
Task No. 1. In cattle, the gene that causes the black wool color dominates the genome determining the red color. What offspring can we expect from the crossing of a homozygous black bull and a red cow?
We will analyze the solution to this task. Initially, we introduce notation. In genetics for genes, alphabetic symbols were adopted: dominant genes denote by capital letters, recessive - line. The black color gene is dominated, so it is denoted by A. Men Red Coloring Wool Recessive - a. Consequently, the genotype of the black homozygous bull will be AA. What is the genotype of a red cow? It has a recessive sign that can manifest a phenotypically in a homozygous state (organism). Thus, its genotype AA. If in the genotype of the cow was at least one dominant gene A, then she would not have red wool. Now that genotypes of parental individuals are determined, it is necessary to compile a scheme of theoretical crossing
Black Bull forms one type of weights according to the genuine - all genital cells will contain only gene A. For the convenience of counting, we write only the types of weights, and not all sex cells of this animal. The homozygous cow also has one type of Games - a. When merging such games, one, the only possible genotype - AA, i.e. All offspring will be uniformly and will bear a sign of a parent who has a dominant phenotype - black bull ..
Thus, you can write down the following answer: when crossing the homozygous black bull and the red cow in the offspring, you should expect only black heterozygous calves
The following tasks should be solved on their own, describing in detail the course of the solution and formulating a complete answer.
Task # 2. What offspring can be expected from crossing the cow and bull, heterozygous wool painting?
Task # 3. In guinea pigs, rigging wool is determined by the dominant genome, and smooth - recessive.
1. The crossing of two swirls between themselves gave 39 individuals with a vortex wool and 11 smooth-haired animals. How many individuals having a dominant phenotype should be homozygous on this basis?
2. A guide pig with a swirl wool when crossing with a person with smooth wool, given in the offspring of 28 vortexes and 26 smooth-haired descendants. Determine the genotypes of parents and descendants.
^ Tasks for di- and polygibrid crossing
Task number 7. Write the gamets of organisms with the following genotypes: AAVA; aabb; Aai; AAVA; AAVA; Aabb; AAV; AAVVSS; Aajss; AAVSS; AAVSS
We will analyze one of the examples. When solving such tasks, it is necessary to be guided by the law of purity of Games: Gameta genetically cleaned, since only one gene from each allelic pair falls into it. Take, for example, a person with AAVBSS genotype. From the first pair of genes - pairs A - in each sex cell falls in the process of meiosis or gene A, or gene a. In the same Games from the pair of genes in, located in another chromosome, the gene in or b is entered. The third steam is also in each sex cell supplying a dominant gene with or his recessive allele - with. Thus, Gameta may contain either all dominant genes - ABC, or recessive - ABC, as well as their combinations: ABC, ABC, ABE, ABC, ABC, and BS.
In order not to be mistaken in the amount of grants formed by the body with the studied genotype, it is possible to use the formula n \u003d 2n, where n is the number of types of Games, and n is the number of heterozygous pairs of genes. In the correctness of this formula, it is easy to verify examples: heterozygotaaa has one heterozygous pair; Consequently, n \u003d 21 \u003d 2. It forms two grades: a and a. DiGeterosigotaAvoAvo contains two heterozygous pairs: n \u003d 22 \u003d 4, four types of Games are formed: AB, AB, AB, AB. The trigenosigotaahavs in accordance with this should form 8 varieties of genital cells n \u003d 23 \u003d 8), they are already discharged above.
Task number 8. In cattle, the rose gene is dominated over the height genome, and the black coat gene is over the red color genome. Both pairs of genes are in different pairs of chromosomes.
1. What are the calves, if we crossed the heterozygous on both pairs
Signs of bull and cow?
2. What offspring should be expected from crossing the black comole bull, heterozygous on both pairs of signs, with a red horned cow?
^ Additional tasks for laboratory work
Task # 1. At the Belliferma, the range of 225 mart was obtained. Of these, 167 animals have brown fur and 58 mink bluish-gray color. Determine the genotypes of the source forms, if it is known that the brown color gene dominates the genome determining the bluish-gray wool color.
Task # 2. A person has a brown eye of the eye dominates the genome due to blue eyes. Blue-eyed man, one of whose parents had a brown eyes, married a carbohylase woman, who had a father to be a brown eyes, and the mother was blue. What offspring can you expect from this marriage?
Task # 3. Albinism is inherited in humans as a recessive sign. In the family, where one of the spouses Albino and the other has pigmented hair, there are two children. One child albino, the other - with painted hair. What is the probability of the birth of the next child-albino?
Task number 4. In dogs, the black color of the wool dominates the coffee, and short wool - over long. Both pairs of genes are in different chromosomes.
1. What percentage of black short-haired puppies can be expected from crossing two individuals, heterozygous on both grounds?
2. The hunter bought a black dog with a short wool and wants to be sure that it does not carry the genes of long coffee wool. What partner in the phenotype and genotype should be chosen for crossing to check the genotype of the purchased dog?
Task number 5. Human, the human eye gene dominates the genome determining the development of blue eye painting, and the gene, which causes the ability to better own the right hand, prevails over the genome determining the development of left-handedness. Both pairs of genes are located in different chromosomes. What could be children if their parents are heterozygous?
Task number 6. A person has a recessive gene and detects innocent deafness. Hereditary deaf-and-dumb man married a woman having a normal rumor. Is it possible to determine the genotype of the mother of the child?
Task number 7. From the yellow pea seed, a plant was obtained, which gave 215 seeds, of which 165 yellow and 50 green. What are the genotypes of all forms?
Task number 8. Father and mother felt the bitter taste of phenylthioma. Two of four children do not feel the taste of this drug. Taking that the differences in sensitivity to the phenylthiomo-independent monogenne, determine the dominant or recessive insensitivity to the phenylthiomoopevine.
1. What is the unit of the building of living beings? What is it called and who gave her such name?
The cell is a unit of the structure of the living.
cell theory was developed by German scientists T.shvan and M. Shladiden.
2. How long have people learned that the bodies of living beings consist of cells? Explain why it was not known before?
In 1665, examining under an improved three-chain microscope in a 40-fold increase in the finest slice of traffic jams, Robert Guk opened the smallest cells similar to the same cells in Honey, and gave them the name "cells". In the same 1665, Robert Guk first reported the existence of cells.
3. Are there any cells that can be seen without a microscope? If so, give examples.
Vegetable cells with large vacuoles: onions, oranges, pamlal. You can keep these major cells in your hands. There are other organisms related to the kingdom of mushrooms with giant multicore cells forming multi-core shoes.
4. Consider the drawing on with. 30 textbook. Name the main parts of the live cell.
Parts of the cell: cytoplasm (semi-liquid substance); kernel (storage and transfer of hereditary information); Nuclear shell - separates the core from the cytoplasm; Ribosomes - protein synthesis; Mitochondria (energy generated; cellular center - cell division.
5. What features of the cells say that they are alive?
Cells breathe grow food.
6. The human body originates from one cell resulting from the fusion of two sex cells. The adult body consists of about 100 cell trillion. Where does such a variety of cells come from?
Many cells appear due to the fact that the organism cells are inherent in constant division by mitosis. Two subsidiaries are formed from one cell. As a pace in the human body, a large number of cells appear.
7. Consider the cell of different parts of the plant and the human body. What do you think, why in one body so many varieties of cells? Try to say about what work they perform.
Each cell of the cells in the body performs a specific function (power, breathing, reproduction, etc.), because The set for the normal functioning of the processes in the body in the body, one cell could not cope with them, therefore cells in the body are distributed over the functions performed.
Human cells: multi-core cells - will be cross-striped muscle tissue cells; Colorless cells having an amoeba like shape - leukocytes whose function is photosynthesis; Red nuclear-free cells - erythrocytes (oxygen carriers and carbon dioxide).
Plant cells: Small, colorless, tightly adjacent cells - these are skin cells; Green bean-shaped cells - Ustian closing cells; Green cells - cells that carry out photosynthesis.
8. * Explain why the egg cell is much larger than most other cells.
One of this cell contains the basis for the development of absolutely all other cells, a whole organism, as well as the initial stock for growth and nutrition. An example of this not only cells inside mammals whose children develop and grow in the womb. But for example, the eggs of birds and amphibians, this is the most real egg. Only developing outside the parent organism. That is, in one this cell contained all substances from which the rest are then form.
Question 1. What is the unit of the building of living beings? What is it called and who gave her such name?
The unit of the structure, functioning and development of living beings is a cell. This name was given by the English scientist, the scientist-encyclopedist Robert Guk (1635 - 1703).
Question 2. How long have people learned that the bodies of living beings consist of cells? Explain why it was not known before.
In 1665, examining under an improved three-chain microscope in a 40-fold increase in the finest slice of traffic jams, Robert Guk opened the smallest cells similar to the same cells in Honey, and gave them the name "cells". In the same 1665, Robert Guk first reported the existence of cells.
Question 3. Are there any cells that can be seen without a microscope. If so, give examples.
Vegetable cells with large vacuoles: onion, oranges, pomel. You can keep these major cells in your hands. There are other organisms related to the kingdom of mushrooms with giant multicore cells forming multi-core shoes.
Question 4. Consider the picture on the tutorial page 108. Name the main parts of the live cell.
Each cell has three main parts: an outer membrane that dresses a cell, a cytoplasm - a semi-liquid mass, which is the main content of the cell, and the kernel is a small dense taurus located in the cytoplasm.
Question 5. What features of the cells say that they are alive?
Cells are alive. They breathe, eat, rag and share. Two are obtained from one cell. Then from each new when it grows, - two more. This is growing and developing the entire body.
Question 6. The human body originates from one cell resulting from the fusion of two sex cells. The adult body consists of about 100 cell trillion. Where does such a variety of cells come from?
Many cells appear due to the fact that the organism cells are inherent in constant division by mitosis. Two subsidiaries are formed from one cell. As a pace in the human body, a large number of cells appear.
Question 7. Consider the cell pattern of various parts of the animal. What do you think, why in one body so many varieties of cells? Try to say about what work they perform.
In the body most often there are many varieties of cells. They differ from each other in shape and sizes. For example, the cells forming muscles in the body of the muscles, bone, nervous system look completely differently. There are special cells - sex. They are different in men and women. The female sex cell is called egg cell, and men's cells - spermatozoa. These cells give rise to a new organism, simply speaking, thanks to them children appear. So that it happens, the egg and spermatozoa must be connected. Their merge is called fertilization. The fertilized egg is repeatedly divided, and the embryo develops out of it.
Question 8. Explain why egg cells are much larger than most other cells.
One of this cell contains the basis for the development of absolutely all other cells, a whole organism, as well as the initial stock for growth and nutrition. An example of this not only cells inside mammals whose children develop and grow in the womb. But for example, the eggs of birds and amphibians, this is the most real egg. Only developing outside the parent organism. That is, in one this cell contained all substances from which the rest are then form.
Current page: 2 (Total 8 pages) [Available excerpt for reading: 2 pages]
5. Live cells
It happened more than 300 years ago. English scientist Robert Guk considered under a microscope a thin cut of a bottle plug made of cork of cork oak. What I saw the GUK was a great discovery. He found that the plug consists of a variety of small cavities, cameras that he called cells. Soon it was found that other parts of the plants consist of cells. Moreover, it was found that animal and human bodies were built from the cells.
Microscope of a hammer. Cork slice under a microscope
If we managed to decrease a million times, we would have opened amazing opportunities. We could penetrate the inside of cells and explore them as travelers explore the mysterious jungle, caves or sea depths. If we were tirelessly and visited in various organisms in various organisms, we would find out the following.
No matter how diverse living beings inhabiting our planet, they all have a cellular structure. Bodies of plants, animals, humans are built of cells, like bricks at home. Therefore, the cells are often called the "bricks" of the body. But this is a very, very approximate comparison.
First, the cells are difficult to arrange, not the fact that the bricks are flown from clay. Each cell has three main parts: outdoor membranewhich clothes the cage, cytoplasm - semi-liquid mass, which is the main content of the cell, and core - A small dense taurus located in the cytoplasm.
Secondly, our "bricks" are alive. They breathe, eat, grow ... and divided. Two are obtained from one cell. Then from each new when it grows, - two more. This is growing and developing the entire body.
This looks like a modern microscope
Finally, thirdly, in the body most often there are many varieties of cells. They differ from each other in shape and sizes. For example, the cells forming muscles in the body of the muscles, bone, nervous system look completely differently. There are special cells - paul. They are different in men and women. Female sex cage called egg cell, and men's cells - spermatozoa. These cells give rise to a new organism, simply speaking, thanks to them children appear. So that it happens, the egg and spermatozoa must be connected. Their merger is called fertilization. The fertilized egg is repeatedly divided, and the embryo develops out of it. Man's development in the mother's body lasts 9 months. When a child is born, it is difficult to believe that life was given only two small cells - Mine egg cell and dad spermatozoa.
In the human body about 200 varieties of cells. And their total number is about 100 trillion. This number is written as follows: 100 000 000 000.
Large world of small cells *
We already know that in the body of any plant, animal, man has organs. The cell also has "organs". They are located in the cytoplasm and are called organoid., i.e. "similar to the authorities." Some of them you see in the picture. Mitochondria is responsible for the breath of the cell, lysosomes for digestion. And the network of channels resembles blood vessels - different substances from one part of the cell to another are different.
Almost all cells are very small. You will not see them without a microscope. And the chicken eggs are all more than once: it is a yolk egg. Huge cell! Even more in the egg of ostrich: after all, about 30 chicken eggs could fit in it.
Eggs of fish and frogs - Ikrinka - much less bird. But they are much larger than most other cells.
Eggs are so large because they contain a large supply of nutrients necessary for the development of the embryo.
In many cells, plants have special green organides - chloroplasts (from Greek. "Chloros" is green). They give the plant a green color. Chloroplasts are very important for plants: it is in them the formation of nutrients occurs in light.
Questions and tasks
1. What is the unit of the building of living beings? What is it called and who gave her such name?
2. How long have people learned that the bodies of living beings consist of cells? Explain why it was not known before.
3. Are there any cells that can be seen without a microscope? If so, give examples.
4. Consider the drawing. Name the main parts of the live cell.
5. What features of cells say that they are alive?
6. The human body originates from one cell resulting from the fusion of two genital cells. The adult body consists of about 100 cell trillion. Where does such a variety of cells come from?
7. Consider the picture of the cell of different parts of the plant and the human body. What do you think, why in one body so many varieties of cells? Try to say about what work they perform.
8.* Explain why eggs are much larger than most other cells.
Live creatures have a cellular structure. The main parts of the cell - the outer membrane, cytoplasm and the kernel. Live cells breathe, feed on, grow, divided. They are diverse in shape and sizes. Among them there are sex cells that give rise to a new organism.
6. Chemical composition of the cell
You already know that all living organisms are similar in structure: they consist of cells. But, it turns out to be similar and their chemical composition - the cells of all organisms consist of the same elements. Currently, scientists managed to detect more than 80 chemical elements from 111 known.
Elements encountered in a living cell are widespread and in an inanimate nature - atmosphere, water, earthly crust. There are no such elements that would meet only in living organisms.
Most elements are in a cell in the form of chemical compounds - substances. Distinguish inorganic and organic matter.
The most common inorganic substance in a living organism - waterIts content on average is up to 80% of body weight. Even in the enamel of the teeth there is 10% of water, and in the bones - up to 20%. This is explained by the role that water performs in the cell. First of all, it determines the physical properties of the cell, its volume, elasticity. Numerous chemical reactions pass in the aquatic environment, as water is a good solvent. And the water itself participates in many chemical reactions.
Mollusc shells consist of calcium salts
Hemoglobin is contained in red blood cells - red blood cells
Starch accumulates in potato tubers
Water helps to remove from the body of unnecessary and harmful substances resulting from the exchange, contributes to the movement of oxygen, carbon dioxide and nutrients in the body.
Participated in living organisms and mineral saltsTrue, in minor quantities: they make up to 1% of the mass of the cell. The most common is sodium and potassium salts, they ensure that such an important function of the body as irritableness. Calcium salts give the strength of bone tissue, the sinks of numerous mollusks.
Organic substances are contained only in living organisms. These are proteins, fats, carbohydrates, nucleic acids.
Proteins - These are basic cell substances. If it is from the cell to remove all the water, then 50% of its dry mass make up proteins. These are very complex connections. Gemoglobin protein carries oxygen, it is he who gives blood red. No movement associated with the reduction of muscles is not carried out without contractile proteins. Proteins are involved in the protection of the body from infections, blood turning and in many other processes.
An important role in the body is played and carbohydrates. These are well known to all glucose, sucrose (beet sugar, which we eat every day), fiber, starch. The main function of carbohydrates is energy. "Burning" glucose, the body gets the energy necessary for the processes going in it. Living organisms can stock carbohydrates in the form of starch (plants) and glycogen (animals and mushrooms). In the tubers of potatoes, starch is up to 80% of the dry mass. Animals especially many carbohydrates in liver cells, muscles - up to 5%.
Carbohydrates and other functions, such as support and protective, are performed. The fiber is included in the wood, chitin forms the outer skeleton of insects and crustaceans.
Fat. Perform a number of functions in the body. They give the body up to 30% of the energy you need. Some animal fats accumulate in large quantities and protect the body from heat loss.
Fat and as an internal water reserve are of great importance. As a result of fatty fat flowing in cells from 1 kg of fat, up to 1.1 kg of water is formed. This is very important for animals flowing into the winter hibernation - Suslikov, Surkov: Thanks to its fat reserves, they may not drink up to two months. Camels during the transitions in the desert do without drinking up to two weeks: the necessary organism is water from their humps - containing fat.
Subcutaneous fat protects the body of seal from supercooling
Nucleic acids (from lat. Nucleus - core) are responsible for the storage and transfer of hereditary signs from parents to offspring. They are part of chromosomes - special structures located in the cellular core.
Chromosome transmit hereditary signs from parents to children
The distribution of substances and individual chemical elements in nature is inhomogeneously.
Some organisms actively accumulate elements, such as brown algae - iodine, buttercup - lithium, yawas - radium, mollusks - copper.
The body of the jellyfish consists of 95% water, human brain cells are 85%, blood is 80%. In mammals, water loss exceeding 10% body weight leads to death.
Hair, nails, claws, wool, feathers, hooves are almost entirely made of squirrel. Snake poison is also a protein.
In whales, the thickness of the subcutaneous fat layer reaches 1 m.
Buray Algae Futon
Chart of the prevalence of chemical elements on Earth
Frozen Lava
Minerals crystals
Breed faults
Stalactite education in the cave
Questions and tasks
1. List the elements that make up the basis of living organisms.
2. What substances refer to inorganic; Organic? Using the drawing, make circular diagrams of the content in the cell (in%) of inorganic and organic substances.
3. What is the function of water in a living organism?
4. Describe a value in the organism of mineral salts.
5. What is the role of proteins in the body?
6. Call you known carbohydrates. Which of them are found in vegetable, and which - in animal organisms? Describe the value of these organic substances.
7. Describe the role of fats in the body.
8. What organic substances cells provide storage and transmission of hereditary information? Where are they located in a cage?
9. Consider diagrams. What varies with the chemical composition of the bodies of living and inanimate nature? Are there elements that occur only in living organisms?
10. What facts indicate the unity of the origin of all living organisms?
Study of the chemical composition of seeds.
Contact your electronic application
Explore the material and follow the proposed tasks.
The most common elements in living organisms are oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen. The composition of living organisms includes organic substances (proteins, fats, carbohydrates, nucleic acids) and inorganic substances (water, mineral salts).
7. Substances and phenomena in the surrounding world *
Substances
The world that surrounds man is very diverse. You have learned the structure of the solar system and know that it is the sun, planets, their satellites, asteroids, comets, meteorites. All are called bodies. Studying the structure of the Earth, you also get acquainted with bodies - these are pieces of rocks, minerals. Plants, animals, man - also bodies.
All that surrounds us is the body of living and inanimate nature, products - consists of substances. Iron, glass, salt, water, polyethylene are substances. There are a lot of them. Currently, more than 7 million different substances are known, and each year people synthesize new, previously unknown. Scientists of many countries work on the creation of environmentally friendly automotive fuels, highly efficient mineral fertilizers, drugs from influenza, AIDS and many other diseases.
In nature, substances are in three states: solid, liquid and gaseous. Substances can move from one state to another.
In most cases, substances are found in the form mixtures. Sometimes it is well noticeable even with a naked eye. For example, looking at a piece of granite, it can be seen that it consists of a mixture of substances: quartz, mica and field spat, but in a homogeneous form of milk only under the microscope, you can distinguish with fat and proteins floating in liquid (water).
Composite parts of granite
Substances without impurities call clean. There are no such substances in nature. Their receipt is one of the important tasks of the chemical industry. Clean substances are used in electronics, nuclear industry, in the manufacture of drugs.
Impurities can dramatically change the properties of substances. A small addition of salt or sugar will change the taste of water, the ink drop is its color. This feature was noticed for a long time. Ancient metallurgists received alloys (mixtures of metals) - bronze, brass and other, differing from the starting metal, copper, greater strength, resistance to water and air. During the receipt of steel, a slight addition of the chromium metal makes it stainless, and the additive tungsten gives it the ability to withstand very high temperatures.
In the mixture, each substance retains its properties. Knowing these properties, mixtures can be divided into components.
Separation of the mix
Substances are simple and sophisticated. In order to answer the question than they differ, you need to know the features of the structure of the substance. Not one century, scientists tried to find out how it was arranged.
Models of molecules of simple and complex substances
Currently, it is known that all substances consist of the smallest particles: molecules, atoms or ions. They are so small that it is impossible to see them with a naked eye. Molecules are particles consisting of atoms. One species atoms are called elements. In one molecule, there may be two, three and even hundreds and thousands of atoms. Ions are modified atoms. In the future, you will learn about the structure of these particles in more detail.
Studying the structure of atoms, scientists found that atoms differ from each other, that is, in nature there are different types of atoms: one species - atoms of oxygen, the other is the carbon atoms, etc. 111 types of atoms (elements) are known to modern science. Connecting among themselves in various combinations, they form a variety of substances that exists in nature.
Now we can answer the question. If the substances include atoms of one species, such substances are called simple. These are well-known metals (iron, copper, gold, silver) and non-metals (sulfur, phosphorus, graphite and many others).
Heating the mixture of iron and sulfur. Obtaining a complex substance of iron sulfide. Iron + sulfur \u003d iron sulfide
Liquid water
Water par
Substances consisting of particles formed by atoms of different species are called complex. For example, water, carbon dioxide.
As a result of the reaction, a new complex substance can be obtained, such as iron sulphide. There are no simple substances in it - sulfur and iron. They enter into its composition as atoms of certain species (sulfur atoms and iron atoms).
Manifold of nature phenomena
The world around us is constantly changing: water evaporates, snow melts, the rocks are destroyed, the tree is lit, rust iron, thunder thunder, sparkles lightning. Such changes are called phenomena. What do they have in common and how do they differ? Conduct a small study.
You see that when heated, the body shape (piece of ice) has changed, but the composition of the substance (water) remained the same.
When calculating the copper plate, a new substance was formed - copper oxide.
Executive experiments show that in some cases the formation of new substances is the formation, in others - no. Based on this feature, physical and chemical phenomena distinguish.
When water heated, new substances are not formed
When calculating the copper plate, copper atoms interact with oxygen atoms, and a new substance is formed.
TO physical Treat thermal, mechanical, light, sound, electrical and magnetic phenomena. With them we are constantly meeting in everyday life.
Shakes of iron rails
The phenomena associated with heating and cooling bodies are called thermal.
When heated, the length and volume of bodies increase, and during cooling - decrease. This phenomenon must be taken into account in construction and industrial production. When laying railway and tram tracks at the crossings of rails, small gaps leave, so when heated and lengthening the rail, the path does not destroy. When building bridges, one end of the bridge is usually installed on special rinks. Due to this, with thermal expansion or compression, the bridge is not destroyed.
Installing a bridge on special rinks
Changing the state of water
When the temperature changes, the substance can move from one state to another, which is clearly visible on the example of changes in the state of water.
An example of mechanical phenomena can serve as a change in body shape, such as compression and springs straightening.
The movement of living organisms, celestial bodies, transportation, rolling of stones and snow from the mountains, rise and the descent of the cargo, the rotation of the wheels - all movements of the bodies in space are also mechanical phenomena.
Light phenomena are associated with the features of the light beam. For example, the rectification of its distribution explains the formation of shadows.
Solar eclipse
The ability of light to reflect the phone to which it falls, gives us the opportunity to see them.
Surprisingly beautiful light phenomena in nature, such as rainbow. It is formed as a result of the decomposition of light in the rain drops.
These are just some examples of physical phenomena. The main feature of all these phenomena is the preservation of substances.
Now consider chemical phenomena. In a different way, these phenomena are called chemical transformations or chemical reactions. As a result of such reactions, new substances are formed, which differ from the initial signs.
A person uses chemical reactions to produce mineral fertilizers, medicines, paints, detergents. Scientists create new substances, which in nature does not exist.
Some chemical reactions proceed very slowly, and we do not notice them, they last billions of years. For example, a solid rock rock - limestone under the action of water and carbon dioxide is destroyed and turns into other substances. Water flushes them - so emptiness, caves are formed in the mountains.
Other reactions occur very quickly (burning, explosion). So burns fuel in the car engine, gas burner. With burning there is a lot of heat, light.
Light decomposition through a glass prism and water drop
Signs of chemical reactions
In the rotation of the dead parts of the plants, it also distinguishes heat, but it dissipates in the surrounding space. This warmly we usually do not notice, but should consider it. Incorrectly folded haystack, disturbed storage conditions of straw lead to the development of the rotation process. This may cause even self-burning material.
Questions and tasks
1. What states in nature may be substances?
2. Give examples of solid, liquid and gaseous mixtures. Name the most common gaseous mixture on the planet.
3. What substances are called clean?
4. Why in industrial production is sometimes required to use precisely mixtures, not clean substances?
5. What sophisticated substances differ from simple? Give examples of simple and complex substances.
6. Why are different substances in nature many times more than species of atoms?
7. What physical phenomena differ from chemical?
Laboratory and practical work
Description and comparison of signs of various substances. Observation of signs of chemical reaction. Study of some physical phenomena.
Contact your electronic application
Explore the material and follow the proposed tasks.
All bodies consist of substances. In nature, substances can be in solid, liquid and gaseous states. There are mixtures and pure substances, simple and complex substances.
Attention! This is an introductory fragment of the book.
If you like the beginning of the book, then the full version can be purchased from our partner - the presenter of legal content LLC "Litres".
The cell is
- Answer: Elementary unit of life on Earth.
40. Complete the sentences
- Answer: From the organisms living on Earth, the cellular structure has everything except for viruses, and non-elbow - viruses. The following life properties are characteristic of the cell: height, nutrition, reproduction, breathing, and so on.
41. Learn the laboratory work "viewing plants and animal animals under a microscope."
42. The discovery of the cell is associated with the names of the great scientists who studied the objects of wildlife using a microscope (microscopists). Write about their scientific deposit made in the field of cell study.
1) R. Guk (1635-1703) - first saw a cell under a microscope.
2) A. Levenguk (1632-1723) - invented the microscope, first observed animal cells.
3) M. Shleden (1804-1881) - put forward the theory about the identity of plant cells in terms of their development.
4) t. Svann (1810-1882) - finally formulated the cell theory.
5) R. Virhov (1821 - 1902) - supplemented cell theory by the fact that all living things occurs from the cells.
6) S. G. Navashin (1857-1930) - opened double fertilization in plants.
43. Word the main provisions of modern cell theory.
All living beings consist of cells.
All cells are similar in structure, chemical composition and life cycles.
Cells are capable of independent vital activity, i.e. Can eat, grow, multiply.
44 . What do you think the discovery of a cell theory for the development of modern biology?
- Answer: Cellular theory was supplemented with Virhov. His statement that any painful change is associated with some pathological process in the cells that make up the body, has made a great contribution to medicine.
45. Consider the cells of the organisms presented in the picture. Set which organisms the depicted cells belong. Enter their numbers in the appropriate lines.
Bacteria cells: 2.3.
Mushroom cells: 6.11.
Plant cells: 7,1,5,4.
Animal cells: 10.8.
46. What do you think depends on the form of cells?
- Answer: from the functions performed, from their specialization and origin.
47. Explain what the value of the cytoplasm is.
- Answer: It performs the function of combining all cell organides, is a medium to pass all chemical biological processes in the cell, provides its mechanical properties.
48. Do you think to which consequences can remove or disrupt the integrity of the cell membrane?
- Answer: Disruption of the integrity of the membrane, and even more so deleting it will lead to the emergence of the internal content of the cell and its death.
49. In the picture, sign the basic structural components of the cell membrane.
50. Complete Publishing.
Consider the structure of the cell membrane is possible using an electron microscope.
The base of the cell membrane is a bilipid layer in which proteins are located.
Proteins that make up the membranes provide transmembrane transport, are also receptors and enzymes.
Nutrients enter the cage by passive and active transport.
Nutrients in a cage are subjected to splitting under the action of enzymes.
51. Consider a schematic representation of phagocytosis and pinocytosis processes in the textbook. Recall from the course "Man and his health" what phagocytes are and what their meaning is in the human body. Specify, in which of the figures, the mechanism of the data of the cell data is shown. Bring more examples of cells for which these processes are characterized.
- Answer: In addition to phagocytes, by phagocytosis, some simplest (for example, amoeba ordinary) feed.
52. Do you think whether the reverse transport of substances through the cell membrane is possible? If so, give examples if not, explain why.
- Answer: Reverse transport from the cell through the membrane occurs when the cell highlights unnecessary exchange products, the synthesis and highlighting of hormones, enzymes occur.
53. Fill in the table "The structure and function of cellular structures".
54. Give definitions of concepts.
Answer: prokaryotes - organisms, in the cells of which there is no decorated core and organelles (instead of organo-mesosoma).
Eukaryotes - organisms whose cells have a nucleus with a nuclear membrane and all membrane organoids.
55. In the picture, sign the main structure components of the kernel.
56. Continue filling the table. The structure and functions of cellular structures.
57. Fill the table. The structure and functions of nuclear structures.
-
Structure Features of the structure Functions Nuclear shell Consists of 2 membranes: inner smooth and exterior rough. Has pores Transport substances from kernel in a cage and vice versa Karioplazma Liquid kernel content Filling the kernel space Chromatin DNA threads or chromosome Storage and transfer of the present information, division Nuclei Dense rounded body suspended in nuclear juice Synthesis RNA and proteins
58. It is known that human erythrocytes, which is eukaryotic organism, do not contain kernels. How can this phenomenon be explained?
- Answer: This is explained by the laws of evolution. In the process of developing the animal world, a person stands on the highest level, therefore the blood system has the most developed. The core place in human erythrocytes is filled with hemoglobin. Therefore, they capture more oxygen than, for example, frogs.
59. Complete the sentences.
- Answer: Multiple nuclei may be contained in the cells of fibers of transverse-striped muscles. The internal content of the nucleus is called the karyoplasm or nuclear juice, it is chromatin and nuclei in it. The kernel contains DNA molecules that provide storage and transfer of hereditary cell information. The nuclei cells contained in the nuclei provide synthesis of RNA and proteins.
60. Give definitions of concepts.
Chromosomes
- Answer: Hromatin DNA threads, tightly accessed by a spiral on proteins.
Chromatin
- Answer: DNA threads in the kernel.
Chromemid
- Answer: Half double chromosome.
Karyotype
- Answer: A set of chromosomes contained in cells of a particular type.
Somatic cells
- Answer: Cells that make up organs and tissues of any multi-milk body.
Sex cells (Gamets)
- Answer: Cells characteristic of male and female.
Haploid set chromosomes
- Answer: Set of various cells of this species in size and shape of the chromosomes, but each chromosome is represented in the singular.
Diploid set chromosomes
- Answer: Set of various cells of this species in size and shape of the chromosoma, where each chromosome is two.
Homologous chromosomes
- Answer: Paired chromosomes.
61. The table is given the number of chromosomes contained in the haploid and diploid sets of various organisms. Fill the gaps.
- Answer: Sets of chromosomes and various organisms.
62. Continue filling the table.
-
Structure Features of the structure Functions Endoplasmic Network (EPS) Smooth Not covered with ribosomes Transport Endoplasmic network (EPS) rough Covered with ribosomes Synthesis proteins in ribosomes Ribosomes Sharo-shaped, consist of several parts, formed by RNA and proteins Synthesis proteins Golgi complex Cavities limited from cytoplasm membranes and stacks The accumulation and transport of substances in plants is also the synthesis of fiber.
63. Consider the drawing. Name the organides depicted on it and sign them the main parts.
64.
-
Structure Features of the structure Functions Lysosomes Small membrane bubbles, inside contain enzymes Digestion of nutrients Mitochondria Two-grated organides, inside there are crystons, ribosomes and DNA Synthesis ATF. Plasts: leucoplars All plaststs are two-combed organoids. Colorful Starch accumulation Chloroplasts Green Photosynthesis Chromoplasts Red, Yellow, Orange Coloring fruits and flowers
65. Complete the sentences.
The cell center performs functions: the construction of the separation of division, the formation of microtubule, cilia and flagella.
The basis of the cytoskeleton are microtubule and microfilaments.
In animal and lower plants, the cellular center is formed by centriots consisting of microtubule, and the centrofer.
Higher Plants Cellular Center
Microtubules form such cell movement organides, like cilia and flagella.
66. Continue filling the table "The structure and function of cellular structures".
67. The figure shows the scheme of the structure of the prokaryotic cell (cyanobacterium). Sign her main parts.
68. Figure shows prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Set which group it belongs each one.
69. Fill in the table "Comparison of the structure of eukaryot cells and prokaryotes", putting the signs + or to the corresponding graphs.
-
Organoid Contained in cells zukariot. prokaryot Core + - Cell membrane + + Cytoplasm + + Ribosomes + + Mitochondria + - Endoplasmic reticulum + - Golgi complex + - Platids + -
70. Give definitions of concepts.
Assimilation is the entire set of reactions of biological synthesis of substances in a cell, accompanied by spending energy.
DISSIMITION - a set of reactions of decomposition of substances in a cell, accompanied by emission of energy.
Metabolism is the process of metabolism that combines assimilation and dissimulation.
71. Below are the processes flowing into organisms in the cells:
1. evaporation of water,
2. Glikoliz,
3. Fat cleavage,
4. Biosynthesis proteins,
5. Photosynthesis,
6. Splitting polysaccharides,
7. fermentation
8. Breathing,
9. Biosynthesis of fats.
Enter the rooms with which they are marked, in accordance with their accessories to assimilation and dissimulation.
Assimilation processes: 4, 5, 9.
Dissimillation processes: 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8.
72. Read the textbook material and fill out the "Energy Exchange Stages" table.
-
Stage Characteristic Description of energy conversion results Preparatory stage of energy exchange Enzymes disintegrate into smaller Energy stands out a little and heat is formed, but not ATP Biskin Solid Energy Exchange Stage Not a complete splitting of glycomus is converted into alcohol Splitting enzymes of glycoamis
2arf (10%) - 2AF (60%)
Oxygen Stage of Energy Exchange
73. Complete the sentences.
The main function of mitochondria called "cell power stations" is the synthesis of ATP.
The most effectively ATP synthesis processes go in organisms called aerobians, in contrast to the anaerobes that most among the prokaryotes.
74. What do you think cells of animal tissues and man should contain a large number of mitochondria? Why?
- Answer: The greatest amount of mitochondria is contained in muscle tissue, liver. In these tissues and organs require high energy costs.
75. Finish the scheme "Classification of nutritional organisms".
-
Organisms
76. Finish the proposal.
- Answer: The method of nutrition of the body depends on whether it is able to independently create organic substances from inorganic, or obtained from the external environment. By the method of nutrition, green plants are autotrophis (phototrofam). The main source of energy on our planet is sunlight.
- Answer: it is impossible. Some green plant cells feed heterotrophic: Cambia cells, root. The cells of these parts of the plant are not capable of photosynthesis and feed on organic substances synthesized by green parts of the plant.
78. Fill in the Table "AutoTrophic and Heterotrophic Organisms".
79. Fill in the table "Classification of heterotrophic organisms according to the method of producing organic substances."
- Answer: The process of synthesizing organic compounds from water and carbon dioxide using light energy.
- Answer: 6So2 + 6N2O + Light Energy \u003d C6H12O6 + 6O2
-
Photosynthesis occurs in the cells of green plants, in chloroplasts.
Oxygen released in the process of photosynthesis is formed as a result of water photo polyesis.
- Answer: Hemotrofses - organisms capable of synthesize organic substances from inorganic due to the energy of chemical oxidation reactions occurring in the cell.
- Answer: Chemotrofam are autotrophs. Hemeosynthesis opened in 1887 S. N. Vinogradsky. Chemotrofses differ from phototrophs by the fact that they synthesize organic substances from the inorganic energy of the chemical oxidation reactions occurring in the cell. Phototrofs are synthesized by the necessary substances due to the energy of sunlight.
80. Give the definition of the concept.
Photosynthesis is
81. Record the total photosynthesis equation.
82. Complete the sentences.
83. Fill in the table "Comparative characteristics of photosynthesis phases".
84. Finish the scheme by signing the names of substances.
2) Oxygen
4) hydrogen ions
5) carbon dioxide
6) Glucose
85. Give the definition of the concept.
86. Complete the sentences.
87. Fill the table.
Loading...
