Today the word “people” is nothing more than a simple designation of the concept “person” in plural. However, once upon a time “people” in the singular had the form “liudin”. And not every person was considered a “liudin”.

Rope

Until the 14th century, the word “peasant” in the meaning in which we know it now did not exist in the Russian language. The first mention of the peasant as a farmer appears in chronicles dating back to the 1390s.

The majority of the population of ancient Rus' were “people” (or “lyudins”). Until the 13th century, this was the name given to free citizens, mainly farmers, who were not in the prince’s service, but were obliged to pay him taxes.

People formed communities - vervi. Philologist E.F. Karsky identified the word “rope” with “rope”, that is, a rope is a certain territory designated (limited) by a rope. The fact is that to measure distances at that time they actually used ropes of a certain length. And the community really had its own plot with clear boundaries of the area.

At first, the Vervi people were blood relatives, that is, members of the same family. But gradually the people began to be united not by kinship, but only by close proximity. This is also mentioned in the ancient collection legal norms called "Russian Truth".

This fact was also noted by history professor O.F. Miller. He wrote that the rope was divided into houses, plows, taxes, and so on, which, according to the scientist, does not indicate family relations between community members, but for the role, feasible participation of one or another person in the life of the community.

Mutual responsibility

According to Russkaya Pravda, all members of the rope were bound by collective responsibility. So, if a murdered person was found within the boundaries of the rope, then the community was obliged to suffer a monetary punishment - vira. In other words, the people of this faith paid the victim’s family a certain amount. Or if the traces of the escaped thief led to the community, then the people had to independently find the criminal in their ranks or pay a fine to the prince.

Position in society

Above the people on the social ladder were other free citizens - “princely men.” Their superiority is especially noticeable in the same “Russkaya Pravda”. For example, for the murder of a man the usual penalty was due, but for the murder of a prince’s husband – double.

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UDC 1(075.8) A.V. Lonin

“BEST PEOPLE” IN ANCIENT RUSSIAN LITERARY MONUMENTS

Power is analyzed " the best people"as the basis for managing a collectivist society, which is embodied in the historical traditions of Russian democracy.

Keywords: “the best people”, Ancient Rus', society, state, aristocratic form of government, fiction, chronicles.

A.V. Lonin “THE BEST PEOPLE” IN OLD RUSSIAN LITERARY MONUMENTS

Power of “the best people” as the basis for collective society administration that took its shape in the historical customs of Russian people power is analyzed.

Key words: "the best people", Ancient Russia, society, state, aristocratic form of government, artistic literature, chronicles.

Old Russian society since the time of the unification of disparate East Slavic tribal unions into a single ethnic community formed as a collectivist society. One of the features of the formation and development of collectivist-type societies is the leading role of the social avant-garde in all spheres public life. In Rus' this common feature development of collectivist societies

of the Russian type acted as a practical embodiment of the idea of ​​“the power of the best,” formulated back in ancient Greece by the great philosopher Aristotle.

Rich factual material that makes it possible to identify the specific meaning of the concept “best people” is contained in the extensive historical and literary heritage of Ancient Rus': chronicles, works fiction, oral folk art.

In the most ancient monument of the ancient Russian chronicle that has survived to our time, “The Tale of Bygone Years” (XII century), the advanced part of society is designated by different concepts: “molded people”, “ good men", "deliberate people." The main criterion for belonging to the “best people” is the presence of virtue. Moreover, virtue in Ancient Rus' was understood as a person’s constant desire for perfection, spiritual and moral growth, and the ability to embody God’s plan on earth. People who possessed virtue constituted the social vanguard of ancient Russian society, its most advanced part, and their leading role in all spheres of public life ensured the sustainable progressive development of the state.

Russian educator Joseph Volotsky identified the personal qualities that the best people should have. Addressing edification to his readers, the philosopher writes: “be righteous, wise, a comforter of the sorrowing, a nourisher of the poor, receive strangers, protect the offended, be reverent in communication with God and friendly with people, patient in adversity, do not bother, be generous, merciful, keep your answers short, do not desire glory, do not be hypocritical, but be a child of the Gospel, a son of the resurrection, an heir of life, neither a lover of gold, nor a condemner, grieving over sins.” The personality qualities listed by the Russian philosopher are components of the concept of virtue, the presence of which was considered in Rus' as an integral property inherent in the “best people.”

Mentions of the best (“molded”) people are found in the chronicles already in relation to the earliest events of Russian political history. Thus, describing one of the episodes of Princess Olga’s cruel revenge on the Drevlyans who killed her husband, Prince Igor, Nestor the Chronicler notes that the Drevlyans gathered “the best husbands” and sent them to the princess with an offer to marry their tribal prince Mal.

The episode described in the chronicle is quite remarkable. Firstly, it clearly shows that the traditions of popular rule in Rus' have ancient historical roots and date back to the times when the process of uniting disparate East Slavic tribal unions into single state was just beginning. In addition, in Rus' there was an institution of the best people who played a leading role in the life of ancient Russian society. Moreover, the “power of the best” in this case was not the power of the rich and noble, but the power of the most intelligent, honest and courageous. In this case, one should agree with the statement of V.I. Sergeichev that class differences in the Old Russian state did not yet exist at the initial stage of its development, but were formed much later - already in the era of Muscovite Rus'. Before this, the entire population of Ancient Rus' was socially very uniform, and individual groups of people differed from each other not in social status, but in dignity and the presence of virtue. “Everyone had the right to everything,” writes V.I. Sergeevich, - but one succeeded more than the other, and therefore he stood out as the best person.” Moreover, the chronicler’s words about “ best husbands”, who ruled the Drevlyan land, indicate that the aristocratic form of government, in which the best are in power, was characteristic not only of Kyiv as political center Rus', but also for other tribal unions of the Eastern Slavs, which were part of the Old Russian state.

“Stupid people” are also mentioned in the chronicle episode telling about the relationship between Prince Svyatoslav and the Byzantine emperor. In 971, having undertaken a successful military campaign against Byzantium, Svyatoslav consulted with his squad on the issue of concluding beneficial peace. The prince intended to make peace with the Greeks and collect tribute from them as a winner. “And his squad was pleased with his speech, and they sent molded men to the king, and came to Dorostol, and told the king about it.” As you can see, at the dawn of the formation of the Old Russian state, the power of the prince could not yet be called fully monarchical. The degree of its independence was limited by the framework that had developed in society back in the tribal era. The prince was forced to listen to public opinion, the spokesmen of which were the “sculpted people”, represented mainly in the princely squad. It was they who stood out from the bulk of the population with their dignity, special abilities and talents, they could approve or disapprove of this or that decision of the prince, and were among his closest advisers.

Most often, both in Russian chronicles and in other literary monuments, the concept “ good people" The meaning of the concept of “kind” in Ancient Rus' was not limited to the ability to empathize with one’s neighbor and help those in need. Although these qualities, as is clear from sources, played a primary role in society, and their social significance especially increased with the adoption of Christianity by Russia.

The concept of “kind” had a broader meaning in Rus'. It is identical to the concept of “best”. It is no coincidence that the main characters of Russian epics are “good fellows”, ancient Russian heroes, distinguished by courage, bravery, always ready to defend native land.

The most important quality“good people” are hard work, constant work, both on their own improvement and on the improvement of the state and society. Labor in Rus' was considered as active perfection, as necessary condition harmonious human development. Prince Vladimir Monomakh, giving moral instructions to his children, writes about great importance labor for a person to achieve good goals. “When you do good, do not be lazy about anything good, especially towards the church. Don't let the sun find you in bed. This is what my blessed father and all good and perfect men did.” It is noteworthy that in this passage from the famous “Instructions for Children,” Vladimir Monomakh identifies the concepts of “good men” and “perfect men.” Personal perfection, understood in Rus' as internal harmony in a person, the ability to realize one’s spiritual potential for the benefit of society, was an integral feature of the best part of society.

The concept of “good men” (synonymous with the concepts of “good people”, “deliberate people”, etc.) is often mentioned in the chronicle in relation to the period of the reign of Prince Vladimir the Saint. The beginning of a qualitatively new stage in the historical development of Rus' is associated with this prince - the era of the acceptance and establishment of Orthodoxy. Judging by the sources, it is unlikely that any important state event was carried out by the prince without advice from “good people.” Therefore, the prince made the epoch-making decision to accept Christianity in its Byzantine version, which determined the civilizational, cultural and spiritual vector of development of Rus' for many centuries to come, with the approval of the best part of society. According to the chronicler, before accepting the Byzantine faith in Rus', Vladimir gathered “ten good and sensible men,” sending them to get acquainted with foreign experience in countries professing different religions.

Mention of “good people” is also contained in another chronicle story, also connected with the reign of Prince Vladimir. After the end of the internecine struggle between Vladimir and his brother Yaropolk, the Varangians, who were in the service of the prince, demanded that they be released to Byzantium. And then Vladimir “selected good, smart and brave men from among them and distributed cities to them. The rest went back to the Greeks."

As you can see, the chronicle focuses not on the class status and economic position of the “good people,” but on their moral and ethical characteristics. This gives reason to assume that representatives of different social groups were called “good people” in Rus'. Their virtuous qualities were of decisive importance: hard work, courage, ability to realize and implement the tasks facing the state.

In the ancient Russian tradition, “good people” (“good men”) often meant people who achieved perfection through their deeds and actions and, thereby, approached God. Thus, in “The Walk of Hegumen Daniel” (XII century), prefacing the description of his journey to holy places, the author notes that his work is intended to help “good people” in their good aspirations. “For there are many good people at home in their places, with their thoughts and the alms of the poor, with their good deeds, they reach these holy places, and they will receive a great reward from God our Savior Jesus Christ.”

In another literary monument of the 12th century, “The Prayers of Daniel the Imprisoner,” the idea is again advanced that the benefactor and valor of “good people” depend not on material wealth and social origin, but on personal qualities formed in a person by his social environment and upbringing. “Good people,” according to Daniel, are distinguished by spiritual generosity, which, in turn, contains virtue. “The prince is a generous father and has many servants; many of them leave their father and mother and resort to him. By serving a good master, you will earn a settlement, and by serving an evil master, you will earn more work.”

The concepts of “good husband”, “good master” in ancient Russian literary sources are often mentioned in the context of describing the state activities of a particular ruler who made a great contribution to the development of the country. Thus, the Lithuanian prince, who accomplished many feats for the benefit of the Russian land, is called a “good master” in “The Tale of Dovmont” (XIV century). This prince arrived in Pskov, receiving the name Timofey in baptism. Together with the Novgorod prince Dmitry Alexandrovich (son of Alexander Nevsky), he did a lot to strengthen the defense capability of Rus', and in every possible way resisted the Catholic danger coming from the West that threatened Novgorod and Pskov.

The author suggests that those who bring benefit to Rus' with their deeds have the right to be called “good people”. In this case, the place of birth and origin of a person does not matter. It is no coincidence that the Pskovites elected the Lithuanian Dovmont to reign, and not a prince from the Rurikovich family. According to the chronicle

According to the description reflected in “The Tale of Dovmont,” this prince was an example of a “good” ruler. “This prince was shown not only by his bravery to be from God, but also to be a lover of God, to be friendly in the world, and to decorate churches, and to love the priests and the poor, and to honestly spend all the holidays, and to feed the priests and the monks, and to give alms and orphans and widows."

The phrase “good master” is found in literary monuments of the 14th - early 15th centuries. turning point in the history of Rus'. At this time, the Principality of Moscow, having won political leadership in the Russian lands, was solving one of the main geopolitical tasks of that era - liberation from the Horde yoke. The role of the “best people” in these historical conditions has increased significantly. This explains the frequent mention of them in sources of the 14th-15th centuries. Moreover, references to the “best,” “kind,” “deliberate” people are given by ancient authors in connection with fateful historical events.

An epochal event in Russian history at the end of the 14th century was the Battle of Kulikovo. In “The Tale of the Massacre of Mamayev” - one of the most famous works Old Russian literature, there is a description of Prince Dmitry, later nicknamed Donskoy for his victory over the Tatars on the Kulikovo Field. “And our great sovereign Dmitry Ivanovich is a kind man and an image of humility, heavenly desires and the promise of future eternal blessings from God.” In the above passage, the connection between the concepts of “good” and “great” is clearly visible. Both of them denoted in Rus' the best people of ancient Russian society. In addition, the sacred meaning of the concept of “good people”, the idea of ​​reward in the afterlife for their godly deeds in earthly life.

In the same source, the mention of “good people” is given in the context of a description of the Russian victory over the hordes of Khan Mamai in the Battle of Kulikovo. The Tatars, who fled from the squads of Prince Dmitry, according to the author, shouted in their own language: “Alas for us, Rus' has again managed: unshii<младшие - А. Л.>with us, and keep everything good."

Along with the concepts of “sculpted people”, “good people” to denote the best part of society, the concept of “deliberate people” is found in ancient Russian literary sources. It is this phrase that is found, in particular, in Nestor’s “The Tale of Bygone Years.” So, after the adoption of Christianity, Prince Vladimir, according to the chronicler, “sent to collect children from deliberate people and send them to book education.”

In another episode, also relating to the reign of Prince Vladimir, there is again a mention of “deliberate people” (“deliberate men”). Before the decisive battle between the Russians and the Pecheneg hordes, the enemies suggested that Vladimir arrange a duel between the two strongest and bravest warriors on both sides. The Pechenegs nominated their best warrior, while the Russian prince for a long time could not find a suitable candidate. Finally, one old warrior offered the prince his son, who was distinguished by his remarkable strength and courage. It was he who was destined to enter into a difficult battle with the Pecheneg warrior, who, according to the chronicler, was “great and terrible.” In this battle, Prince Vladimir’s warrior won. The chronicler especially emphasizes that for the courage and dedication shown by the Russian warrior, “Vladimir made him a deliberate husband, and his father.” As can be seen from the above episode, courage and courage, readiness at any time to stand up for the defense of one’s native land, devotion to one’s fatherland - these are the qualities that distinguished from the social environment the “best people” who played a salutary role for the state and society at turning points in the history of Rus' .

It should be noted that in relation to the reign of Vladimir the Saint, references to “deliberate people” are found in sources more often than when describing the activities of other princes. This is largely due to the fact that the role of the “best people” in society objectively increased during the period of grandiose state events, on which further development depended. historical fate countries. It was during the reign of Prince Vladimir that the most significant early history Russian event - the adoption of Christianity as a state religion. In addition, under Vladimir, much was done to repel external danger, strengthening the country’s defense capability, protecting its external borders. The role of the “best” (“deliberate”) people in this case, as can be seen from the sources, was leading.

Another chronicle episode from the era of Prince Vladimir is also noteworthy. Emphasizing the prince's concern for the people, the chronicler describes traditional feasts at the prince's court, in which all segments of the population participated. And for the best part of society, the prince organized feasts every Sunday. The chronicle notes: “Every Sunday he decided<Владимир - А. Л.>to organize a feast in his yard in the gridnice, so that the boyars, and gridians, and sotskys, and tenths, and deliberate men would come there - both with the prince and without the prince.” The mention of “deliberate” people separately from the boyars, gridi and other groups of the population highest in the ancient Russian social hierarchy indicates that the best people were not fully identified with the nobility. It was not the wealth and nobility of the family, but the presence of virtue that distinguished the best people from the main mass.

sy of the population, aroused the respect of the people for them, and determined their leading role in the state.

The chronicle also mentions “deliberate people” in the story about the beginning of the reign of Prince Yaroslav the Wise. Moreover, the figure of the prince appears here in a negative light. While reigning in Novgorod, Yaroslav recruited many Varangians into the service, who subsequently began to oppress the Novgorodians and create arbitrariness and violence in the city. Residents of Novgorod rose up in rebellion and killed the Varangians in the Poromon courtyard. Yaroslav, having learned about this, severely punished the Novgorodians. As is clear from the chronicle, he “called to himself deliberate men who killed the Varangians, and, having deceived them, killed them.” This episode, as presented in the Russian chronicle, runs counter to what has been established in historical literature the opinion that the chroniclers allegedly always praised the deeds of the princes. In this case, the sympathies of the author of the chronicle are clearly on the side of those “deliberate men” who were unjustly exterminated by Yaroslav.

In sources dating back to another era (second half of the 14th century), there is also a mention of “deliberate men.” At this time, Muscovite Rus' was gathering forces for a decisive battle with the Mongol-Tatars. In the already mentioned above “The Tale of Mamai’s Massacre”, narrating about the departure of Prince Dmitry to gather troops to repel Mamai, the author writes: “The great prince went, we took with us the men of the deliberate, Moscow guests of Surozhan ten people for the sake of seeing, if only he will happen, and they will be able to tell in distant lands that guests are masters.” It was in the best people that the princes looked for support at turning points in history; they were consulted on various issues public policy, the adoption of certain important political decisions depended on them.

Along with the already mentioned concepts denoting the advanced part of ancient Russian society, the concept of “reasonable men” is found in some sources. In meaning, it is identical to the concepts of “modeled people”, “good men”, “deliberate people”, etc. “Reasonable men,” apparently, formed the basis of the princely squad, the boyar duma, and were among the most authoritative and close people to the prince. It was the Council of the wise and experienced, and not the individual will of the prince, who played main role in making life-changing government decisions, contributed to overcoming the political fragmentation of Rus', princely strife and civil strife.

Thus, the Tale of Bygone Years describes the internecine struggle that unfolded between princes Vladimir and Svyatopolk. At the same time, the devastating Polovtsian raid on Russian lands began. The Council of the best people appealed to the princes to stop the strife and jointly act against the common enemy - the Polovtsians. "And they told them<князьям - А. Л.>men of understanding: Why do you have quarrels among yourselves? And the filthy ones are destroying the Russian land. Afterwards, settle things, and now go to meet the filthy ones - either with peace or with war.”

The Council of “wise men” is a traditional political institution in Ancient Rus', which acted in different forms: princely squad, boyar duma, city council. The Aristotelian idea of ​​an aristocratic form of government (“the power of the best”) received its institutional form here. Reason and wisdom are personality traits formed as a result of achieving perfection and acquiring social experience. They are organically inherent in the “best people.” “The husband is wise,” says the “Admonition of Father to Son” (beginning of the 15th century), “a friend to the wise and sensible, and a god to the foolish.”

In the general semantic series with the concepts already mentioned above, the phrase “big people” is mentioned in ancient Russian literary monuments. It has also shown significant historical stability, surviving in modern times. spoken language. The phrase “become a big man” is still used in everyday life. This means reaching high social status, significant position in society and great authority among other people. " Big man"- one who has achieved success in life himself, thanks to his abilities, hard work, permanent job on self-improvement.

In the “Tale of the Invasion of Tokhtamysh” (late 14th century) there is a mention of “ big people"is given in the context of a description of the internal situation in Moscow on the eve of the Tatar invasion. “And then in the city the great people pray to God day and night, standing before fasting and prayer.”

“Great people” are also mentioned in another literary work - the life of Sergius of Radonezh. Its author Epiphanius, prefacing his description, expresses surprise at why, until now, many years after the death of the elder, “no distant people have written about him.”<люди - А. Л.>, neither neighbors, nor greater, nor less."

Thus, in Ancient Rus', even at the early stages of its historical development, a specific system of formation and reproduction of the most advanced part of society - the best people - developed. In conditions when the formation of the class system of social organization was still in its initial stages, social differences different groups population were very weakly expressed. Therefore, the “best people” stood out from the bulk of the population not by wealth and high social status, but

their dignity and virtue. The leading role of the “best people” can be traced in all spheres of public life in Rus', especially in the sphere government controlled. The best part society was represented in all political institutions Old Russian society: the princely squad, the veche, the boyar duma. This was the practical embodiment of Aristotle’s idea of ​​the aristocratic form of government as “the power of the best.” A reflection of this social phenomenon in the popular consciousness is the frequent use in the monuments of ancient Russian writing of the concepts “molded people”, “deliberate men”, “good people”, etc. These concepts, identical in meaning, are found in Russian chronicles, epics, and works of fiction. The category of ancient Russian society denoted by these concepts, being its avant-garde, made a great contribution to sustainable progressive development Ancient Rus', ensured the preservation and enhancement of the national traditions of the people, the transfer of progressive social experience to each new generation of people.

Literature

1. Reverend Joseph of Volotsky. Enlightener. - M.: Publishing house of the Spaso-Preobrazhensky Valaam Monastery, 1993. - P. 113.

2. The Tale of Bygone Years / ed. V.P. Adrianova-Peretz. - Ed. 2nd, corrected. and additional - St. Petersburg: Nauka, 1999. - P. 164.

3. Sergeevich V.I. Veche and Prince: Russian government structure and governance during the time of the Rurik princes. - M., 1992. - P. 117.

4. The Tale of Bygone Years, p. 186.

5. The Walk of Abbot Daniel // Monuments of Literature of Ancient Rus'. XII century - M.: Khud. literature, 1980.

6. Prayer of Daniil Zatochnik // Ibid. P. 392.

7. The Legend of Dovmont // Monuments of Ancient Literature Rus' XIV- mid-15th century - M.: Khud. Lit-ra, 1981. - P. 56.

8. The Legend of Mamaev’s Massacre // Ibid. P. 136.

9. Ibid. P. 178.

10. The Tale of Bygone Years, p. 190.

11. Ibid. P. 192

12. Ibid. P. 193.

13. Ibid. P. 199.

14. The Legend of Mamaev’s Massacre // Monuments of literature of Ancient Rus' XIV - mid-XV centuries,

15. The Tale of Bygone Years. P. 230

16. Instruction from father to son // Monuments of literature of Ancient Rus' XIV - mid-XV centuries. - M., 1981. - P. 498.

17. The story of the invasion of Tokhtamysh // Ibid. P. 194.

18. Life of Sergius of Radonezh // Ibid. P. 256.

Everyday life of the Old Russian state in the 9th-12th centuries.

Ancient Rus' as a state arose in last quarter 9th century as a result of the unification of the two main centers of the Eastern Slavs - Novgorod and Kyiv under the rule of the princes of the Rurik dynasty. At this time, the gradual formation of the Old Russian people from several East Slavic tribes took place. The largest role in the development of the new state was played by trade route"from the Varangians to the Greeks." The development of trade and crafts led to the emergence and rapid growth of cities. The most ancient of them: Kyiv, Novgorod, Chernigov, Pereyaslavl, Pskov, Rostov the Great, Ladoga, etc.

Rural population

In addition to trade and crafts, the population of Ancient Rus' was engaged in cattle breeding, hunting, fishing and beekeeping. Despite this, agriculture remained the dominant occupation of the Eastern Slavs. The slash-and-burn farming system was gradually replaced by the three-field system; Wheat, oats, millet, and rye were grown. Among farmers it was dominant big family, all members of which worked the land together. Relationships in the family were patriarchal, the head of the family, the eldest in the family, controlled both the property and the fate of everyone. With the adoption of Christianity, significant changes occurred in family relationships: polygamy was prohibited; if “bride kidnapping” had previously been practiced, then marriage after baptism had to take place in the form church wedding. At the same time, many other pagan rituals were preserved. Church names did not easily penetrate into the people's environment, for a long time were preserved Slavic names- Vladimir, Dobrynya, Molchan, Sedge, Wolf, Wolf's Tail, Svyatoslav, etc.

The main element of clothing was the shirt. Moreover, the cut of peasants and feudal lords was the same, only the quality of the fabric differed. The woman's shirt was floor length. To decorate shirts and outerwear, bright, elegant embroideries were used, which played the role of a talisman against evil forces. They used flax, hemp, wool, or even silver and gold if we were talking about feudal lords. On their heads, women wore a leather hoop, a cap, metal pendants, etc.

In the south, the main dwellings of the Eastern Slavs were half-dugouts with earthen floors, a roof covered with earth. In the north, these were low wooden log houses covered with boards or straw. In the hut, as a rule, there was a stove, completely included in the room and heated in black. The houses were illuminated by torches.

Urban population

In the cities of Ancient Rus' lived princes, warriors, artisans and merchants. It was in the cities that the veche order continued to be maintained for a long time. They were centers of culture: they had schools, chronicles were created, and icon-painting and craft workshops functioned. The largest part of the urban population were artisans, both free and dependent. There were the most different types crafts: blacksmithing, weaponry, jewelry (forging and embossing, embossing and stamping of silver and gold, filigree, granulation), pottery, leatherworking, tailoring. Even small and new cities had blast furnaces for making iron. But the majority of ordinary townspeople continued to engage in agriculture and cattle breeding. At the same time, city residents, as a rule, built tall houses in which the second floor served as living space. At the bottom there was a cellar. Cities were mainly built of wood, but some temples and palaces of the nobility were built of stone.

Tall wooden houses were called mansions. The prince and boyars lived in them. Often, mansions consisted of several buildings connected by passages (entrances). Around the prince's mansion there were outbuildings for servants and storage of grain, meat, honey, wine, etc. The mansions were surrounded by a fence with strong gates. The reception rooms in the Grand Duke's mansion were called "gridnitsa", here the prince feasted with his retinue. The tables were lined with expensive dishes, often decorated with gold and silver. The guests were entertained by guslars and buffoons. But at the same time, both the prince and the simplest peasants strictly observed fasts: on Mondays, Wednesdays, Fridays and even Saturdays.

In Ancient Rus', people lived in tribes, a tribe made up one big family. All property owned by the tribe was common and indivisible. The father of the clan or family headed the tribe and was its ancestor. The younger ones were obliged to honor and respect the elders, as well as follow their instructions. The Slavs had good health, their bodies were muscular, they easily endured heat and cold, and also made do with a minimum of food and clothing. The ancient Slavs were outwardly very similar in height, fair skin and long dark brown hair. The main value of the Slavs was freedom and independence.

“All Russians are similar in their way of life, in their love for freedom; they cannot be persuaded to slavery or submission in their country,” as the ancient Byzantine chronicler wrote about them.

According to him, the Slavs were friendly to all foreign guests arriving in their lands, if they came with friendly intentions. Another advantage of the Slavs was that they did not take revenge on their enemies, but released them to their homeland for a ransom. There were cases when the enemy was even left to live in the society of the Slavs as a free person.

The Russians did not fortify their settlements, but built them in hard-to-reach places - on the high banks of lakes and rivers, as well as in swampy areas. Slavic tribes were engaged in cattle breeding, agriculture, fishing and hunting, and also collected roots, mushrooms and berries for the winter. During excavations of Slavic settlements, archaeologists found grains of wheat, rye, barley, millet, oats, buckwheat, peas, hemp - these were the crops that the Slavs of those times were able to domesticate. Some tribes were engaged in breeding horses, goats, sheep and cows. There were entire artisan settlements that made pottery and iron tools. Trade was well developed in ancient Slavic society; they traded furs, wax, honey, weapons, dishes, as well as various jewelry. The Slavs mastered not only rivers and lakes, but also learned to go to sea.

The Old Russian state arose in the 9th century on the territory of Eastern Europe. Under the rule of the princes of the Rurik dynasty, the Finno-Ugric and East Slavic tribes were united. According to historians, at that time about 7,000,000 people lived on the territory of the ancient Russian state. 1,000,000 lived in cities; there were about 300 such small towns.

The population of ancient Rus' was divided into several groups.

Outstanding Slavic families and tribes became the nobility, its main part being representatives of the Rurik dynasty.

They were helped by squads, and it was from such squads that the boyars were formed. The squads were divided into senior and junior. Prosperous people appeared, such as merchants, land owners, as well as some artisans.

Federal Agency for Health and social development RF

Northern State Medical University

Faculty of Management

TEST

in the discipline History of the Fatherland

on the topic of:

"People and Morals of Ancient Rus'"

student Bobykina Olga Viktorovna

code: EZS – 080802

specialty: 080103.65, course 1

"National economy"

form of study: correspondence

Checked by: teacher Igumnova M.B.

Arkhangelsk

Introduction

1 Appearance of the ancient Slavs

2 Character of the Slavs

3 Marriage and family relations

4 Economic activities

5 Culture

6 Social structure

7 Religious ideas

Conclusion

List of used literature

INTRODUCTION

There are no doubts reliable information about the origin of the Slavic tribes, since it was so long ago that they were not preserved, and perhaps they did not even exist. Only the Greeks and Romans preserved information about our ancient fatherland.

The initial information about the Slavs was mythical and unreliable and refers to the journey of the Argonauts, committed “12 centuries before the birth of Christ.” Karamzin in his history of the Russian state writes: “... the great part of Europe and Asia, now called Russia, in its temperate climates was originally inhabited, but by wild peoples plunged into the depths of ignorance, who did not mark their existence with any of their own historical monuments.”

The first information about the Slavs was conveyed to us by Herodotus, who wrote in 445 BC, calling them Scythians. "Scythians, called different names, led a nomadic life,...most of all they loved freedom; They didn’t know any arts, except one: “to overtake enemies everywhere, and to hide from them everywhere.”

Speaking about the nature of “Russian Scythia,” Herodotus described it this way: “this land... was an immense plain, smooth and treeless; only between Taurida and the Dnieper estuary were forests... winter lasts there for 8 months, and the air at this time, according to the Scythians, is filled with flying feathers, that is, snow; that the Sea of ​​Azov freezes, the inhabitants ride sleighs through its motionless depths, and even horsemen fight on the water, thick with the cold; that thunder roars and lightning shines only in summer.”

Byzantine chronicles mention the Slavs already at the end of the 5th century, describing “the properties, lifestyle and wars, customs and morals of the Slavs, different from the character of the German and Sarmatian tribes: proof that this people was little known to the Greeks, living in the depths of Russia, Poland, Lithuania, Prussia, in countries remote and seemingly impenetrable to their curiosity.”

The Arab traveler Ibn Rusta writes about Slavic lands like this: “...between the countries of the Pechenegs and the Slavs, the distance is 10 days of travel... The path in this direction goes through the steppes and roadless lands through streams and dense forests. The country of the Slavs is flat and wooded, and they live in it.”

Karamzin writes that the Slavs “under this name, worthy of warlike and brave people, for it can be derived from glory, - and the people whose existence we barely knew, have occupied a great part of Europe since the sixth century.”

Thus, not having enough information about where and when the Slavs appeared on the territory of modern Russia, let us consider what they were like and how they lived long before the formation of the state.

1 Appearance of the ancient Slavs

Undoubtedly, the nature of the nature where the Slavs lived influenced their constitution, their way of life, and their character.

Severe weather shaped the nature of people's movements themselves. If a milder climate promotes leisurely, measured movements, then “the inhabitant of the midnight lands loves movement, warming his blood with it; loves activities; gets used to enduring frequent changes in air, and is strengthened by patience.” According to description modern historians, the Slavs were vigorous, strong, tireless. It seems possible to quote here, without any comments, an excerpt from Karamzin’s “History of the Russian State”: “Despising the bad weather characteristic of the northern climate, they endured hunger and every need; they ate the coarsest, raw food; surprised the Greeks with their speed; with extreme ease they climbed steep slopes and descended into crevasses; boldly rushed into dangerous swamps and deep rivers. Thinking without a doubt that main beauty a husband has strength in the body, strength in the hands and ease in movements. The Slavs cared little about their appearance: in dirt, in dust, without any neatness in clothing, they appeared in large gatherings of people. The Greeks, condemning this uncleanness, praise their harmony, high growth and manly pleasantness of face. Sunbathing from the hot rays of the sun, they seemed dark, and all, without exception, were fair-haired, like other indigenous Europeans." In his notes to the publication of the above-mentioned work, Karamzin notes: “Some write that the Slavs washed themselves three times throughout their lives: on their birthday, marriage and death.”

In a word, in the descriptions of contemporaries we see the Slavs as healthy, strong, beautiful people.

As for clothing, we have almost no information on this matter. It is only known that it was quite simple and was designed to provide shelter from the weather, bypassing luxury and pretentiousness: “In the 6th century, the Slavs fought without caftans, some even without shirts, in some ports. The skins of animals, forest and domestic, warmed them in cold times. Women wore long dress, decorated with beads and metals mined in war or exchanged with foreign merchants." Some historians even say that clothes were changed only when they had completely lost their suitability.

2 Character of the Slavs

Herodotus describes the character of the ancient Slavs-Scythians as follows: “relying on their courage and numbers, they were not afraid of any enemy; they drank the blood of killed enemies, using their tanned skin instead of clothing, and skulls instead of vessels, and in the form of a sword they worshiped the god of war, as the head of other imaginary gods.” The ambassadors described their people as quiet and peace-loving. But in the 6th century, the Slavs proved to Greece that courage was their natural property. “For some time the Slavs fled battles in open fields and were afraid of fortresses; but having learned how the ranks of the Roman Legions could be broken by a quick and bold attack, they never abandoned battle anywhere, and soon learned to take fortified places. The Greek chronicles do not mention any main or general commander of the Slavs: they had only private leaders; they fought not in a wall, not in closed ranks, but in scattered crowds, and always on foot, following not the general command, not the single thought of the commander, but the inspiration of their own special, personal courage and courage; not knowing the prudent caution that foresees danger and protects people, but rushing straight into the midst of enemies.”

Byzantine historians write that the Slavs, “beyond their usual courage, had a special art of fighting in gorges, hiding in the grass, surprising enemies with an instant attack and taking them prisoner.”

Also incredibly surprising to contemporaries is the art of the Slavs to stay in rivers for a long time and breathe freely through through canes, exposing their end to the surface of the water, which testifies to their ingenuity and patience. " Ancient weapons Slavic consisted of swords, darts, arrows smeared with poison, and large, very heavy shields.”

The courage of the Slavs was also admired, since those captured “endured every torture with amazing firmness, without a cry or groan; they died in agony and did not answer a word to the enemy’s questions about the number and plan of their army.”

But in Peaceful time The Slavs were famous (not to be taken as a tautology!) for their good nature: “they knew neither guile nor anger; preserved the ancient simplicity of morals, unknown to the Greeks of that time; they treated the prisoners friendly and always set a term for their slavery, giving them freedom, either to ransom themselves and return to their fatherland, or to live with them in freedom and brotherhood.”

Equally rare, apparently, in other nations was Slavic hospitality, which has been preserved in our customs and character to this day. “Every traveler was, as it were, sacred to them: they greeted him with affection, treated him with joy, saw him off with a blessing, and handed him over to each other. The owner was responsible to the people for the safety of the stranger, and whoever failed to save the guest from harm or trouble, the neighbors took revenge on him for this insult as if it were their own. When a Slav left his house, he left the door open and food ready for the wanderer. Merchants and artisans willingly visited the Slavs, among whom there were no thieves or robbers among them, but a poor man, who had no way to treat a foreigner well, was allowed to steal everything he needed from a rich neighbor: the important duty of hospitality justified the crime itself.” In addition, “the Slav considered it permissible to steal to treat a wanderer, because with this treat he elevated the glory of an entire clan, an entire village, which therefore looked condescendingly at the theft: it was a treat at the expense of a whole clan.”

Solovyov explains hospitality for a number of reasons: the opportunity to have fun while listening to travel stories; the opportunity to learn a lot of new things: “there was nothing to be afraid of a lonely person, you could learn a lot from him”; religious fear: “every dwelling, the hearth of every house was the seat of the household deity; a wanderer who entered the house was given under the protection of this deity; to offend a wanderer meant to offend the deity”; and, finally, the glorification of a kind: “the stranger, well received and treated, spread good fame about the man and the hospitable race.”