Higher nervous activity (HND) is a set of forms of activity of the higher parts of the central nervous system, providing adaptation humans and animals to the environment by appropriate behavior .
Behavior- a complex complex of various actions of the organism, caused by changes in external conditions or (in humans) by social motives, aimed at satisfying the biological needs that have arisen in connection with this and contributing to its survival and normal functioning.
❖ The founders of the doctrine of GNI:
■THEM. Sechenov in the book "Reflexes of the Brain" (1863) explained human behavior by the reflex principle of the brain.
■ I.P. Pavlov developed methods for studying reflexes and created the doctrine of unconditioned and conditioned reflexes; he is considered the founder of the theory of higher nervous activity - the physiology of behavior. According to I.P. Pavlov, higher nervous activity is a mental activity that ensures normal complex relations between the whole organism and the outside world.
Higher nervous activity is reflex character and is provided with the work of the higher parts of the brain; in humans and mammals - by work cerebral cortex together with subcortical nuclei forebrain and entities diencephalon .
Remark: the concepts of the first and second signaling systems, reflexes and their types, memory, forms of manifestation of unconditioned reflexes, as well as the conditions and mechanisms for the formation of conditioned reflexes, the main types of inhibition and memory, methods of individual learning apply to both humans and animals and are considered in item "".
❖ Features of the formation and manifestation of conditioned reflexes in humans:
■ specialization (each conditioned reflex is developed to a specific stimulus);
■ generalization (Conditioned stimuli of similar nature cause the same unconditioned reaction).
❖The role of the cerebral cortex of the brain in providing human GNI:
■ the cortex is the analytical center of signals coming from the senses;
■ various sensations are formed in the cortex;
■ arcs of conditioned reflexes are closed in the cortex;
■ the cortex provides a person's mental activity, consciousness, abstract thinking, memory and speech;
■ The cortex is the organ for acquiring and accumulating life experience.
❖ Higher nervous activity of a person significantly differs from the GNI of animals, since based on both the first and second signaling systems « » ... She is the basis of mental activity - consciousness, thinking and etc.
■ The first signaling system typical for animals and humans; its stimuli are specific signals, objects and phenomena of the external world, coming through the senses. In humans, it provides concrete thinking.
■ Second signaling system is characteristic only for a person, is associated with speech and is formed in the course of interpersonal communication on the basis of information received in the form of words, signs, formulas. Provides abstract thinking .
One of the forms of manifestation of higher nervous activity - rational activity humans and animals.
Intellectual activity- this is the highest form of adaptation to environmental conditions and their changes, expressed in the ability catch patterns connecting objects and phenomena of the environment, and on their basis anticipate changes Wednesday and consider them in their behavior. The higher the level of development of the nervous system, the deeper and more effective the rational activity.
Psyche- a set of functions of the brain, reflecting the phenomena of the external and internal world of a person; the ability of a highly developed brain to create image of reality perceived as something separate from the object that creates this image.
The mental activity of the brain is of a reflex nature.
The psyche is in unity with somatic (bodily) processes and is characterized by activity, integrity, development, self-regulation, communication, adaptation, etc.
Feeling, perception, attention, imagination
Into the concept consciousness (which is the highest manifestation of the psyche, see below), cognitive processes are turned on, with the help of which a person constantly replenishes, enriches his knowledge: sensation, perception, attention, imagination, memory, thinking.
Sensation- an elementary, reflexive in nature psychophysiological process, which consists in the reflection of objects and phenomena by the brain when they act on the receptors of the sense organs; this is the first stage in the knowledge of the world.
There are sensations visual, auditory, skin (tactile), gustatory and others. In different areas of the brain, processing and analysis of individual signs of the stimulus occurs. This information is combined, and in the associative areas of the cortex, its complex assessment takes place and responses to the stimulus are formed.
■ In sensations, only individual qualities and properties of the object are reflected, but the image of the object as a whole does not arise.
■ Feelings depend on the individual characteristics of the person Examples: ear for music, the ability to distinguish between subtle shades of color or smell).
■ When an object is perceived by receptors with different functions, sensations can be distorted (example: iced tea seems sweeter than the same hot tea).
Perception- This is a reflection of objects or phenomena in general in the human brain in the form of sensations, images or verbal symbols in those moments when they act on the sense organs. Those. perception is the formation of a mental image of an object from a set of individual sensations, an idea of the object as a whole.
The formation of perception begins with stimulation of the receptors of several sensory systems by the observed group of objects and ends in the higher parts of the central nervous system. There, first, information is processed related to each individual feature of each of the objects, then in other areas of the brain this information is analyzed and combined into complexes related to the same object. Finally, in the associative areas of the cortex, these complexes of information are compared with information stored in memory, integrated, generalized, and evaluated; on the basis of this assessment, a response to stimuli is developed.
Illusion of perception- an assessment of the perceived object distorted by the senses (for example, optical illusions).
In order for an object, phenomenon, event to be perceived, it is necessary that they cause an orientation reaction, attract Attention .
Attention- psychophysiological process, which manifests itself in focus on something ... It is based on the phenomenon dominants- creating a stable focus of excitation. Without attention, sensation is possible, but not perception; the more attention is drawn to an item or event, the more likely that item or event will be perceived. Attention is the basis and prerequisite for learning.
❖ Kinds of attention: involuntary and voluntary.
Involuntary attention attracted by an unexpected, bright, strong stimulus.
Arbitrary attention guided by the willful effort of a person, a deliberately set goal.
Attention can be controlled; it can be trained and improved.
Scattered attention- lack of proper concentration on the object being examined, associated with increased distraction to foreign objects.
Imagination- creation of images of new objects and phenomena by recreating combinations of previously reproduced objects and phenomena stored in human memory. Imagination is inherent only in people and lies at the heart of creativity.
Features of human memory
Memory- the process of accumulation, storage and subsequent reproduction of past experience (information) by a person. Memory is the foundation of thinking. Without it, it is impossible to learn, preserve experience and consolidate newly mastered forms of behavior.
Physiological mechanism of memory(the most plausible hypothesis ): memory is explained by a change in the nature of connections between neurons in the brain. Namely, the long-term action of stimuli on receptors causes the same long-term circulation of electrical impulses in the nervous structures of the brain, which leads to an increase in the number of protein receptors and synaptic contacts in the dendrites of brain neurons, an increase in the synthesis of mediators, etc. This, in turn, leads to the formation, accumulation and strengthening of temporary connections between neurons in the cerebral cortex, forming a "trace" ( engram ) information, i.e. to memorize it. Over time, these temporary connections, if they are not used by memory for a long time, are gradually destroyed.
■ Neurons in the temporal lobes of the cerebral cortex, limbic system, cerebellum and thalamus are involved in memorizing, storing and retrieving information from memory.
An important feature of memory: a person is unable to remember the information that comes to him in all the details, but remembers it only in the main, general (but at the subconscious level, many details that seemed insignificant can also be remembered).
The classification of memory depending on the storage time of information is discussed in the section "Animal Behavior".
❖ Memory classification depending on the type of stored information: procedural and declarative memory.
❖ Procedural memory stores acquired skills (see below), i.e. information on "how to do". An example of procedural memory - motor memory.
■ Motor memory- This is memorization and reproduction of movements; developed in athletes, dancers.
❖ Declarative memory stores information about past events and knowledge gained by a person. Thanks to declarative memory, a person remembers the names of their loved ones, their faces, phones and birthdays, the multiplication table. Separate types of declarative memory are emotional, semantic and figurative memory.
■ Emotional memory preserves feelings experienced by a person; developed in all people.
■ Semantic memory- This is memorization, preservation and reproduction of read, heard and spoken words; developed among actors, singers.
■ Figurative memory- This is the memorization of visual and sound images; developed among musicians, writers and artists.
Skill Is the ability acquired by exercises or created by habit to perform a certain sequence of actions necessary to obtain the desired result (skills of walking, swimming, skating, writing, reading, etc.).
Dream
Dream- a special vital, periodically advancing physiological state of rest of the body, characterized by a shutdown of consciousness, immobility, an almost complete absence of reactions to external stimuli, a decrease in heart rate and metabolic rate, as well as a special organization of the activity of brain neurons.
The duration of sleep in adults is on average 7-8 hours, in newborns 21 hours.
Sleep is one of the phases of the diurnal biorhythm, protective inhibition, in which the brain passes into another state, characterized by the absence of active connections of the organism with the environment, inhibition of conditioned reflexes and a significant weakening of unconditioned ones. At the same time, the stem parts of the brain continue to work, providing vital functions of the body (respiration, blood circulation, etc.).
Sleep phases. Normal sleep consists of 4-6 cycles, regularly replacing each other. Each cycle consists of two phases: slow (slow wave) and fast sleep .
Slow (or orthodox, deep) sleep occurs immediately after falling asleep and lasts 1-1.5 hours. It is characterized by the presence of a high-amplitude slow rhythm of brain activity ( delip-rhythm recorded on the electroencephalogram), more rare breathing, a decrease in heart rate, muscle relaxation, a decrease in the intensity of metabolism and body temperature, the absence of rapid movements of the eyeballs. Dreams are absent or fragmentary and dim. The leading is parasympathetic innervation. Possible conversations in a dream, night fears in children and sleepwalking I (Iunathism). A person can quickly wake up under the action of stimuli that are important to him, but he may not wake up from strong, but habitual and indifferent to him stimuli.
■ The phase of slow sleep is peculiar only to humans.
REM (or paradoxical, superficial) sleep- this is the phase of dreams; it begins after the phase of slow wave sleep and lasts 15-20 minutes, after which the phase of slow wave sleep begins again. By the morning, the duration of REM sleep increases to 30 minutes; the total duration of the periods of REM sleep is 20-25% of the total duration of sleep. REM sleep is characterized by increased heart rate and respiration, increased metabolism, increased body temperature, impulsive contractions of the muscles of the limbs and facial muscles, movement of the eyes under closed eyelids. Dreams during REM sleep are vivid, realistic, emotional, often accompanied by sound and olfactory images. During this sleep phase, neurons in the occipital lobes of the cerebral cortex are fired. The sympathetic innervation is the leading one. 
❖Theories explaining how sleep occurs. The nature of sleep is not fully understood. It is known that various structures of the central nervous system are involved in the regulation of sleep and wakefulness: the brain stem, hypothalamus, basal nuclei of the forebrain, pineal gland, etc. Currently, there are several theories explaining the occurrence of sleep by different reasons. These theories can be divided into two classes:
■ passive theories according to which sleep occurs as a result of a decrease in the level of wakefulness, and
■ active theories , according to which sleep occurs as a result of inhibition of the center of wakefulness of the diencephalon.
Deafferentation theory(belongs to the class of passive) claims that the state of wakefulness is maintained due to the constant inflow of nerve impulses from sensory neurons (afferent impulses) into the cerebral cortex. Sleep occurs when this flow is weakened. When a person is in silence and closes his eyes, it promotes the onset of sleep.
Metabolic theory states that during active wakefulness, metabolic products accumulate in the blood, which have a depressing effect on the cerebral cortex and cause sleep. During sleep, these substances are destroyed, the activity of the cortex is restored, and awakening occurs.
Nerve center theories (or regulatory theories) the alternation of wakefulness and sleep is explained by a change in the activity of various nerve centers that control the work of the cerebral cortex. When these nerve centers inhibit the processes of excitation in the cortex, sleep sets in; the activating influence of these centers on the cortex promotes awakening.
■ According to some versions of the regulatory theory, these centers are located in the hypothalamus (the anterior nuclei of the hypothalamus are the sleep centers, the posterior nuclei are the centers of wakefulness), in the diencephalon, etc.
Reticular theory(one of the regulatory theories; currently it is considered the closest to the truth) claims that the most important regulator of the activity of the cortex is reticular formation (see below) the hindbrain. When its cells that control sleep are electrically stimulated, the experimental animal falls asleep, and when the cells that control wakefulness are electrically stimulated, the sleeping animal is awakened and alert.
Reticular formation- This is a cluster of neurons of different sizes and shapes, separated by many nerve fibers passing in different directions; located in the pons of the hindbrain and continues into the medulla oblongata and midbrain.
❖ Sleep meaning:
■ during sleep, additional processing, redistribution and memorization of information received by the body during wakefulness occurs in the brain;
■ sleep helps the body adapt to the cyclical change of day and night,
■ sleep ensures the restoration of mental and physical performance due to the fact that during sleep the cells and tissues of the body gain a certain degree of independence and can carry out local self-regulation; when a person is deprived of sleep, his attention, memory are disturbed, emotions are dulled, his ability to work decreases; Long-term sleep deprivation can cause mental illness;
■ from an evolutionary point of view, sleep is a favorable adaptation that provides an increase in the level of organization of physiological systems in higher animals and humans.
Dreaming
Dreaming- these are more or less vivid and complex events, pictures, living images, etc. that arise in a sleeping person and are the product of the activity of nerve cells that remain active during sleep.
■ It is believed that dreams are accompanied by the appearance of high-frequency oscillations in the electroencephalogram of a sleeping person.
■ The first systematic study of the role of dreams was undertaken by the Austrian psychiatrist Sigmund Freud (1856-1939).
The main function of dreams- reducing the emotional stress that a person has during the day.
The nature of dreams is determined by past experience, mental activity and the emotional and physical state of a person. It is caused by the spontaneous emergence and change of combinations of realistic or distorted images of actual and desired events and phenomena of the external world extracted from memory, as well as conscious and unconscious internal conflicts, on which other images may be superimposed due to the current state of the body (for example, difficulty breathing in a dream , illness, etc.) and signals from stimuli that enter the brain during sleep.
Sleep hygiene
Prolonged forced sleep deprivation is intolerable to the human body.
Sleep disturbance most often manifests itself in the form insomnia.
❖Insomnia reasons: lack of physical fatigue with physical inactivity; violation of the normal daily rhythm (night work, evening entertainment, etc.); information overload (cinema, television, theater), emotional overexcitation, etc.
❖ Prevention of sleep disorders:
■ it is necessary to go to bed and get up at the same time and day (which contributes to the development of an appropriate conditioned reflex):
■ for some time before going to bed, one should not do strenuous mental work, play noisy outdoor games, etc., which excite the nervous system;
■ Before going to bed, it is helpful to take a walk in the fresh air and take a warm shower;
■ habits that have developed over the course of life contribute to falling asleep quickly (for example, some need a hearty dinner, others, on the contrary, need to go to bed on an empty stomach);
■ the bed should be flat and firm enough, the pillow should be small.
The biological clock
The biological clock Is a set of processes in a living organism that serve for the unconscious measurement of time and provide rhythmic changes in physiological functions. The nature of the biological clock has not yet been established.
Experiments prove the existence of a biological clock, during which the body is isolated from the external environment and is kept for a long time at constant illumination, temperature, humidity, etc. It turns out that under these conditions, the diurnal rhythms in animals and humans are preserved, although they are somewhat confused - their period increases to 25-27 hours. This indicates that in natural conditions, cyclical processes in the environment (change of day and night) "adjust" the internal biological clock.
Biological rhythms
Biological rhythms- regular periodic changes in the speed and intensity of biological processes and the state of the organism caused by them.
Classification of biorhythms depending on their source:
■ exogenous associated with periodic changes in external factors - the change of day and night, seasonal climate changes, lunar phases, etc.;
■ endogenous arising on the basis of the peculiarities of the kinetics of physicochemical processes occurring in the body itself.
❖ Classification of biorhythms depending on the duration of their period:
■ circadian(or circadian, circadian) - rhythms, the period of which is approximately 24 hours; examples, the rhythm of physical activity (a person actively moves during the day, and sleeps at night), the rhythm of body temperature (during the day it is on average 0.5-1 ° higher than at night), etc.;
■ ultradian- rhythms with a period of less than 24 hours; example: the rhythm of the stomach, intestines and digestive glands (with three meals a day, their work is intensified three times during the day), etc.;
■ infrared- rhythms with a period of more than 24 hours: seasonal, etc.
Consciousness and thinking
Consciousness- the most important property and product psyche , the highest function of the human brain, its ability to adequately reflect all aspects of reality and use mental activity for the directed regulation of human behavior, determining his (Human) relationship with the world around him, as well as for variable planning, the subsequent assessment of the results of such behavior, cognitive
■ In a relatively primitive, undeveloped form, consciousness is characteristic of animals.
■ In a person, in the process of his social evolution and based on the need for communication, transfer of experience and accumulated knowledge with the help of sounds, gestures, symbols, signs, consciousness has acquired the most highly developed form.
■ One of the most important functions of consciousness is the implementation of cognitive processes.
Thinking- psychophysiological process, allowing to carry out cognitive functions without direct contact with objects of the environment; typical for humans and (to a small extent) for great apes.
Thinking is based on the process of constant analysis of a huge amount of information coming from the external environment through the senses and from the subconscious functional level of the VIS - memory, etc.
From a physiological point of view, thinking is based on hi complex processes associated with the propagation of nerve impulses along certain neural pathways in the brain! human and with the processing of these impulses in the bodies of neurons: combining impulses, switching them, emitting the most powerful impulse, etc.
Consciousness and thinking of a person reflect reality in an abstract form - speech is associated with thinking in ideas, judgments, concepts (see below).
Bilateral(hemispheric) brain organization means that each of the hemispheres is responsible for its own way of thinking: left
the hemisphere processes information analytically and sequentially and therefore is able to use abstract (abstract) concepts, right
the hemisphere processes information simultaneously and holistically and therefore is able to use only images of objects; plays a big role in the thinking process. 
Human Ways of Thinking: pictorial thinking and verbal-logical thinking.
Visual-figurative thinking- thinking based on the analysis, comparison and generalization of various mental images of objects, phenomena, events. Provided right hemisphere of the brain.
Verbal and logical thinking- the ability to think using abstract concepts. Provided left hemisphere of the brain.
Speech and language
Speech- psychophysiological process, which is realized in a person's ability to exchange information with other people using a complex system of sound ( oral speech) "Mi visual ( written speech) signs. It arose from the details of a person to communicate, transfer and receive knowledge.
Prerequisites for the appearance of sound speech: development and improvement of the larynx, lower jaw, tongue, individual muscles of the head and neck.
❖Speech functions: communicative and semantic (basic), distraction and generalization.
■ Communicative function: speech is a means of communication between people; with its help people exchange information - transfer knowledge, commands, impressions to each other.
■ Semantic function: speech is a means of expressing thoughts, their formation and development
■ Distraction function: speech allows you to gain new knowledge about objects and phenomena without addressing them directly.
■ Generalize function: many words of speech denote not one specific object, but whole groups of objects (cars, birds, animals, etc.), therefore, having an idea of one object in this group, a person can generalize it to all the others.
❖ Speech classification depending on the addressee:
■ external speech- speech addressed to an explicit or implicit interlocutor; with the help of such speech, people can exchange information. This speech is oral - in the form dialogue or monologue - and written;
■ inner speech- mental conversation of a person with himself (formed in children aged about three years on the basis of external monologue speech).
❖ Physiologically the process of reproduction, perception and understanding of the meaning of speech is controlled by nerve centers located mainly in the temporal, frontal and parietal lobes left cerebral cortex brain. A second signaling system is formed on the basis of speech.
■ Broca's zone(named after the scientist who discovered it; located in the frontal lobe of the left hemisphere cortex) provides the formation of the correct movements of the muscles of the larynx, tongue, lips for utterances words; when it is damaged (for example, as a result of a stroke), a person understands the meaning of words, but cannot pronounce them, while maintaining the ability to reproduce melodies without words and shouting.
■ Wernicke zone(located in the temporal lobe of the left cerebral cortex) provides understanding the meanings of the words spoken, as well as recollection necessary words; when this zone is damaged, a person ceases to distinguish between words and loses the ability to meaningful speech.
■ The perception of written language is carried out first by the occipital, then by the parietal and, finally, by the temporal lobe of the left cerebral cortex.
The pronunciation of sounds consists of two processes - phonation and articulation .
■ Phonation- the process of formation of a "clear sound" (for example, "ah-ah-ah") in the larynx: the exhaled air passes through the glottis, forcing the vocal cords to vibrate, and then through the relaxed oral cavity. The tension force of the vocal cords can be changed with the help of special muscles, while the frequency of the reproduced sound changes.
■ Articulation- the process of modifying the "pure sound" by changing the configuration of the oral cavity (examples: stretching the lips, a person turns the sound "ah-ah" into the sound "oh-oh-oh"; closing and opening his lips, raising his tongue to the palate, a person pronounces consonants).
Language Is a complex system of visual signs or sound signals that obeys certain rules of combination, which allows a person to designate objects and phenomena of the surrounding world. There are more than 5,000 languages in the world, each of which has a specific vocabulary and grammatical structure.
Teaching
Teaching Is an adaptive change in individual behavior as a result of the acquisition of life experience.
The main forms of learning: non-associative, associative, cognitive.
■ Non-associative learning- change in behavior as a result of repeated action of the stimulus: imprinting, addiction, imitation ... These learning methods are characteristic of both humans and animals.
■ Associative learning based on the formation of a stable connection (association) between two stimuli; typical for humans and (in some ways) for animals. Associative learning includes the development of conditioned reflexes.
■ Cognitive learning- behavior change as a result mentally predicting future events ... It is typical for humans and (to some extent) for great apes. (Examples: knowing about possible very unpleasant consequences, a person does not perform certain actions, even if they may bring him a short-term insignificant benefit; explaining to a person the erroneousness of his actions may induce him to change his behavior, abandoning the established habit.)
Creation
Creation- This is an activity that generates qualitatively new, never before existed products that have social significance (the discovery of new laws in science, the invention of new technology, the creation of works of art, etc.). Creativity is the hallmark of human thinking.
For the act of creativity, a special preparedness of the organism is required, complete concentration and focus of all attention and thoughts of a person on solving a certain problem for a more or less long period of time. Then, as a rule, the creative dominant of conscious thinking moves to the unconscious level, where it can exist for a long time (hours, days, months, years), constantly and actively selecting from memory and analyzing everything necessary to solve the problem, enriching and gradually maturing taking into account new knowledge, associations, impressions, accumulated experience, etc. The moment of guessing, of discovery is perceived by a person as a bright, suddenly arising state of consciousness that cannot be foreseen; it is involuntary and as it were accidental. An important element of creativity - intuition .
Intuition- one of the types of thinking, a feature of which is the ability of a person to instantly, without resorting to detailed logical reasoning, find a way to solve a particular complex problem.
Intuition is based on a rich life experience that allows the unconscious form of a person's higher nervous activity to almost instantly analyze a huge amount of information, assess the situation and give consciousness the only correct decision.
Emotions
Emotions- subjective reactions (experiences) of a person, to which his attitude to the world around him (to people, their actions, to any phenomena) and to himself is manifested, their subjective assessment is given.
Emotions are divided into positive (joy, delight, pleasure, satisfaction, etc.) and negative (anger, horror, fear, sadness, disgust, etc.).
Positive emotions- emotions in which the brain structures are in such an active state, which prompts to strengthen, prolong or repeat this state.
Negative emotions- emotions in which the brain structures are in an active state, prompting to end - or weaken this state and prevent its recurrence.
Emotions are accompanied by:
■activation of the nervous system and the release of hormones or other biologically active substances (example: with negative emotions, adrenalin - adrenal hormone); physiological changes during emotions mobilize the body, bringing it into a state of readiness for effective activity or protection;
■ characteristic expressive movements - gestures, facial expressions, intonation, change in gait, etc., which do not depend on the nationality and level of culture of a person. These movements serve to signal to other individuals about their state, i.e. are a means of communication between people. They evoke emotional responses in other people, which are used in education, acting, teaching.
The difference between expressive movements and vegetative reactions: expressive movements can be controlled by human consciousness.
■ One of the main tasks of education - teaching a person a certain culture of behavior , suggesting restraint of expressive expression of their emotions.
❖ Physiological nature of emotions: the highest centers of emotions are located in the cerebral cortex (especially in its temporal and frontal lobes) and in the diencephalon (in the hypothalamus). The frontal lobe activates or inhibits emotions; in patients with a damaged frontal lobe, emotional instability occurs. Irritation of the diencephalon structures with electric current leads to external manifestations of emotions.
❖ Types of emotional states: actually emotions, moods, feelings, affects, passions.
■ Emotions proper(joy, fear, jealousy, etc.) - short-term emotional states that arise under the influence of specific conditions.
■ Mood- This is a long (hours, days) change in the general emotional state.
■ Feeling- stable, long-term (weeks, months, years), independent of the state of the body and the visually perceived situation, the emotional attitude of a person to other people, social and natural phenomena of reality (love for a person, duty to a family, a sense of honor, a sense of beauty, etc.); etc.).
■ Affect- an emotional state that rapidly and violently seizes a person and has the character of a short-term outbreak (rage, anger, despair, etc.); most often arises in response to a sharp change in life circumstances important for a person, when a person is not able to find a quick and correct way out.
■ Passion- strong, absolutely dominant an emotional state that directs all thoughts and activities of a person to achieve a set goal.
Individual. Individuality. Personality
Individual- this is a person as a representative of a biological species Homo sapiens , having a general constitution for the species (highly developed brain, upright posture, adaptability of hands to work, etc.), regardless of its specific individual characteristics.
Individuality- this is a specific person, personality in his originality, with his inherent complex of features (appearance, abilities, temperament, character , health, stamina, etc.) that set him apart from all other people. Individuality can manifest itself with varying degrees of severity in one, several or all spheres of mental activity - intellectual, emotional, volitional.
Capabilities- a complex of individual properties and characteristics of a person, ensuring the successful implementation of various types of activities, the acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities. Abilities are not innate, they develop in the process of a person's individual life. The highest levels of development of abilities - talent and genius .
Temperament- human traits that characterize his individual type of activity, the severity of motor manifestations and the level of his emotionality.
Character- a set of stable features of a person's mental life, which are manifested in typical ways of behavior for him - in manners, habits, in relation to ongoing events.
❖ Main character traits:
■ general traits: adherence to principles, consistency, courage, cowardice, honesty, discipline, activity, etc .;
■ traits expressing a person's relationship to other people sociability, isolation, frankness, secrecy, sensitivity, friendliness, politeness, arrogance, etc.;
■ traits expressing a person's attitude to himself self-esteem, modesty, conceit, arrogance, resentment, shyness, selfishness, etc.;
■ features, expressing a person's attitude to work , to their work: initiative, perseverance, hard work, laziness, conscientiousness, fear of difficulties or the desire to overcome them, etc.
Personality- this is a person as a biosocial being, as a subject of social relations and conscious activity, as a member of society, possessing a system of unique features that determine the way of thinking and conscious behavior inherent in this person, his attitude towards other people and their communities. A person is not born a person, they become a person.
The emergence of personality occurs in the process of joint activity of the individual with other individuals.
Personality structure: personality is characterized activity , spiritual and organic needs, individuality, self-awareness, interests, intellect, will, etc.
Personality activity- the desire of a person to go beyond what has been achieved, to expand the scope of his activities, to act beyond the boundaries of the requirements of the situation.
Spiritual needs- striving for knowledge, creativity, perception of beauty.
Organic needs- needs that reflect the physiological needs of the human body (needs for air, food, water, procreation, etc.); are available in both humans and animals.
Personality orientation- this is a system of motives (interests, beliefs, ideals, etc.), in which the needs of a person manifest themselves, which determine his consciousness and behavior.
Motives- certain, internal conscious needs (reasons, reasons, etc.) that guide human activities.
Some historically formed ideas about the main motive of an individual's actions:
■ striving for pleasure (the teaching of hedonism; developed in antiquity);
■ performance of duty (according to I. Kant);
■ sexual desire (according to 3. Freud).
Interests- these are conscious manifestations (in the form of thoughts, aspirations, actions) of the most important, significant, attractive needs.
Direct interest has a direct connection with some kind of need.
Indirect interest assumes that in order to meet the target preferential need, it is necessary to first satisfy one or more intermediate needs (example: to enter a medical university, it is necessary to study well the school course of biology).
Intelligence- a complex concept that characterizes a person's ability to think, cognize; the ability to see what others do not notice; the ability to pose problems and solve them; the ability to process information in a special, individual way, etc.
Will- the ability of a person to consciously and purposefully regulate their activities.
Self-awareness of personality- a mental image of your own I; understanding of oneself, one's meaning, role in life, human society.
❖ Components of personality self-awareness:
■ cognitive- the image of their qualities, abilities, appearance, social significance, etc .;
■ emotional- self-esteem: self-esteem, selfishness, self-deprecation, etc .;
■ evaluative-strong-willed- the desire to increase self-esteem, gain respect, etc.
The formation of a personality occurs as a result of resolving problems and contradictions that arise in the process of interaction with the social environment that surrounds him. The formation of personality is greatly influenced by participation teachers .
❖ Personality development phases: adaptation, individualization, integration.
Adaptation(first phase): assimilation to other members of the community, assimilation of their characteristic methods and nature of communication, value systems, norms of behavior, etc.
Customization(second phase) occurs when an individual seeks to achieve maximum personalization and to establish himself in society as a worthy and respected member by all, mobilizing all his resources. Carried out through self-actualization and creativity (see above).
Self-actualization- a person's striving for the fullest possible manifestation and development of his personal capabilities; is one of the main stimuli for personality development.
Integration(the third phase of personality development) - a positive perception by society of a person's activities and an increase in her (personality) status. Otherwise, disintegration occurs - the alienation of the personality by society, and if the personality does not make attempts to restore itself, personality degradation occurs.
❖ Social factors affecting the biological nature of a person lead to acceleration (mass media retardation .
Retardation- slowing down the aging process.
Higher nervous activity is a set of unconditioned and conditioned reflexes, as well as higher mental functions that provide adequate behavior in changing natural and social conditions. For the first time, the assumption about the reflex nature of the activity of the higher parts of the brain was made by I.M. Sechenov, which made it possible to extend the reflex principle to human mental activity. I.M.Sechenov's ideas received experimental confirmation in the works of I.P. Pavlov, who developed a method for objectively assessing the functions of the higher parts of the brain - the method of conditioned reflexes.
I.P. Pavlov showed that all reflex reactions can be divided into two groups: unconditioned and conditioned.
CLASSIFICATION OF TYPES OF HIGHER NERVOUS ACTIVITY.
Unconditioned reflexes : 1. Congenital, hereditarily transmitted reactions, most of them begin to function immediately after birth. 2. Are specific, ie. characteristic of all representatives of this species. 3. Permanent and persist throughout life. 4. Carried out at the expense of the lower parts of the central nervous system (subcortical nuclei, brain stem, spinal cord). 5. They arise in response to adequate stimuli acting on a specific receptive field.
Conditioned reflexes: 1. Reactions acquired in the course of individual life. 2. Customized. 3. Fickle - they can appear and disappear. 4. Are predominantly a function of the cerebral cortex. 5. Appear on any stimuli acting on different receptive fields.
Unconditioned reflexes can be simple or complex. Complex congenital unconditioned reflex reactions are called instincts. Their characteristic feature is the chain nature of reactions.
According to the teachings of I.P. Pavlov, the individual characteristics of behavior, the dynamics of the course of mental activity depend on individual differences in the activity of the nervous system. The basis of individual differences in nervous activity is the manifestation and correlation of properties, two main nervous processes - excitation and inhibition.
Three properties of the processes of excitation and inhibition have been established:
1) the strength of the processes of excitation and inhibition,
2) the balance of the processes of excitation and inhibition,
3) mobility (changeability) of the processes of excitation and inhibition.
Based on these main features, I.P. Pavlov, as a result of his studies by the method of conditioned reflexes, came to the definition of four main types of the nervous system.
Combinations of these properties of the nervous processes of excitation and inhibition were used as the basis for determining the type of higher nervous activity. Depending on the combination of strength, mobility and balance of the processes of excitation and inhibition, four main types of higher nervous activity are distinguished. The classification of types of higher nervous activity is shown in Figure 1.
Weak type... Representatives of the weak type of the nervous system cannot withstand strong, prolonged and concentrated stimuli, because their processes of inhibition and excitation are weak. Under the action of strong stimuli, the development of conditioned reflexes is delayed. Along with this, there is a high sensitivity (i.e., a low threshold) to the actions of stimuli.
Strong unbalanced type... Distinguished by a strong nervous system, it is characterized by the imbalance of the main nervous processes - the predominance of excitation processes over inhibition processes.
Strong balanced moving type... The processes of inhibition and excitation are strong and balanced, but their speed, their mobility, the rapid alternation of nervous processes lead to a relative instability of the nerve connections.
Strong balanced inert type... Strong and balanced nervous processes are characterized by low mobility. Representatives of this type are outwardly always calm, even, difficult to excite.
The type of higher nervous activity refers to natural higher data, this is an innate property of the nervous system, since the property of nervous processes is encoded in a gene in a typical human apparatus and therefore is inherited - transmitted from parents to descendants. On a given physiological basis, various systems of conditioned connections can be formed, that is, in the process of life, these conditioned connections will be formed differently in different people, influencing the individual character of behavior and activity. This will be the manifestation of the type of higher nervous activity.
The type of higher nervous activity (higher nervous activity) is the physiological foundation for the formation of temperament, which demonstrates the manifestation of the type of higher nervous activity in human activity and behavior.
Rice. 2. Scheme of types of VND according to IV Pavlov.
Types of higher nervous activity and their relationship with temperament.
I.P. Pavlov proposed to distinguish human types of higher nervous activity on the basis of the degree of development of the first and second signaling systems. He highlighted:
1. Art type, which is characterized by concrete thinking, the predominance of the first signal system, that is, sensory perception of reality. This type includes people with well-developed sensory perception, pronounced affects on everything that happens. They are prone to professions of the sensory-emotional circle. This type is often noted among actors, artists, musicians. With a neurotic breakdown, people of the artistic type tend to give reactions of the hysterical circle.
2. Thinking type when a distraction from reality is well expressed, abstract thinking. This type includes individuals with well-developed abstract thinking and abstract concepts. They are inclined to study mathematics, theoretical sciences. With a neurotic breakdown, they are prone to a psychasthenic type of reaction.
3. Medium type when there is no predominance of this or that way of thinking. Pavlov believed that extreme types are rare, and most people belong to the middle type, that is, this classification also does not reflect the entire variety of forms of a person's GNI.
Many scientists note that the significance of I.P. Pavlov's works on the problem of temperaments lies primarily in elucidating the role of the properties of the nervous system as the primary and deepest parameters of the psychological organization of the individual.
Types of temperaments according to Hippocrates:
Melancholic- a person with a weak nervous system, having increased sensitivity even to weak stimuli, and a strong stimulus can already cause a "breakdown", "stopper", confusion, "rabbit stress", therefore, in stressful situations (exam, competition, danger, etc. .) may worsen the results of the melancholic's activity in comparison with a calm habitual situation. Increased sensitivity leads to rapid fatigue and a drop in performance (longer rest is required). An insignificant reason can cause resentment, tears. The mood is very changeable, but usually the melancholic tries to hide, not to show outwardly his feelings, does not talk about his experiences, although he is very inclined to surrender to his feelings, is often sad, depressed, unsure of himself, anxious, he may develop neurotic disorders. However, having a high sensitivity of the nervous system, they often have pronounced artistic and intellectual abilities.
Sanguine- a person with a strong, balanced, mobile nervous system, has a fast reaction rate, his actions are deliberate, he is cheerful, due to which he is characterized by high resistance to the difficulties of life. The mobility of his nervous system determines the variability of feelings, attachments, interests, views, high adaptability to new conditions. He is a sociable person, easily converges with new people and therefore he has a wide circle of acquaintances, although he does not differ in consistency in communication and affection. He is a productive figure, but only when there are many interesting things to do, that is, with constant excitement, otherwise he becomes boring, lethargic, distracted. In a stressful situation, he shows a "lion's reaction", that is, he actively, deliberately protects himself, fights for the normalization of the situation.
Phlegmatic person- a person with a strong, balanced, but inert nervous system, as a result of which he reacts slowly, not talking, emotions are manifested slowly (it is difficult to anger, cheer); possesses high efficiency, resists strong and prolonged stimuli, difficulties well, but is not able to react quickly in unexpected new situations. Firmly remembers everything learned, is unable to abandon the skills and stereotypes developed, does not like to change habits, life routines, work, friends, it is difficult and slow to adapt to new conditions. The mood is stable and even. In case of serious troubles, the phlegmatic person remains outwardly calm.
Choleric- this is a person whose nervous system is determined by the predominance of excitement over inhibition, as a result of which he reacts very quickly, often thoughtlessly, does not have time to slow down, restrain himself, shows impatience, impetuosity, sharpness of movements, irascibility, unbridledness, incontinence. The imbalance of his nervous system predetermines the cyclical nature of the change in his activity and vigor: being carried away by some business, he works passionately with full dedication, but he does not have enough strength for long, and as soon as they are exhausted, he is refined to the point that he is unbearable. An irritated state, bad mood, loss of energy and lethargy appear ("everything falls out of hands"). The alternation of positive cycles of mood elevation and energy with negative cycles of recession, depression causes uneven behavior and well-being, its increased susceptibility to neurotic breakdowns and conflicts with people.
Each of the presented types of temperament in itself is neither good nor bad (if you do not connect temperament and character). Manifesting in the dynamic features of the psyche and human behavior, each type of temperament can have advantages and disadvantages. People of a sanguine temperament have a quick reaction, easily and quickly adapt to changing living conditions, have increased efficiency, especially in the initial period of work, but at the end they reduce their efficiency due to rapid fatigue and a drop in interest. On the contrary, those with a melancholic temperament are distinguished by a slow entry into work, but also by greater endurance. Their performance is usually higher in the middle or towards the end of the job, rather than at the beginning. In general, the productivity and quality of work among sanguine and melancholic people are approximately the same, and the differences mainly concern only the dynamics of work in its different periods.
Choleric temperament has the advantage that it allows you to concentrate significant efforts in a short period of time. But with long-term work, a person with such a temperament does not always have enough endurance. Phlegmatic people, on the other hand, are not able to quickly gather and concentrate efforts, but instead they have a valuable ability to work long and hard to achieve their goal. The type of person's temperament must be taken into account where the work makes special demands on the specified dynamic characteristics of the activity.
Hippocrates' classification of temperaments belongs to humoral theories. Later, this line was proposed by the German philosopher I. Kant, who also considered the natural basis of temperament to be peculiarities of blood.
The features of a person's mental activity, which determine his actions, behavior, habits, interests, knowledge, are formed in the process of a person's individual life, in the process of education. The type of higher nervous activity gives originality to human behavior, leaves a characteristic imprint on the entire appearance of a person, i.e. determines the mobility of his mental processes, their stability, but does not determine in general the behavior, actions of a person, his beliefs, moral foundations, since they form in the process of ontogenesis (individual development) on the basis of consciousness.
PROPERTIES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.
The properties of the nervous processes underlying the types of GNI determine the properties of the nervous system. These are such stable qualities of her that are innate. These properties include:
1. The strength of the nervous system in relation to arousal, i.e. its ability to withstand long-term, intense and often repetitive loads without detecting prohibitive braking.
2. The strength of the nervous system in relation to inhibition, i.e. the ability to withstand long-term and frequently repeated braking influences.
3. Balance of the nervous system in relation to excitation and inhibition, which manifests itself in the same reactivity of the nervous system in response to excitatory and inhibitory influences.
4. Lability (mobility) of the nervous system, assessed by the rate of occurrence and termination of the nervous process of excitation or inhibition.
Weakness of nervous processes is characterized by the inability of nerve cells to withstand prolonged and concentrated excitation and inhibition. Under the action of very strong stimuli, the nerve cells quickly pass into a state of protective inhibition. Thus, in a weak nervous system, nerve cells are characterized by low efficiency, their energy is quickly depleted. But on the other hand, a weak nervous system is very sensitive: even to weak stimuli, it gives an appropriate response.
At present, a 12-dimensional classification of the properties of the human nervous system has developed in differential psychology (V.D. Nebylitsyn). It includes 8 primary properties (strength, mobility, dynamism and lability in relation to excitation and inhibition) and four secondary properties (balance in these basic properties). It is shown that these properties can relate to the entire nervous system (its general properties) and to individual analyzers (partial properties).
Classification of the properties of the nervous system according to V.D. Nebylitsyn:
The strength of the nervous system is understood as endurance, efficiency of nerve cells, resistance either to prolonged action of a stimulus, which gives a concentrated, concentrated in the same nerve centers and accumulating in them excitement, or to a short-term action of superstrong stimuli. The weaker the nervous system, the earlier the nerve centers pass into a state of fatigue and protective inhibition;
The dynamism of the nervous system is the rate of formation of conditioned reflexes or the ability of the nervous system to learn in the broad sense of the word. The main content of dynamism is the ease and speed with which nervous processes are generated in the brain structures during the formation of excitatory and inhibitory conditioned reflexes;
Lability, a property of the nervous system associated with the rate of occurrence, course and termination of the nervous process;
The mobility of the nervous system, the speed of movement, the propagation of nervous processes, their irradiation and concentration, as well as mutual transformation.
1. General, or systemic, properties that cover the entire human brain and characterize the dynamics of its work as a whole.
2. Complex properties, manifested in the peculiarities of the work of individual "blocks" of the brain (hemispheres, frontal lobes, analyzers, anatomically and functionally separated subcortical structures, etc.).
3. The simplest, or elementary, properties correlated with the work of individual neurons.
As B.M. Teplyv, the properties of the nervous system "form the basis on which some forms of behavior are more easily formed, others are more difficult."
For example, in monotonous work, the best results are shown by people with a weak type of nervous system, and when switching to work associated with large and unexpected loads, on the contrary, people with a strong nervous system.
A person's complex of individual-typological properties of his nervous system primarily determines the temperament, on which the individual style of activity further depends.
The study of the activity of the cerebral hemispheres together with the nearest subcortex under normal conditions (by the method of conditioned reflexes) led to the creation of a diagram of types of nervous activity or basic patterns of behavior in higher animals.
The types of the nervous system are divided into general, found in humans and animals, and private, characteristic only of humans.
The type of the nervous system is an individual characteristic of the nervous system according to three main characteristics: 1) the strength of excitation and inhibition; 2) the ratio, or balance, of excitation and inhibition among themselves and 3) the mobility of excitation and inhibition, which is characterized by the rates of their irradiation and concentration, the rate of formation of conditioned reflexes, etc.
IP Pavlov's school established four types of the nervous system in dogs. The first type is strong (strong excitement and strong inhibition), unbalanced, with a predominance of excitement over inhibition, unrestrained. The second type is strong, quite balanced, inert, inactive, slow. The third type is strong, quite balanced, very lively, agile. The fourth type is weak, with weak excitement and inhibition, easily inhibited. Light inhibition of this type is due to both weak and easily radiating internal inhibition, and especially external inhibition under the influence of insignificant extraneous stimuli.
Only a few animals clearly show the features of a certain type of nervous system. For the majority, however, these features are very indistinct, and it is difficult to determine the type of the nervous system in them.
The type of nervous system, other things being equal, depends on: different rate of development of conditioned reflexes, different values of conditioned reflexes and their strength, differences in the rate of irradiation and concentration of excitation and inhibition, different resistance to the action of factors that cause a violation of higher nervous activity, and adaptability to various influences external environment. The type of the nervous system determines not only the behavior of the animal organism, but also the nature of the activity of its internal organs, due to the functional state of the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems.
Dogs, in which inhibition prevails, react weakly to substances that excite the sympathetic centers of the diencephalon, and, conversely, react strongly to substances that excite the parasympathetic centers of the diencephalon. Dogs in which arousal predominates, on the contrary, strongly react to substances that excite the sympathetic centers of the diencephalon, and react poorly to substances that excite the parasympathetic centers of the diencephalon. In balanced animals, the reaction to both substances is the same. The correspondence of the types of the nervous system, established by the method of conditioned reflexes, to the types of the nervous system, determined by the action of substances on the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the diencephalon, suggests that the type of the nervous system depends on the predominance of the tone of one of the divisions of the autonomic nervous system. Consequently, the nature of the animal's behavior largely depends on the functional state of the autonomic nervous system (SI Gal'perin, 1949, 1960).
The scheme for dividing the types of the nervous system into private, human ones is based on the fact that in some people (the first type) the first signaling system prevails over the second signaling system and, conversely, in people of the second type, the second signaling system prevails over the first. In a person with an average type of nervous system, both signaling systems have approximately the same meaning. Normal thinking is possible only with the inseparable participation of both systems. The degree of correlation between the two systems is extremely variable in different people.
When determining the types of a person, it is necessary to take into account that a person displays the world in two forms: 1) perceiving the direct action of stimuli of the external world and 2) perceiving speech that signals these immediate stimuli.
Types of the nervous system and temperaments
IP Pavlov believed that the four types of the nervous system, established in experiments on animals, approximately coincide with the classical scheme of temperaments established in humans by Hippocrates.
The first type approximately corresponds to a choleric person, the second to a phlegmatic person, the third to a sanguine person, and the fourth to a melancholic person. Temperament is characterized mainly by the strength of the nervous and, consequently, mental processes, the relationship between excitation and inhibition and the speed of their course. However, a person's temperament is not equivalent to the type of his nervous system. A person's temperament is undoubtedly associated with the properties of the nervous system that characterize the type. But the forms of human behavior are determined not by individual stimuli, but by phenomena, objects and people that have a certain objective meaning and cause from the side of a person this or that attitude towards himself, conditioned by his upbringing, beliefs, worldview. Therefore, when characterizing a person's temperament, it is necessary to take into account not only the functional characteristics of his nervous system, but above all the conditions of his life in a society of a certain historical era and his practical activities.
It should be borne in mind that only a few people have these four temperaments in a relatively pure form. Most of the features of different temperaments are combined.
Education of the types of the nervous system
The types of the nervous system change after birth. They develop in phylogenesis, but since the animal from the day of birth is exposed to the most varied influences of the environment, then the final character develops as an alloy of innate features of the nervous system (type) and changes in its properties caused by the external environment, which are often fixed throughout life. Thus, the innate properties of the nervous system can manifest themselves only at the moment of birth. The behavior of humans and animals is determined not only by the innate properties of the nervous system, but to a greater extent depends on constant education and training.
The type of the nervous system is changed by education, systematic training. The practice of inhibition can, to a certain extent, change the strong unbalanced type, make it more balanced. The weaker type is more difficult to make significant changes. His normal higher nervous activity is carried out only in favorable working conditions, since he is more likely than others to be able to give "breakdowns".
The type of nervous system affects the training of farm animals. The excitable type of horse is easy and quick to train, but overvoltage in braking should be avoided. Animals of the strong, inert type learn slowly. Weak type horses are almost unusable. They learn with difficulty.
People with a strong and unbalanced type of higher nervous activity
Description
Higher nervous activity regulates the behavior of any person, therefore, the interaction of a person with society and the characteristics of the formation of character in a particular individual largely depend on it. Since any nervous activity consists of two opposite processes of excitation and inhibition, the final result depends on their interaction in the body.
For people with the presented type of GNI, characteristic features are unrestrained behavior, emotionality and expressiveness of their actions. Often people with an unrestrained type are capable of making harsh rash decisions that can play a cruel joke on them. The unrestrained type is characterized by irascibility, conflict, increased aggression towards people around. In the classical scheme for determining temperament, this category belongs to the group of choleric people.
An agile type with a strong and balanced psyche
Description
Such people are characterized by a more balanced influence of the processes of excitation and inhibition in the body. Moreover, both processes are equally pronounced and play an important role in the formation of temperament. In addition, excitation and inhibition in persons with the presented type of higher nervous activity has good mobility, which contributes to rapid adaptation to any conditions of life.
Usually, representatives of this category relate well to others, try to avoid conflict situations, look at life with a smile. These qualities help to make new acquaintances and quickly join the team, which is necessary with the rapid pace of modern life. In the classical definition, the presented category corresponds to the sanguine temperament model.
Strong balanced inert type (calm, sedentary)
Description
Another representative of the strong type is the category of persons with pronounced processes of inhibition and arousal. However, unlike the previous options, this type is characterized by weak plasticity and the ability to change the behavior model in emergency situations.
A distinctive feature of the presented version is the conduct of monotonous activities without switching to other activities. Usually, it is difficult for such categories of persons to readjust to a new type of activity in a changing environment, which has a very negative effect on life in modern society. In the classical sense, the presented temperament corresponds to phlegmatic people. As a result of poor mobility of the processes of excitation and inhibition, a person slowly adapts to new living conditions and switches to another type of activity, but he has constancy and stability. This is an undeniable advantage in relationships and interactions with other people.
Weak type
Description
The exact opposite of the categories presented above is the weak type of higher nervous activity. This category includes those people who have weak processes of excitement and inhibition and their poor mobility. In this regard, they experience difficulties on the path of life, and also poorly establish contact with other representatives of society.
Such people belong to the melancholic in the classical scheme of the division of temperaments. The presented category of persons is characterized by poor adaptation to changing environmental conditions and weak socialization processes. Also, people with this type of higher nervous activity are prone to psycho-emotional stress and nervous breakdowns.
Classification of types of VND according to the ratio of signaling systems
Types
Initially, animals used a single signaling system that warned them about changing environmental conditions using specific images and phenomena found in nature. The formation of a conditioned and unconditioned reflex was ensured by real objects or objects affecting the body.
As a result of a long process of evolution, a second signaling system appeared in man, which allows one to create abstract images and form a certain algorithm of actions from them. Also, the appearance of conscious speech in people is associated with the action of the second signaling system. The second signaling system allows a person to create an image in thoughts, while it is not necessary to see an object or phenomenon in real life, it is enough just to hear about it or think about it.
Depending on the interaction of the signaling systems, various categories of persons are also formed, differing in their thought processes and the characteristics of higher nervous activity.
- Artistic type. As the name of the category implies, this group includes people with a predominance of the second signaling system. It is she who is responsible for the formation of images and thoughts in consciousness. In this case, the formation can occur voluntarily under the influence of fantasy and abstract thoughts and involuntarily in the course of daily activities. Such individuals often achieve success in various areas of creative activity, they easily manage to learn art and express themselves in creativity. Artists, writers, musicians, dancers are representatives of this type.
- Thinking type. The thinking type of people, on the contrary, retains the influence of the first signal system, in them one can feel its predominance over the second signal system. Usually people with this temperament tend to be calm and decisive, they always act confidently in any situation. For them, the most important goal is to achieve the truth, and not to pursue personal interests. A person with a similar mindset feels comfortable in the field of exact sciences, but he has no interest in creative activity. Typically, people in this category occupy positions where cold calculation and the adoption of important, balanced and deliberate decisions are necessary.
- Medium type. Most often, it is impossible to say unequivocally to which specific type a representative of society belongs. Usually it combines several temperaments and types of higher nervous activity at once. In this regard, it was decided to single out the middle type, which combines both the first and the second signaling system. Representatives of this category do an excellent job with the exact sciences and find their application in creativity.
Classification of types. Greek physician Hippocrates, who lived in the IV century. BC, wrote that each person, based on the characteristics of his behavior, can be attributed to one of four main temperaments: melancholic, choleric, sanguine and phlegmatic. These temperaments correspond well to the four main types of higher nervous activity established by Pavlov on the basis of many years of studying the formation and course of conditioned reflexes in animals. The division into types was based on Pavlov's three main properties of nervous processes.
The first property is force processes of excitation and inhibition. It is determined by the primal strength of stimulation, at which conditioned reflexes can be formed. The second property is ratio the strength of the processes of excitement and tprmpzhrnnya in other words, their balance or imbalance. Third property -ps ^ mobility propesspv npch ^ uzhgtr ^ ir and braking, that is, speed, they can replace each other.
Based on the manifestation of these three properties, IP Pavlov identified four main types: weak; strong, unbalanced;
strong balanced agile; strong balanced slow, or calm. This division into types of higher nervous activity is applicable to humans, in particular to children.
Weak type. Children belonging to this type do not tolerate strong or prolonged irritations, which cause their extreme inhibition. Induction inhibition also occurs easily in them. So, reflexes are inhibited under the influence of extraneous stimuli, especially new, unusual ones. Such a child, having first entered a new environment, for example, at the first visit to kindergarten, stands with his head down, does not answer questions, clings to his mother, and with persistent, repeated questions can easily cry. Conditioned reflexes are formed slowly, after a large number of combinations with an unconditioned stimulus. Motor activity is low and unstable. The child gives the impression of being cowardly and weak.
The weak type corresponds to the Hippocratic melancholic temperament.
Strong unbalanced type. This type is also called excitable. It is characterized by the predominance of excitement over inhibition. In children of this type, positive conditioned reflexes are formed easily, and, moreover, not only to weak, but also to strong irritation. Inhibition of reflexes, on the contrary, is difficult. Extraneous, even strong stimuli often not only do not cause inductive inhibition, but intensify reflex reactions. Negative conditioned reflexes are unstable and often fail. Speech is fast, loud, but uneven. Children are very mobile, extremely
regularly excitable. In response to painful irritation, for example, when treating a tooth, they can give a general unrestrained reaction that does not stop for a long time. Even mild painful irritation can give such a reaction, for example, when applying iodine setting to a scratch. Due to excessive excitability and weakness of inhibitory processes, children are poorly subject to discipline, and often (especially in passion) behave defiantly and aggressively. If excessive excitement is prolonged, it can be replaced by depression, that is, a breakdown, general "lethargy,"
This type corresponds to the Hippocratic choleric temperament. ^
There are several variants of the unbalanced type:
1. Often very capable, but highly excitable, temperamental children. They are very emotional. Their speech and movements are fast. Braking processes, although reduced, but to a weak degree.
2. Hot-tempered, explosive children. Normal behavior is disturbed frequently, but for a short time. During the explosion, they behave passionately and aggressively.
3. Children with a pronounced decrease in inhibition processes. They easily become slaves to their instincts. For the sake of their satisfaction, they often stop at nothing. Such children are usually called promiscuous and mischievous. Difficult to educate.
Strong balanced, agile type. Conditioned reflexes, both positive and negative, are formed quickly. Formed conditional connections are stable. Extinction, restoration, and alteration of conditioned reflexes occurs easily and quickly. Frequent and abrupt transition from arousal to inhibition and vice versa does not disrupt cortical activity. Speech is sufficiently fast, loud, emotional and at the same time smooth, with gestures and expressive, but not excessive facial expressions. Children are lively, sociable, with vivid emotions; usually show great interest in the surrounding phenomena. Analytical and synthetic activity of the cerebral cortex can reach a high level. Such children are easy to educate; often show great ability.
This type corresponds to the Hippocratic sanguine temperament.
Strong balanced, slow type of. Positive and negative conditioned reflexes are formed more slowly than in children of the previous type. Speech is slow, calm, without pronounced emotions and gestures. The transition from excitation to inhibition and vice versa is slowed down. The child, as a rule, is distinguished by calmness, perseverance in class, good behavior, discipline; copes easily if a difficult situation arose in front of him. Often, these children are good learners and show great ability. The task received is carried out slowly, but conscientiously.
This type corresponds to the Hippocratic phlegmatic temperament.
Plasticity of types of higher nervous activity. Typological features of higher nervous activity are determined by heredity. However, behavior is determined not only by the innate properties of the nervous system, but also by those of its features that have arisen under the influence of the environment surrounding the body from the day of its birth. Consequently, the innate properties of the nervous system cannot be regarded as unchanged. They can change to one degree or another under the influence of education and training. The susceptibility to changes, or plasticity, of types of nervous activity is, in essence, only one of the manifestations of the general most important property of the nervous system - its plasticity, adaptability to changing environmental conditions.
The plasticity of the types of nervous activity, the possibility of their alteration through exercise, education are, in Pavlov's words, "the most important pedagogical fact." Since environmental influences influence the more strongly and lastingly, the younger the organism, the problems of education and training from an early age are of particular importance.
Not all children are equally amenable to education. The most difficult should be considered children with unbalanced higher nervous activity, especially those who were defined above as explosive and licentious.
If, however, correct educational work is carried out from early childhood, then, as experience shows, it is possible to significantly reduce the bad manifestations of typological characteristics, mitigate them by instilling in the child strong skills that will prevent the uncontrolled influence of instincts, as well as excessive aggressiveness and impetuosity.
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