They often have an emotional connotation. However, despite the close connection, motivations and emotions belong to different states of the body, since their occurrence is determined by different neural formations of the brain.
An emotion is understood as a kind of physiological state. This is one of the most important aspects of the activity of the central nervous system, which characterizes a person's personal relationship to the environment, is one of the forms of reflection of reality. Emotions reflect certain human needs and realize their satisfaction, goal achievement.
Classification of emotions. Emotions are usually divided into negative and positive. Distinguish between sthenic negative emotions, which cause vigorous activity (anger, rage, a state of passion, aggression, etc.), and asthenic, which reduce activity (fear, grief, sadness, depression). Positive emotions include joy, pleasure, enjoyment, a state of comfort, a feeling of love and happiness. Distinguish between lower and higher emotions. Lower emotions are elementary, associated with the organic needs of man and animal (hunger, thirst, sexual instinct, self-preservation, etc.). In humans, even elementary emotions are a product of socio-historical development, in the process of which a culture of emotions is formed. Higher emotions arise only in a person in connection with the satisfaction of social needs (intellectual, moral, aesthetic, etc.). These complex emotions developed on the basis of consciousness, they control and inhibit low emotions.
The emergence of emotions in ontogenesis. In a newborn child, the emotions of fear, anger, pleasure are clearly manifested. Hunger, pain, coldness, a wet bed cause discontent in the infant with characteristic external signs: a grimace of suffering and crying. An unexpectedly strong sound or loss of balance determines a state of fear, and a violent limitation of movement (swaddling) - anger. Typical signs of satisfaction appear in a child during his swaying and with tactile stimulation of those receptor zones, which later become erogenous. There is also evidence that emotions (both positive and negative) appear even in the fetus at the 5-6th month of embryonic development. However, the final emotional sphere is formed gradually, on the basis of a combination of acquired stereotypes with innate mechanisms. Thus, lower emotions, like unconditioned reflexes and instincts, are innate forms of reflection of reality.
The biological significance of emotions. The emergence of emotions should be seen as an important emotional legacy that facilitates the formation of complex neural interactions for the development of complex behaviors. They are important not only for the organization of instinctive behavior, but also for the emergence of conditioned reflexes, the formation of the thinking process. The role of negative emotions in organizing behavior is that they allow you to quickly assess the situation that has arisen (useful or harmful). They mobilize the efforts of a person or animal aimed at satisfying a specific need, compensating supplement knowledge, where they are lacking to achieve the goal (compensating, protective function of emotions).
The adaptive meaning of positive emotions lies in their tonic effect. Success inspires, gives rise to a sense of self-confidence, authorizes further searches. Emotional arousal helps to mobilize life experiences stored in memory for a long time.
External expression of emotions. Emotions are manifested in behavior and various reactions from the motor, autonomic and endocrine systems. These include live facial expressions and gestures, changes in voice and speech, posture and gait / various autonomic reactions (impaired activity of the cardiovascular, respiratory, digestive systems, internal secretion, sweating, tears, dry mouth, etc.). Vegetative changes arising from negative emotions are realized with the participation of predominantly the sympathetic-adrenal system (dilated pupils, increased heart rate, respiration, increased blood pressure, the level of catecholamines, 17-corticosteroids in the blood, etc.). Positive emotions are sometimes accompanied by activation of the parasympathetic department of the autonomic nervous system. However, the relationship between sympathetic and parasympathetic activity in emotion is not limited to direct reciprocity. Excitation of the sympathetic department is always accompanied by arousal of the parasympathetic, but the participation of each of them is different in the emergence of one or another group of emotions. Conscious suppression of emotions with a sharp excitement of the autonomic nervous system, an increase in the content of physiologically active substances in the blood can lead to pathological changes in the body. This is due to the fact that the activation of the nervous-humoral system does not affect the external manifestations of emotions, but is reflected in various organs and systems, causing paradoxical reactions. Such are the consequences of the activation of the nervous apparatus of emotions. What is this apparatus?
The nervous apparatus of emotions. The central nervous apparatus of emotions is represented by a set of brain formations, which are commonly called the visceral brain, or the limbic system. It includes the hippocampus, amygdala, cingulate twist, etc. These brain structures are morphofunctional
are closely related to each other and form an "emotional circle" ("Peipets circle"), in which emotional excitement can circulate for a long time. Perhaps this closed path serves as an important nervous apparatus that is responsible for the formation of emotions. The limbic system is closely associated with the neocortex, especially with its frontal, temporal and parietal lobes, as well as the reticular formation of the brain stem. The temporal region is responsible for transmitting information from the visual, auditory and somatosensory cortex to the amygdala and hippocampus. The frontal region regulates the activity of the limbic cortex. The reticular formation increases the activity of the upward influences on the limbic system. It is through these connections that one can consciously control the appearance and manifestation of emotions.
Especially a lot of information about these structures was provided by experiments with self-teasing animal brains. The rats were
electrodes are implanted in different parts of the brain. Moreover, the animals had the opportunity to independently turn on the irritating current using a special lever. It turned out that with a certain localization of the edges of the electrodes, the rat presses the lever up to 8 thousand times within 1 hour, until complete exhaustion. In other cases, the rat, pressing the lever several times, no longer touches it.
Sites whose irritation elicits reinforcement or avoidance of the stimulus has been termed "pleasure centers" ("rewards") and discontent ("punishment"). There are especially many of them in the hypothalamic region, amygdala. Often these centers are localized in structures associated with sexual and nutritional activity, but there are many areas that are difficult to associate with any need.
Experiments on self-teasing were carried out on other animals, including monkeys. The results of these experiments can be extrapolated to humans. Recently, for the diagnosis and treatment of certain diseases, a technique has been developed for inserting electrodes into the deep structures of the human brain. When a patient is given a neurosurgical operation, they are given the opportunity to irritate his own brain (i.e., to perform self-teasing), then when stimulating certain parts of the brain, people often report that they have pleasant or unpleasant sensations. Pleasant sensations often have a sexual connotation, accompanied by cheerfulness and uplifting, unmotivated joy (euphoria). During the stimulation of negative points (the so-called centers of displeasure), a person experiences feelings of anxiety, anxiety, fear and horror.
According to the literature, the leading role in the formation of emotions is played by the right hemisphere of the brain, where negative affects arise. The left hemisphere is responsible for the positive coloring of emotions.
Theories of emotions. The greatest successes in the theoretical development of the problem of emotions have been achieved within the framework of the theory of functional systems and from the standpoint of the information approach.
Biological theory of emotion(P.K. Anokhin, 1949) has two aspects - evolutionary and neurophysiological. The essence of the evolutionary approach is that the life process is a combination of two states of the organism: the stage of formation of needs and basic drives (motivations) and the stage of their satisfaction. The first stage is accompanied by negative emotions, the second - positive, reinforcing (sanctioning) the behavioral act. According to the position of the theory of functional systems, negative emotions also arise when the acceptor of the result of action of real consequences with the expected ones (their afferent model), and positive emotions - when the results completely coincide.
According to information theory (P.V. Simonov, 1966, etc.)., Emotions are a reflection of the strength of the need and the possibility (probability) of its satisfaction at the moment. If there is no need, then emotions do not arise. they do not exist even when a person has information that is sufficient to organize actions to achieve the goal. In conditions of a lack of information, conditions are created for the formation of negative emotions. If there is an excess of information about the achievement of the goal, then a positive emotion arises. In addition, other factors are also important, including the time required to satisfy needs (in the case of its deficiency, negative emotions often arise), the energy capabilities of a person, etc.
There are four degrees of emotional stress. The first stage - the state of attention, mobilization - is characterized by an increase in the activity of organs and systems, intellectual and physical resources, and an increase in working capacity. The second stage occurs when the mobilization of the body's forces is insufficient. It is accompanied by the appearance of a negative sthenic reaction (anger, rage, etc.). The third stage is characterized by the appearance of asthenic negative emotions (fear, horror, depression). It occurs even with the maximum mobilization of vitality. This is the stage of tension, or emotional stress. With prolonged exposure, it has a very harmful effect on the human body. The fourth stage is manifested by the development of a neurotic state, which indicates a person's illness.
Neurochemistry of emotions. All neurotransmitter systems (norepinephrine, choline, serotonin, dopaminergic), as well as a number of neuropeptides, including endogenous opiates, are involved in the implementation of any emotion. At the same time, the share of each of them in the emotional reaction of a different sign is the same. For example, positive emotions (“rewards”) have been shown to excite catecholamines, and negative ones (“punishment”) to acetylcholine. The role of the cholinergic system is clearly manifested in the aggressive behavior of animals. Serotonin plays the role of an inhibitory mediator for both systems. The weakening of the inhibitory effect of serotonin tends to explain the increased aggressiveness. Suppression of the serotonergic system stimulates sexual behavior, while suppression of the noradrenic and dopaminergic systems has the opposite effect.
The data obtained in an experiment on animals coincide with the results of biochemical studies in humans. Thus, a decrease in the level of serotonin in a person's blood is accompanied by inexplicable anxiety, and a deficiency of norepinephrine is accompanied by depression and melancholy.
The human body is a complex system of connections and reactions. Everything works according to certain schemes, which are striking in their methodical and multi-component nature. At such moments, you begin to take pride in the complex chain of interactions that leads to feelings of joy or grief. I no longer want to deny any emotions, because they all come for a reason, everything has its own reasons. Let's take a closer look at the physiological foundations of feelings and emotions and begin to better understand the process of our own existence.
Concepts of feelings and emotions
Emotions cover a person under the influence of a situation or any external stimuli. They come quickly and leave just as quickly. They reflect our subjective evaluative thinking in relation to the situation. Moreover, emotions are not always conscious; a person experiences an effect from them, but does not always understand their effect and character.
For example, someone said a lot of nasty things to you. Your logical reaction to this is anger. About how it is perceived and what is caused, we will learn a little later. Now let's focus directly on emotion. You feel anger, you want to respond somehow, to defend yourself with something. As soon as the irritant disappears, the anger will end quickly.
Feelings are another matter. They are generated, as a rule, by a complex of emotions. They develop gradually, expanding their influence. Feelings in this case, in contrast to emotions, are well recognized and perceived. They are not a product of a situation, but demonstrate an attitude towards an object or phenomenon as a whole. To the outside world they are expressed directly through emotions.
For example, love is a feeling. It is expressed through emotions such as joy, emotional attraction, etc. Or, for example, the feeling of hostility is characterized by hatred, disgust and anger. All these emotions, being expressions of feelings, are directed to the outside world, to the object of feelings.
An important point! If a person has this or that feeling, this does not mean at all that the object of this feeling will not be subjected to external emotions. You might, for example, feel annoyed or angry with a loved one. This does not mean that the feeling of love has been replaced by hostility. It is simply a reaction to some external stimulus that does not necessarily come from the object to which love is directed.
Types of feelings and emotions
Initially, feelings and emotions are divided into positive and negative. This quality is determined by the subjective assessment of a person.
Further, according to their essence and principle of influence, they are divided into sthenic and asthenic. Stenic emotions induce a person to take action, enhance practical mobilization. These are, for example, various kinds of motivation, inspiration and joy. Asthenic, on the contrary, "paralyze" a person, weaken the nervous system and relax the body. This is, for example, panic or frustration.
By the way, some feelings, such as, for example, fear, can be both sthenic and asthenic. That is, fear can both force a person to mobilize, act, and paralyze and demobilize.
Understanding the Basics of Emotions from a Physiological Perspective
In short: the physiological foundations of emotions completely determine the process of sensory perception. In more detail, we will consider each aspect separately and put together a complete picture.
Emotions have a reflex essence, that is, they always imply the presence of an irritant. A whole mechanism accompanies emotion from perception to manifestation. These mechanisms are called in psychology the physiological bases of emotions and feelings. They involve various systems of the body, each of which is responsible for a specific result. In fact, all this forms a whole debugged system for receiving and processing information. Everything is almost like in computers.
Subcortical mechanisms
The lowest level of the physiological foundations of emotions and feelings are subcortical mechanisms. They are responsible for the physiological processes and instincts themselves. As soon as a certain excitement enters the subcortex, the corresponding reaction immediately begins. To be specific: various kinds of reflexes, muscle contractions, a certain emotional state are provoked.
Autonomic nervous system
The autonomic nervous system, on the basis of certain emotions, sends signals-pathogens to the organs of internal secretion. For example, the adrenal glands release adrenaline in stressful and dangerous situations. The release of adrenaline is always accompanied by such phenomena as blood flow to the lungs, heart and extremities, acceleration of blood clotting, changes in cardiac activity, and increased release of sugar into the blood.
First and second signaling systems
In order to move on to cortical mechanisms, an approximate understanding of the first and second signaling systems and dynamic stereotype is required. Let's start with systems.
The first signaling system is characterized by perceptions and sensations. It is developed not only in humans, but also in all animals. These are, for example, visual images, taste reminders and tactile sensations. For example, the appearance of a friend, the taste of orange and the touch of hot coals. All this is perceived through the first signaling system.
The second signaling system is speech. Only a person has it, and therefore is only perceived by a person. In fact, this is any reaction to the spoken words. At the same time, it is inextricably linked with the first signaling system and does not function by itself.
For example, we hear the word "pepper". By itself, it carries nothing, but in conjunction with the second signaling system, meaning is formed. We imagine the taste, characteristics and appearance of the pepper. All this information, as already mentioned, is perceived through the first signaling system and is remembered.
Or another example: we hear about a friend. We perceive speech and his appearance appears before our eyes, we remember his voice, gait, etc. This is the interaction of two signaling systems. After that, on the basis of this information, we will experience certain feelings or emotions.
Dynamic stereotype
Dynamic stereotypes are behavioral sets. Conditioned and unconditioned reflexes form a certain complex. They are formed by the constant repetition of any action. Such stereotypes are quite stable and determine the behavior of an individual in a given situation. In other words, it's kind of a habit.
If a person performs certain actions at the same time over a long period, for example, does gymnastics in the morning for two years, then a stereotype is formed in him. The nervous system makes it easier for the brain to memorize these actions. Thus, there is less consumption of brain resources, and it is freed up for other activities.
Cortical mechanisms
Cortical mechanisms control the autonomic nervous system and subcortical mechanisms. They are defining in the concept of emotions and their physiological basis. These mechanisms are considered to be the main ones in relation to the last two. They form the concept of the physiological foundations of emotions and feelings. It is through the cerebral cortex that the basis of human higher nervous activity passes.
Cortical mechanisms perceive information from signaling systems, transforming them into Emotions, in the context of cortical mechanisms, are the result of the transition and functioning of dynamic stereotypes. Therefore, it is precisely in the principle of the work of dynamic stereotypes that the basis of various emotional experiences lies.
General patterns and principle of work
The system described above functions according to special laws and has its own principle of operation. Let's consider in more detail.
First, external or internal stimuli are perceived by the first and second signaling systems. That is, any speech or sensation is perceived. This information is transmitted to the cerebral cortex. After all, we remember that it is the cortical part that connects with the signaling systems, perceiving pathogens from them.
Further, the signal from the cortical mechanisms is transmitted to the subcortex and the autonomic nervous system. Subcortical mechanisms form instinctive behavior in response to a stimulus. That is, complicated unconditioned reflexes begin to work. For example, you want to run away when you're scared.
The vegetative system causes corresponding changes in the processes in the body. For example, the outflow of blood from internal organs, the release of adrenaline into the blood, etc. As a result, changes appear in the physiology of the body, leading to various reactions: muscle tension, heightened perception, etc. All this serves to help instinctive behavior. In case of fear, for example, it mobilizes the body for a march.
These changes are then again transmitted to the cerebral cortex. There they come into contact with the existing reactions and act as the basis for the manifestation of one or another emotional state.
Patterns of feelings and emotions
For feelings and emotions, there are some patterns that determine the way they function. Let's consider a few of them.
We all know that if you do something all the time, it quickly gets boring. This is one of the main ones. When a stimulus constantly and for a long time affects a person, the feeling is dulled. For example, after a week of work, a person experiences a blissful feeling of rest, he likes everything, and he is happy. But if such a rest continues for the second week, then the feelings begin to dull. And the longer the stimulus continues its effect, the less vividly the feeling is felt.
Feelings caused by one stimulus are automatically transferred to the entire class of similar objects. Now all things that are homogeneous with the stimulus that caused the emotion are attributed to the experienced feeling. For example, a man was cruelly deceived by one dishonest woman and now has hostile feelings towards her. And then bam! Now for him all women are dishonest, and he feels a hostile attitude towards everyone. That is, the feeling was transferred to all objects homogeneous with the stimulus.
One of the most famous patterns is sensual contrast. Everyone knows that the most enjoyable rest is after hard work. This, in fact, is the whole principle. Opposite feelings, which alternately arise under the influence of different stimuli, are felt much more sharply.
Physiological foundations of memory
The physiological basis of memory is the nervous processes that have left traces of the reaction in the cerebral cortex. This primarily means that any processes caused by external or internal stimuli do not go unnoticed. They leave their mark, forming a template for future reactions.
Physiological foundations and psychological theories of emotions make it clear that the processes in the cerebral cortex during memory are identical to the processes during perception. That is, the brain does not see the difference between a direct action and a memory or idea of it. When we recall a learned equation, the brain perceives it as another memorization. That is why they say: "Repetition is the mother of learning."
This kind of thing, of course, won't work with exercise. For example, if you imagine lifting a barbell every day, muscle mass will not grow. After all, the identity between perception and memory occurs precisely in the cerebral cortex, and not in muscle tissues. So this physiological basis of memory only works for the contents of the cranium.
And now about how, after all, the reactions of the nervous system affect memory. As already mentioned, all reactions to stimuli are memorized. This leads to the fact that when faced with the same stimulus, the corresponding dynamic stereotype will be activated. If you touch a hot kettle once, the brain will remember this and will not want to do it a second time.
Physiological bases of attention
The nerve centers of the cerebral cortex always function with different intensities. Observations show that the most optimal method for a specific activity is always chosen. It develops, of course, from experience, memory and stereotypes.
Physiology understands attention as a high intensity of work of one or another part of the cerebral cortex. Thus, since, on the basis of experience, the optimal level of functioning of a certain nerve center is selected, then attention, as the intensity of a section of the cortex, increases. Thus, the most optimal conditions are created for a person, from the point of view of subjective perception.
Physiological foundations of motivation
Earlier we already mentioned about sthenic and motivation is precisely the sthenic feeling. It encourages action, mobilizes the body.
Scientifically, the physiological foundations of motivation and emotion are derived from needs. This desire is processed by subcortical mechanisms, put on a par with complicated instincts and enters the cerebral cortex. There it is processed as an instinctive desire, and the brain, using the influence of the autonomic system, begins to look for ways to satisfy the need. It is due to this functioning of the body that resources are mobilized, and things are much easier.
The problem of emotions and emotional stress is significant not only from the point of view of science, it has an extremely strong impact on human health today.
1. About the influence of emotions on the human body
The impact of emotions on human health can be different. I think that a wide range of people know that negative emotions can contribute to various diseases, and the range of these diseases is expanding. And if we are talking about psychosomatic diseases, then they include autoimmune, oncological and other diseases. That is, not only purely nervous diseases.
At the same time, the power of positive emotions is known. Actually, psychotherapeutic and even homeopathic methods of therapy can be based on this.
2. About the emergence of emotions
Back in the 1950s, Paul McLain, an American neurophysiologist, discovered that emotions arise in special structures of the brain, which he called limbic structures. These are subcortical formations - amygdala, brain septum and others. It is in them that emotional excitement arises, which then spreads to the most diverse parts of the central nervous system - both to the cortex and to the spinal cord, and, in general, encompasses, after the central nervous system, the peripheral nervous system, that is, a variety of organs. In practice, we can say that every cell in the body responds to our emotions. This made it possible to derive one of the aspects of the holographic theory of life, which was proposed by Academician Konstantin Viktorovich Sudakov: each component of a system (organism) reflects the general properties of this system. Thus, in the work of each cell, one can find a reflection of general emotional processes. Therefore, it is no coincidence that in response to the emotional state, the work of all organs changes: the heart, the liver, the kidneys, and the skin and adipose tissue.
3. About controlling emotions
The primary response occurs in the neurons of the limbic system. Paul McLain, formulating this theory, spoke about the so-called "triple brain", which includes a hierarchical subordination of the levels of the nervous system. He spoke about the brain of ancient reptiles, ancient mammals and modern mammals, about the subordination of these structures and that mammals (and especially humans) are able to control the work of these ancient limbic parts of the nervous system with the help of the cortical regions of the brain and thus control these emotions.
The hypothalamus plays an important role in the arousal of these primary emotional areas of the brain. This is the center of endocrine regulation, the center of autonomic regulation of the body, the center of motivations (hunger, thirst), it is a very powerful and very small part of the brain (about 150 nuclei at a distance of about 1 cm from each other). It is very important for generating emotional and motivational states. Emotions and motivations are interconnected. Further access to the peripheral level is carried out with the help of hormonal regulation (the hypothalamus is the pacemaker of humoral regulation), since a number of key hormones are released in it, which, like a tuning fork, set the tone for almost all other endocrine glands. There, in the hypothalamus, is the center of vegetative, that is, unconscious nervous regulation of body processes. Therefore, emotions spread and affect all bodily functions.
4. About the origin of emotions
Emotional states are ambiguous for different individuals. What determines which emotion arises - positive or negative? After all, it is clear, I think, to everyone that this does not depend on the situation that has arisen. The same situation in different subjects, or even in one subject, which is in different states, can cause completely different emotions. So what determines the nature of emotions?
Here I would like to recall our outstanding physiologist, academician Pyotr Kuzmich Anokhin, who is the author of the theory of functional systems. This is our physiological basis, and this is the key to understanding the many problems that a person may have when considering various issues related to the vital activity of the body. According to the ideas of Peter Kuzmich Anokhin and his scientific school, emotions arise when processing the parameters of the results of an action in the so-called acceptor of the results of an action.
After the obtained result of activity, the results obtained are compared with the expected ones, that is, with those that the body expects to receive as a result of its activity. And if the results obtained do not coincide with the expected, an emotion of a negative sign arises, which is unpleasant, but it mobilizes the body to find the optimal solution to achieve the result that was programmed initially before the start of activity, the result that is ultimately necessary for survival.
It is also important to remember the principle of dominant, proposed by Aleksei Alekseevich Ukhtomsky: at every moment of time, some motivation, which is the main one for the survival of the organism, is dominant. Thus, the body ultimately, through unpleasant emotions, achieves those or other results that are important for survival, which adapt this organism to the conditions of life.
The stronger emotions arise, the sooner, to some extent, the organism will reach the result that has been set and which is important for the survival of an individual, a species and, perhaps, the entire population. If the result is achieved through some trial and error, through negative results, then the reward is positive emotions, pleasure, which confirms the importance and the fact of satisfying a need, achieving one or another result that is relevant at a given moment in time. In short, this is the concept of Pyotr Kuzmich Anokhin.
5. About negative emotional stagnation
From here we can already make a start in order to move on to understanding complex processes in a situation where long-term persistent negative emotional excitations arise in the brain. The substrate for the summation of negative emotions can be “circles” in the limbic system, capable of providing long-term circulation of emotional arousal of a negative sign in structures such as the septum, amygdala, hypothalamus, hippocampus, large circle of the hippocampus (Papets circle) and others.
Thus, with such a chronic condition, it is impossible to stop these emotional stagnant processes at once, no matter how much we want. This leads to the fact that the body can get into a situation where it takes a long time to get out of a negative emotional state. Sometimes it is even necessary to completely change the afferentation, to leave for a long time to the sea, to the mountains, to the countryside, as the nobles did in Russia. It is interesting to note that, unlike negative ones, positive emotions are not cumulative. They are pleasant, but they pass and do not overlap. The dangers of long-term negative emotions are, especially, to add up.
6. Perspectives in Emotion Research
Scientists are actively working to understand the various complex mechanisms of emotional states. This gives rise to many pressing problems, such as a genetic predisposition to emotional states. It is known that in the population there are always individuals who are more or less emotional. We see this not only in humans, but also in dogs, rats and other species.
Emotions, any pronounced, usually include widely diffused organic changes, covering the entire body - the work of the heart and blood vessels, respiratory organs, digestion, endocrine glands, skeletal muscles, etc.
Changes in cardiac activity and the state of blood vessels in any acute emotional state are available for observation and with the naked eye. With a strong fright, a person turns pale - the color disappears from his face; when embarrassed, people often blush, “flare up” with shame: shame floods their face. In the first case, compression occurs, in the second - expansion of the surface blood vessels of the face. With strong emotional arousal, an increase in blood pressure is generally observed; in various emotional states, various changes occur in the strength and speed of cardiac activity.
To register these changes in cardiac activity and the circulatory system, the appropriate equipment is used: the pulse curve is recorded using a sphygmograph, the heartbeat curve - using a cardiograph; determination of the blood filling of the vessels of individual organs, or the volumetric pulse, is carried out by means of a plethysmograph.
The figure shows the pulse curve according to A. Binet and Courtier: a sharp drop in the curve and a decrease in the height of the pulsation were caused in a very fearful subject by an exclamation: "Snake!"
More or less significant changes occur during emotional processes and in the respiratory system: breathing accelerates or slows down, becomes more superficial or becomes deeper, sometimes turning into a sigh: sometimes - for example, with unexpected fright - it is interrupted, during laughter or sobbing it becomes spasmodic ...
Respiration curves are recorded using a pneimograph. Samples of breathing curves for various emotions are given in the figure below. The drawing depicts (according to J. Dumas) breathing curves in a state of: a) joy (17 breaths per minute); b) passive sadness (9 breaths per minute); c) active sadness (20 breaths per minute); d) fear associated with great excitement (64 breaths per minute - in a patient suffering from mental disorder); f) anger (40 breaths per minute for a maniac).
Respiration curves for different emotions(by J. Dumas)
With strong emotional arousal, changes are also observed in the process of digestion. With alarming unpleasant emotional states, a person often has a heaviness in the stomach. Unpleasant emotions inhibit the activity of the intestines, its peristalsis.
In experiments on animals, this was shown by the experiments of Bergman and Katz, as well as Kennon. Cannon used X-rays to observe the cessation of intestinal motility in a cat when it was tied to a wall. Bergman and Katz, with the help of a celluloid "window" inserted into the abdominal cavity of a rabbit, observed how, in the event of irritations unpleasant for the animal (pinching, etc.), the very intense peristaltic movements of the intestines immediately ceased before that.
In addition, during emotional states, changes occur in the separation of digestive juices. Pavlov's experiments on dogs with a cut esophagus, in which the chewed food did not enter the stomach, showed that chewing pleasant food caused an abundant secretion of gastric juice, unpleasant food did not cause it. With negative emotions (fear, rage, etc.), there is a decrease in the separation of not only gastric juice, but also saliva (dry mouth with fear, with strong arousal). Emotional states also affect the decrease in the separation of bile and the secretory activity of the pancreas. Changes in the glands in general are usually widely involved in the course of emotional processes; this applies both to glands with external secretion (increased activity of sweat glands in certain states of emotional arousal, lacrimal glands - crying with grief, the above-mentioned changes in the activity of the salivary glands), and to the endocrine system, to glands with internal secretion. Of particular importance in emotions is the adrenaline secretion of adrenaline.
Emotions, any pronounced, usually include widely diffused organic changes, covering the entire body - the work of the heart and blood vessels, respiratory organs, digestion, endocrine glands, skeletal muscles, etc.
Changes in cardiac activity and the state of blood vessels in any acute emotional state are available for observation and with the naked eye. With a strong fright, a person turns pale - the color disappears from his face; when embarrassed, people often blush, “flare up” with shame: shame floods their face. In the first case, compression occurs, in the second - expansion of the surface blood vessels of the face. With strong emotional arousal, an increase in blood pressure is generally observed; in various emotional states, various changes occur in the strength and speed of cardiac activity.
To register these changes in cardiac activity and the circulatory system, the appropriate equipment is used: the pulse curve is recorded using a sphygmograph, the heartbeat curve - using a cardiograph; determination of the blood filling of the vessels of individual organs, or the volumetric pulse, is carried out by means of a plethysmograph.
The figure shows the pulse curve according to A. Binet and Courtier: a sharp drop in the curve and a decrease in the height of the pulsation were caused in a very fearful subject by an exclamation: "Snake!"
Pulse curve (according to A. Binet and Courtier)
More or less significant changes occur during emotional processes and in the respiratory system: breathing accelerates or slows down, becomes more superficial or becomes deeper, sometimes turning into a sigh: sometimes - for example, with unexpected fright - it is interrupted, during laughter or sobbing it becomes spasmodic ...
Respiration curves are recorded using a pneimograph. Samples of breathing curves for various emotions are given in the figure below. The drawing depicts (according to J. Dumas) breathing curves in a state of: a) joy (17 breaths per minute); b) passive sadness (9 breaths per minute); c) active sadness (20 breaths per minute); d) fear associated with great excitement (64 breaths per minute - in a patient suffering from mental disorder); f) anger (40 breaths per minute for a maniac).
Respiration curves for various emotions (by J. Dumas)
With strong emotional arousal, changes are also observed in the process of digestion. With alarming unpleasant emotional states, a person often has a heaviness in the stomach. Unpleasant emotions inhibit the activity of the intestines, its peristalsis.
In experiments on animals, this was shown by the experiments of Bergman and Katz, as well as Kennon. Cannon used X-rays to observe the cessation of intestinal motility in a cat when it was tied to a wall. Bergman and Katz, with the help of a celluloid "window" inserted into the abdominal cavity of a rabbit, observed how, in the event of irritations unpleasant for the animal (pinching, etc.), the very intense peristaltic movements of the intestines immediately ceased before that.
In addition, during emotional states, changes occur in the separation of digestive juices. Pavlov's experiments on dogs with a cut esophagus, in which the chewed food did not enter the stomach, showed that chewing pleasant food caused an abundant secretion of gastric juice, unpleasant food did not cause it. With negative emotions (fear, rage, etc.), there is a decrease in the separation of not only gastric juice, but also saliva (dry mouth with fear, with strong arousal). Emotional states also affect the decrease in the separation of bile and the secretory activity of the pancreas. Changes in the glands in general are usually widely involved in the course of emotional processes; this applies both to glands with external secretion (increased activity of sweat glands in certain states of emotional arousal, lacrimal glands - crying with grief, the above-mentioned changes in the activity of the salivary glands), and to the endocrine system, to glands with internal secretion. Of particular importance in emotions is the adrenaline secretion of adrenaline.
Cannon's experiments on animals have shown that during emotional reactions such as rage and fear, adrenaline is excreted by the adrenal glands. This causes an increased flow of sugar into the blood, which, under the influence of adrenaline, is released from liver glycogen. Cannon carried out his experiments on cats. Constraining their freedom of movement, he caused violent reactions of rage in them: the hairs on their backs stood on end, their pupils dilated, they snapped, trying to free themselves. These emotional reactions were always combined with an increased release of sugar, testifying to the increased release of adrenaline by the adrenal glands, which causes it. The same result was obtained in Cannon's experiments when a cat was attacked by a dog and displayed a fear reaction. Subsequent experimental studies found that in people with strong emotional arousal - during critical tests, with strong stress during sports - there is an increased amount of sugar in the blood, which is a result and an indicator of increased adrenaline intake. The relationship between emotional states and an increase in the amount of sugar in the blood (and urine) is also evidenced by clinical data: the effect of emotional turmoil on the state of diabetics (sugar disease).
The increased release of sugar into the blood, mobilized by the liver under the influence of adrenaline, is not the only consequence of the increased release of adrenaline in emotional states. Interacting and cooperating with the sympathetic nervous system, adrenaline, the action of which is similar to the action of the sympathetic nervous system, enhancing its action, causes a variety of organic changes - vasoconstriction, increased blood pressure, restoring the working capacity of a tired muscle, etc.
In addition to changes caused by secretory activity in emotional states, other chemical phenomena also occur - a change in the amount of oxygen in the blood and the acidity of the blood (and saliva).
Along with the above, reflex changes in tone, in the distribution and degree of tension of various organs play a significant and, perhaps, still often underestimated role in emotional processes. Covering the tone of the skeletal muscles, they generate, in particular, expressive movements - since they affect the muscles of the eyes, mouth, in general, the face, are reflected in the general posture of the body and spread to the vocal apparatus. Being accessible to direct observation from other people, these external organic changes acquire great social significance (for more details on expressive movements, see below).
Among the diverse reflex changes, apparently associated with emotional processes, one can also note the so-called galvanic or psychogalvanic reflex, which has recently attracted considerable attention.
The psychogalvanic reflex consists in a short-term, more or less sharp, reflex change in the electrical conductivity of the skin. The change in electrical conductivity is directly related to the aforementioned change in the activity of the sweat glands, which is observed during emotions, as well as to a change in the width of the lumen of the skin vessels. These changes, in turn, are caused by the activity of the autonomic nervous system.
A galvanic or psychogalvanic reflex is expressed in a change in the current strength in a galvanic circuit in which a person is connected. When a direct electric current passes through the body, the skin becomes polarized. A change in the degree of polarization - its decrease or increase - leads, while maintaining a constant external electromotive force, respectively, to an increase or decrease in the apparent resistance of the skin and is expressed in a decrease or increase in the current passing through the skin, noted on the galvanometer.
It turned out that when emotionally colored stimuli are exposed to a person included in a galvanic circuit, the current strength changes.
The study of the phenomenon, later called the galvanic reflex, began with the work of Feret and the Russian physiologist Tarkhanov (1899). The works of Veragut (Veraguth, 1904-1906) drew particular attention to him. It was this last researcher who introduced the term psychogalvanic reflex, noting the dependence of this phenomenon on the psyche.
Waller's experiments provide clear evidence that the galvanic reflex depends not only on the physical properties of stimuli and the physical state of the body, but also on the mental (psychophysical) state of the subject. During the German airplane raid on London, he studied the galvanic reflexes that accompanied the first, second and third siren beeps in the subjects. Each subsequent beep gave a stronger and stronger galvanic reflex. As a physical stimulus - a sound of a certain strength - the subsequent beeps could only have a weakening effect as a result of repetition. The amplification observed in reality could only be caused by the realization that each subsequent blast signaled an increasingly imminent danger, since the first siren signal was usually given as soon as it was possible to spot enemy aircraft somewhere; a second beep signaled their approach to the area, and a third warned of imminent danger. Thus, the galvanic reflex appears not only in the form of an "unconditioned reflex"; being a direct reaction of the autonomic nervous system, it reflects the diverse effects of various cortical and corresponding mental processes. A very large literature is devoted to the galvanic reflex [For a review of it up to 1929 see C. Landis and H. N. De Wick, The electrical phenomena of the skin (Psycho-galvanic Reflex), Psychological Bulletin, vol. XXVI, 1929.] (including a number of Soviet works [See in particular V. N. Myasishchev, On the so-called psychogalvanic reflex and its significance in the study of personality, "New in reflexology and physiology of the nervous system", collection 3, M.-L. 1929, as well as his, The psychological significance of the electrocutaneous characteristics of a person, collection of articles "Psychological research", vol. IX, State Institute for the Study of the Brain named after V. M. Bekhterev, L. 1939.]). Nevertheless, the question of the psychological significance of the psychogalvanic reflex requires further research. In particular, it is debatable to what extent it is specific and only for emotions; but there is no doubt that the galvanic reflex is a reaction of the autonomic nervous system and that emotional states are reflected in it.
Thus, emotional processes include a variety of peripheral changes that encompass all organic functions and are reflected in all internal, visceral processes on which the life of the organism depends.
Some physiologists (primarily W. Cannon), studying the physiological mechanisms of some emotions, mainly in case of rage, anger and fear, as well as pain (related to interoceptive sensitivity itself), very much emphasized, as noted above, the positive adaptive role of emotions ; emotions bring the body into a state of readiness for an emergency waste of energy, mobilizing all its forces. “Each of the above-noted visceral changes,” writes Cannon, “the cessation of the activity of the digestive organs (freeing up energy reserves for other parts of the body); blood flow from the stomach to organs directly involved in muscular activity; increasing force of contraction of the heart; deeper breathing; expansion of the bronchi; quick recovery of the tired muscle performance; mobilization of blood sugar - all these changes directly serve to adapt the body to the intense expenditure of energy that may be required in case of fear, rage or pain. "
Along with the above, other facts could be noted that testify to the adaptive meaning of emotions: for example, the process of blood coagulation during wounds - a very important protective device of the body - is noticeably accelerated under the influence of emotions. And nevertheless, it is inappropriate, on the basis of these and similar facts, to assert that emotion, in its essence, always and under all conditions must exert an adaptive effect. This metaphysical approach clearly contradicts the facts that indicate that in some cases, emotions can also have a disorganizing effect.
In reality, the conclusion from the above facts must, apparently, be drawn differently. Visceral changes, which impart an affective, emotional character to various processes, are obviously adapted, first of all, specifically to those associated with the struggle for existence and self-preservation, vital situations of attack and flight, requiring actions associated with an intense expenditure of muscle energy. Increased secretion of sugar - one of the main sources of muscle energy - into the blood, increased work of the heart, the flow of blood sugar-rich to the muscles, etc. - all this is primarily adapted to precisely these situations, with which genetically, they were probably primarily mostly related to emotions. For a limited range of primary emotions associated with the struggle for existence, self-preservation and, perhaps, procreation, these organic changes had a specific adaptive meaning.
But in the future, in the course of human development, emotions in their concrete content all changed; all new acts, which acquired vital importance for a person, at the same time acquired an emotional character, and the "mechanisms" of emotionality, organic visceral changes that give various processes an emotional character, remain basically the same. They thus lose their specific character; ceasing to be specific to changing new conditions, becoming stereotyped for a wide variety of emotions, they lose their adaptive character.
Thus, agitated tension, which is very useful for a physical attack, can have the opposite effect where it is necessary to carry out some delicate work that does not in any way require the use of physical force, but involves complex calculation and calmness. Such work, naturally, can be disorganized by strong emotional arousal. This question, like any other, obviously cannot be solved abstractly, metaphysically, in the same way for all conditions; it must be taken specifically, taking into account the course of development and the conditions in which the emotional process takes place.
Various peripheral changes in the activity of internal organs, observed during emotions, are regulated by the activity of the sympathetic nervous system. The sympathetic nervous system, that is, the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system, which generally regulates primarily the vital activity of the internal organs, is widely ramified throughout the body (see Fig. Diagram of the autonomic nervous system and its sympathetic division). At the same time, while the cerebrospinal nervous system is directly in charge of relations with the outside world, serving for the reception of stimuli, their processing and response to the voluntary muscular apparatus, the autonomic nervous system and its sympathetic division adapt(L.A. Orbeli) the activity of the internal organs for this outwardly directed activity.
Scheme of the general plan of the structure of the autonomic nervous system
The sympathetic nervous system regulates the flow of stimuli going to various apparatuses, making them more or less sensitive to the stimuli that come to them. This applies to the nervous system, and to the sense organs, and to the striated muscles. Without causing any external motor effects directly in the muscle, the sympathetic nervous system adapts, adapts it to the needs of the moment, making it more or less sensitive to motor impulses that are directed to it, establishing (in the expression of E. Sepp) "gateways" in relation to him to one or another height. Unlike the parasympathetic nervous system, the individual parts of which function independently of each other, the sympathetic nervous system (as noted especially by W. Cannon) acts as a whole. Its excitement gives a diffuse effect, which manifests itself in a variety of ways on various functions and aspects of the body's life. Excitation of the sympathetic nervous system accelerates the activity of the heart, dilates its vessels, narrows the vessels of the skin and viscera, as well as the lumen of the bronchi, slows down the activity of the digestive tract, mobilizes sugar in the liver, forming a substance similar to adrenaline when the sympathetic nerves are irritated. Thus, the activity of the sympathetic nervous system covers precisely those aspects of the vital activity of the internal organs that are characteristic of emotions. It can be considered established that emotional reactions are associated with the activity of the sympathetic nervous system Thus, emotions are also associated with the central apparatuses of the sympathetic nervous system in the subcortex - with the hypothalamus and with the thalamus, which, according to Orbeli, are its central apparatuses. The especially great importance of the thalamus in the physiology of emotions has been firmly established by the studies of V.M.Bekhterev and the latest works of G. Head, Byrd (Bard) and others.
The vegetative centers of the brain
Serious damage to the thalamus entails damage to the emotional sphere. G. Head cites observations about patients with unilateral damage to the thalamus: they showed painful one-sided sensitivity to affective stimuli. One of his patients could not stand the singing when it came to him from the right side, treating the same sounds quite calmly if their source was to his left. The fact that the side of the body, corresponding to the affected side of the visual hillock, reacts much more strongly to the affective nature of both external stimuli and internal states, indicates a significant role of the thalamus in the physiology of emotions.
The optic hillock, which, according to L.A. Orbeli, is the highest center of the sympathetic nervous system, itself (according to his own laboratory) is under the regulatory influence of sympathetic fibers. Sympathetic innervation also affects the cerebral cortex (Astratyan). In general, as shown by the work of Orbeli and his collaborators, the sympathetic nervous system, being regulated by the central nervous system, itself, in turn, exerts a regulatory effect on it.
Peripheral reactions caused by excitation of the sympathetic nervous system and subcortical centers are very stereotyped. With such different emotions as fear and rage, according to Cannon's data, the same visceral changes (adrenaline release, etc.) take place. Already due to this circumstance, peripheral visceral reactions associated with the activity of the sympathetic nervous system, with all their significance, cannot explain emotions in their distinctive features. From the stereotypical nature of the visceral reactions of the sympathetic nervous system, on the one hand, and the variety of emotions, on the other, it clearly follows that the physiological mechanism of emotional processes is not limited to the activity of the sympathetic nervous system alone. This conclusion is supported by numerous and conclusive experimental facts.
The experiments of Kennon, Lewis and Brayton, who operatively removed from cats the entire sympathetic part of the autonomic nervous system, which produces visceral reactions typical of fear and rage, showed that the absence of sensations emanating from visceral reactions does not entail the loss of emotional reactions. Operated cats, which were deprived of these sensations, showed all external signs of emotion under appropriate conditions (for example, at the sight of a dog).
If these studies of Cannon indicate that the elimination of visceral changes of a peripheral nature does not entail the loss of emotional reactions, then the experiments of other researchers, in particular Maranon, have shown that the presence of visceral manifestations of emotions does not cause truly emotional states. Maranon injected people with adrenaline. He thus caused a series of visceral changes, which are accompanied by anger, fear and other strong emotions. But in this case, the subjects had only sensations of palpitations, tremors, etc. Sometimes the corresponding organic sensations resembled previously experienced emotions. The subjects, due to these memories, compared their state with emotional arousal, saying that they had such a state “as if they were frightened,” but they did not experience the corresponding feelings for certain. Thus, the peripheral processes associated with the excitation of the sympathetic nervous system and the release of adrenaline are not a sufficient and exhaustive physiological basis for emotions.
As we have already seen, the thalamus (visual hillock) plays a very significant role in the mechanism of emotions. Cannon, like Head and a number of other researchers, is inclined to believe that it is the thalamus that gives the processes in which it is involved a specifically emotional, or affective, character. At the same time, the thalamus is not the highest of the apparatus that regulates emotions. The most important role in emotions is played by the connection of the visual hillock (thalamus) with the cerebral cortex.
The essential involvement of the cortex in emotional processes is clearly seen from the experiments of Sherrington.
In the first series of experiments on five young dogs, Sherrington dissected the dog's spinal cord in such a way as to turn off all irritations coming from the somatic areas located below the shoulders. In the second series of experiments, Sherrington went even further: he operatively carried out an almost complete separation of the brain from its somatic connections, cutting not only the spinal cord in the cervical part, but also the vagus nerves. Despite the almost complete exclusion of organic sensations, the operated animals continued to express signs of fear, anger, pleasure, etc. As a result of his experiments, Sherrington comes to the following conclusion: a conscious mental process. "
The clinical observations of Wilson and Lermitt are also very instructive in this respect. In the patients whom they observed, the external expressions of emotion were sharply at odds with their feelings. Often, various reasons caused them to have outbursts of spasmodic laughter or streams of tears that were completely inappropriate to the cause that had caused them. But, laughing, the patients felt sad, crying, they sometimes felt cheerful. In some of these patients, involuntary convulsive laughter, which they were unable to hold back, although they were aware of its complete lack of motivation, produced a particularly depressing impression. If W. James says that people are cheerful because they laugh, then about these patients it could be said with great right that they are saddened because they laugh.
All these facts prove that the brain is involved in emotional processes; they include processes occurring both in the subcortical centers and in the cerebral cortex.
According to the theory of W. Cannon and Dan, the physiological mechanism of emotions is presented in such a way that, on the one hand, afferent impulses emanate from the thalamus to the cortex and simultaneously, on the other hand, motor impulses are directed downward, generating visceral somatic changes characteristic of emotions. These latter are controlled by the thalamus, while the centers of conscious emotional processes are located in the cortex. In this thalamic-cortical theory of emotions in the interaction of the cortex and the subcortex, priority is given to the subcortex. The above data from the experiments of Sherrington et al. Suggest that the role of the cortex in conscious emotional processes is even greater and more primary. On the basis of these data, the physiology of conscious emotional processes in humans is presented in the following form: the process arising in the cortex extends to the underlying subcortical centers and, including the sympathetic nervous system, gives rise to bodily reactions that take over the entire body. The organic processes that arise in this way, in turn, send afferent signals passing through the thalamus to the cortex. Entering the cortex, they generate a diverse complex of experiences that impart a specifically emotional character to the conscious process. Whether the conscious process acquires an emotional character or not, obviously, essentially depends on whether the cortical process primarily spreads to the subcortical centers and whether the sympathetic nervous system is included in it.
Thus, if it is impossible to reduce the physiology of emotions solely to the activity of the subcortical centers, the sympathetic nervous system and to the peripheral reactions that are caused by it, then it is impossible to exclude them from the physiology of emotions.
The role of peripheral reactions in the emotional process was especially emphasized by W. James (1894) and K. Lange (1895), who built on this basis their entire psychological theory of emotions.
W. James summarizes his theory as follows: “Bodily arousal follows immediately the perception of the fact that caused it; our awareness of this excitement is emotion. It is customary to express ourselves as follows: we have lost our fortune, are upset and cry, we have met a bear, are frightened and take flight, we are insulted by the enemy, enraged and stabbed him. According to the hypothesis I advocate, the order of these events should be somewhat different: namely, the first state of mind is not immediately replaced by the second; between them there should be bodily manifestations, and therefore it should be most rationally expressed as follows: we are sad because we cry, are enraged because we beat another, we are afraid because we tremble, and not speak: we cry, we beat, tremble, because saddened, enraged, frightened. If bodily manifestations did not immediately follow perception, the latter would be in its form a purely cognitive act, pale, devoid of color and emotional "warmth". In this case, we could see the bear and decide that it is best to flee, we could insult and find it fair to reflect the blow, but we would not feel fear or resentment at the same time. "
The main meaning of these paradoxically sounding statements is that emotions are caused exclusively by peripheral changes: external impressions are purely reflexive, bypassing the higher centers with which the processes of consciousness are associated, cause a number of changes in the body; these changes are usually viewed as a consequence or expression of emotions, while according to W. James, only the subsequent awareness of these organic changes, conditioned by their subsequent projection onto the cortex, constitutes emotion. Emotion is thus identified with the awareness of organic change.
A similar point of view was developed by K. Lange in his "vaso-motor theory" of emotions. Emotions-affects, according to K. Lange, are determined by the state of innervation and the width of the vessels that are observed during these emotions.
Analyzing, for example, sadness, K. Lange says: "Eliminate fatigue and sluggishness of the muscles, let the blood rush to the skin and brain, there will be lightness in the limbs, and nothing will remain of sadness." For K. Lange, therefore, emotion is the awareness of vaso-motor (vaso-motor) changes occurring in the body and their consequences. The theory of K. Lange, thus, is fundamentally homogeneous with the theory of James. Therefore, they are usually united and talked about the James-Lange theory of emotions. But James, while not narrowing down the physiological foundations of emotions like K. Lange, at the same time, much more clearly raised the main question of the peripheral or central conditioning of emotions. Further experimental work was concentrated around this problem.
James-Lange's theory of emotion correctly noted the essential role that organic changes in the peripheral character play in emotions. Indeed, without vegetative, visceral reactions, there is no emotion. They are not only an external expression of emotions, but also form an essential component of them. If we turn off all the peripheral organic changes that usually take place with fear, then the thought of danger rather than the feeling of fear remains; in this W. James is right. But the James-Lange theory completely mistakenly reduced emotions exclusively to peripheral reactions and, in connection with this, turned the conscious processes of a central nature only into a secondary one, following the emotion, but not included in it and its not defining act. Modern physiology of emotions has shown that emotions are not reducible to peripheral reactions alone. In emotional processes, both peripheral and central factors are involved in the closest interaction. Psychology cannot but take this into account.
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