The basic laws of pronunciation of consonant sounds are the deafening of voiced consonants at the end of a word and the assimilation of neighboring consonants to each other (full or partial).
1. In Russian speech, there is a mandatory deafening of voiced consonants at the end of a word. Pronounced go[t] (year), lu[k] (meadow), etc. It should be noted that the sound G at the end of the word it always turns into a dull sound paired with it To: snow[k] (snow), poro[k] (threshold). The pronunciation in this case of the sound [x] is not literary and is typical for some dialects, for example: snow[x], poro[x]. The exception is the word “god”, which according to literary norms is pronounced with the sound [x] at the end: bo[x].
2. In combinations of voiced and voiceless consonants, the first of them becomes similar to the second, i.e., the first sound is deafened. For example: lo[sh]ka (spoon), pro[p]ka (cork).
3. In combinations of voiceless and voiced consonants, the first of them in some cases becomes similar to the second, i.e., the first sound is voicing. For example: [h]do (do), v[g]hall (station). Voicing does not occur before sonorant sounds l, m, n, r and sound V. Words are pronounced as they are written.
4. In a number of cases, the so-called assimilative softening of consonants is observed: consonants standing before soft consonants are also pronounced softly. This applies primarily to combinations of dental consonants. For example: [z"d"]es, gvo[z"d"]i, ka[z"n"]b, pe[n"s"]iya. In this case, there are two pronunciation options, for example: [z"l"]it and [zl"]it, po[s"l"]e and po[sled"]e. Double pronunciation is also observed in combinations with labial consonants. For example: [d"v"]ber and [dv"]ber, [z"v"]ber and [zv"]ber. Currently, there is a tendency to pronounce hard consonants in such cases.
In nouns ending in – ism, The consonant [z] is pronounced firmly in all cases, including when the neighboring consonant is softened. For example: with capital[zm"]e.
The soft sound [k"] does not affect the pronunciation of the hard sound [s] in the word sausage: sosi [sk"]i.
5. Consonant combinations US And zsh pronounced as a long hard sound [sh:]. For example: ni[sh: ]y (lower), vy[sh: ]y (higher).
6. Combination szh And zzh pronounced as a long hard [zh: ]: r[zh: ]at (unclench), [zh: ]arit (fry).
7. Combinations zzh And LJ inside the root they are pronounced as a long soft sound [zh":]: vo[zh":]i (reins), dro [zh":]i (yeast). Currently, instead of a long soft [zh":] the long one is increasingly used hard sound [zh: ]: po[zh":]e and po[zh: ]e (later), dro[zh":]i and dro[zh: ]i (yeast).
8. Combination sch pronounced as a long soft sound [sh":], just like the sound conveyed in writing by the letter sch:[sh":]astye (happiness), [sh":]et (account).
9. Combination zch(at the junction of the root and the suffix) is pronounced as a long soft sound [sh":]. For example: prika[sh":]ik (customer), obra[sh":]ik (sample).
10. Combinations tch And dch pronounced as a long sound [h":]. For example, dokla[h":]ik (speaker), le[h":]ik (pilot).
In place of combinations AA, JSC, OO in the 1st pre-stressed syllable a long is pronounced [a]: behind the pharmacy [zāpt’eku], on the window [nākn’e] and so on.
According to the norms of Old Moscow pronunciation, most hard consonants had to be softened before soft ones. It is recommended to soften dental [t], [d], [s], [z] before soft lips [p’], [b’], [m’], [v’], [f’] especially in the case when the dental consonant, in any change in the word, is located before the soft labial and if this combination of consonants is preceded by a stressed one ['e]. But in modern language There is also a hard pronunciation of dental consonants before soft labial ones, and even radio and television announcers pronounce: [v’etv’i], [ch’etv’r’t’]. Therefore, two options are possible [t’v’] And [tv’]. Wed. [v’et’v’i], but it is possible to pronounce [v’t’v’e j"] And [v’tv’e j"]; [ch’t’v’ortyj"] And [ch'tv'ortyj"].
Thus, in modern literary pronunciation there is a tendency to lose assimilative softness. Currently, modern pronunciation is recognized as equal variants [door, and pronunciation taking into account the old Moscow norm [door.
At the place of combination CHN possible in a modern literary language is a pronunciation norm and [shn]: horse[shn]o, eggs[shn]itsa, sku[shn]o; And [ch’n]: young[ch’n]y, bulo[ch’n]aya.
At the place of combination Thu according to old Moscow norms it was pronounced:
– [PCS] in a word What and its derivatives [what], [pieces], bottom [pieces]o;
– [h’t] pronounced in a word something;
– [PCS] And [h’t]- double pronunciation: neither [what]o nor [sht]o allowed in a word nothing.
Under the influence of spelling there is a tendency towards pronunciation [ch’t].
At the place of combination Railway in a word rain and its derivatives are pronounced [and'], which at the end of a word appears as [w’]: do[zh’]ya, do[zh’]ik, do[sh’]. Pronunciation also developed under the influence of spelling [zh’]-[pc’]: to [zh’]ya – to [pc’].
In place of combinations AF And midrange pronounced according to old Moscow standards [sh’]: story [sh’]ik, izvo[sh’]ik, different [sh’]ik. Currently, pronunciation is also recognized as a variant of the literary norm [sh’ch’]: story [sh’ch’]ik, izvo [sh’ch’]ik, different [sh’ch’]ik.
According to the norms of modern Russian literary language, in the root place of combinations LJ And ZZH(For example: squeal, buzz) the consonant is pronounced either soft or hard [LJ] (squeal – [v’izh’zh’at’] and [v’izhzhat’]; buzz – [zhuzh’zh’at’] and [buzz’]). These are pronunciation variants that arose as a result of changes in the pronunciation system. According to old Moscow norms it was pronounced [zh’zh’]: vi[zh’zh’]at, in [zh’zh’]i. Currently, in their place it is possible [LJ], i.e. long hard hissing: chew[zhzh]t, vo[zhzh]s.
In combinations consisting of three or four consonants, one of them, according to the norms of literary pronunciation, is often not pronounced. Wed: LNTs: so[nc]e; RDC: s[rts]e; STN: che[sn]y, ve[s’n’]ik.; VSTV: feel[st]o; SSK: propaganda [ssk’]y.
3.1.4. Features of the pronunciation norm
in some grammatical forms
1. Adjectives of the masculine singular nominative case (including adjectives with a stem in the back language G, K, X) according to old Moscow norms should have been pronounced with the ending [y]: red-haired, handsome, strong, quiet etc. Influenced by spelling modern conditions pronunciation with the ending has become widespread [th]. Pronunciation [y] And [th] in the endings of adjectives are still variants of the modern spelling norm, but in a number of educational and reference manuals the ending [y] marked "obsolete". 2. Unstressed endings of 3rd person verbs plural II conjugations according to Old Moscow norms should have been pronounced as [ut], ['ut]: nose['ut], move['ut], breathe[ut] etc. Currently, the ending in these verbs is normative ['т] ([ът]): pray['t], hear[ъt] etc. The old norm is perceived as a dialect feature.
3. According to the Old Moscow norm, the return particle -sya (s) pronounced with a firm voice [With]. Nowadays, this pronunciation almost never occurs. The norm of the modern Russian literary language is the soft pronunciation of the consonant in this affix.
Variation of the orthoepic norm
Traditionally, the “Orthoepy” section includes all pronunciation norms of the modern Russian language.
A different approach to the subject of orthoepy is that this section examines pronunciation norms that allow for variability in the literary language. Orthoepy records variability in pronunciation, stress placement in a word and in the formation of grammatical forms, for example, “tractor " or "tra who."
Table No. 7
Variation of pronunciation and stress
Phonetic defects often provoke spelling, punctuation, lexical and grammatical errors and interfere with the communication process.
Words in a deformed sound shell become unrecognizable or inhibit the communication process, so it is necessary to constantly and consistently develop the appropriate phonetic-phonological skills. And since for correct perception (and, accordingly, for successful communication), the sound envelope of a word should not contradict the sound skills of the listener, you should pay attention not only to the formation of exemplary literary speech, but also provide information about literary variant forms of use.
It is for this purpose that tasks are introduced into the exercise system, in which attention is drawn to the variability of the orthoepic norm and the dynamism language system.
Assignments with comments
Task No. 1. Determine what sound is pronounced in place of the letter G. Complete the table using the examples given in the assignment.
Lungs, lips, suddenly, the first, who saw, wow, aha, eyes, haze, horn, God, that, coat of arms, boot, bright, haystack, nail, game, sad, bright, two-year-old, accountant, fungi, good, Lord, biologist, philologist, boots, suddenly.
Table
| Letter | Sound | Examples |
| G | ||
| TO | ||
| G | X | |
| IN | ||
| Γ (G-FRICATIVE) |
Task No. 2. Read excerpts from poems
A.S. Pushkin and S.A. Yesenin, observing the exact rhyme. Is the pronunciation of the word appropriate? snow in these quatrains literary norm? Why do you think authors sometimes violate literary standards?
How fun it is to put sharp iron on your feet,
Slide along the mirror of standing, smooth rivers!
A winter holidays brilliant alarms?
But you need to know and honor: six months of snow and snow...
(A.S. Pushkin)
And deaf, as if from a handout,
When they throw stones at her to laugh,
The dog's eyes rolled
Golden stars in the snow.
(S.A. Yesenin)
Task No. 3. Read the words, pay attention to the pronunciation of the combination CHN. Are all words and phrases possible for variant pronunciation: [shn], [ch’n]?
Birdhouse, bakery, Ilyinichna, Kuzminichna, heart friend, heart muscle, poor student, enough, of course, milk porridge, cheerful milkman, decent, laundry, trifling, summer season, night club, creamy, scrambled eggs, stove heating.
It should be remembered that according to Old Moscow norms, the spelling combination chn should be pronounced as [sh]: horse[sh]o, skuk[sh]o, molo[sh]ny, egg[sh]itsa, bun[sh]aya, etc. . Words formed from words containing [h'] (for example, dacha from dacha, night from night, etc.) and words of a bookish nature (for example, exact, scientific, etc.) did not obey this rule. ). In the process of language development under the influence of spelling, the pronunciation [shn] began to be replaced by the pronunciation [ch'n], and currently [shn] is preserved only in some words, namely in kone[shn]no, skuk[shn]no, yai[ sch]nitsa, naro[sh]no, empty[sh]ny, skvor[sh]ik, laun[sh]aya, per[sh]itsa and in female patronymics with –ichna: Ilyin[sh]a, Fomini[sh] ]A. In a number of words, double pronunciation is allowed: bulo[ch'n]aya and bulo[sh]aya, molo[ch'n]y and molo[sh]y, plum[h'n]y and plum[sh]y, wheat[ ch'n]y and wheat[sh]y, and preference is given to the pronunciation [ch'n], therefore, in general, the pronunciation [shn] in place of [ch'n] should be considered displaced: even now the preservation of [shn] is assessed as colloquial. In a number of cases, the pronunciation of [ch'n] and [shn] is associated with the semantic differentiation of words: milk gland, but milk porridge, heart disease, but a friend of the heart ]y, as well as with the possibility of homonymy (cf. to[ch'n]o and to[sh]o, nau[ch'n]y and nau[sh]ny).
Task No. 4. Read excerpts from the works of A.S. Pushkina, A.A. Feta, observing the rhyme. Determine the pronunciation variants of the combination CHN.
– I can’t sleep, nanny: it’s so stuffy here!
Open the window and sit with me.
- What, Tanya, what’s wrong with you? - I'm bored.
Let's talk about old times...
(A.S. Pushkin)
On the winter, boring road
Three greyhounds are running.
Single bell
It rattles tiresomely.
(A.S. Pushkin)
Was I rushing towards the midnight abyss
Or were hosts of stars rushing towards me?
It seemed as if in a powerful hand
I hung over this abyss.
Task No. 5. Read, pay attention to how you pronounce sounds in place of the letter AND: [and'] or [and]. Is variant pronunciation possible in all cases?
1. The boys grabbed the reins, climbed onto the box and, squealing with delight, rode around the yard.
2. The stroller, rattling and swaying, drives away from the porch.
3. Dawn broke, and bees buzzed sleepily in the meadows.
It should be remembered that, according to Old Moscow norms, the spelling combinations zzh and zhzh were pronounced as a ringing, long soft hissing [zh']: vi[zh']at, e[zh']u, bry[zh']et, vo[zh']i , dro[zh']i, zhu[zh']at, [zh']e, [zh']ot. Currently, in place of these combinations it is pronounced [zh]: zhu[zhzh]at, [zhzh]ot, po[zh]e, etc. This pronunciation is assessed as a variant of the literary norm.
“Softness [zh’] lasted longest in combination with another [zh’], i.e. in combination [zh’zh’]. But even in this combination, it began to be lost long ago, first capturing the position at the junction of morphemes and later penetrating inside the root. The pronunciation [zh’zh’] in the modern Russian literary language is the last remnant of the former softness of a sonorous hissing, which is replaced by the pronunciation [zhzh] already in the roots.”
“...The repression of [f’] is still far from over and its further fate has not been completely decided (there may be surprises).”
Task No. 6. What literary variants of pronunciation of the word exist? rain? Write down in the transcription how the word rain should be read in these texts, taking into account that the rhyme is accurate. Does this pronunciation correspond to the literary norm?
Bad weather blanketed the miles.
The lantern light is yellow and thin.
All London is like a horse in soap,
It persistently breaks through the rain.
(P.G. Antokolsky)
I want a courier train
He rushed you, buzzing for hundreds of miles,
Without worrying about anything else,
Except for the music of the rain.
(P.G. Antokolsky)
It should be remembered that according to Old Moscow norms, the combination of railway in the word rain and its derivatives is pronounced as [zh'] (or [sh'] at the end of the word): do[zh']ya, do[zh']ik, do[zh ']flowing and [sh']. Under the influence of spelling in the modern literary language, the pronunciation [zh'] has developed, according to which [sht'] appears at the end of words: do[zh']ya, do[zh']ik, do[zh']livy and do[ PC']. This pronunciation is variable.
Task No. 7. Whether a consonant is pronounced softly or firmly in suffixes -SYA, -S in words:
Afraid, taken, see you, hoping, having fun, stay, looked around, looked around, get carried away, wash yourself, trying.
It should be remembered that at the beginning of the 20th century. the pronunciation of reflexive forms of the verb with a hard [s] was adopted; then, under the influence of spelling, the pronunciation [s’] spread. In modern literary language it is the most commonly used. But in stage speech and vocals the pronunciation of this particle with a hard [s] dominates.
M.V. Panov drew attention to one curious fact: “this norm lives in theatrical pronunciation, and is not simply artificially supported by orthoepic manuals as a linguistic relic. According to traditional norms, the particle -sya (-s) was pronounced... everywhere with a hard [s], except for one case: in gerunds with stress on the last syllable, -s had to be pronounced softly, i.e. took [s], taking [s], taking [s], but taking [s’]; shaking[s], shaking[s], shaking[s], but shaking[s’]. IN Lately The pronunciation taking [s], shaking [s], stirrup [s], rolling [s], turning [s], etc. has become common on stage. There was a morphological generalization of forms. This could not have happened if the pronunciation -[съ], -[с] had been acquired artificially and had not been a living fact of speech.” In the book “Russian Phonetics” M.V. Panov points out that there is a recording on the gramophone record as D.N. Zhuravlev reads " Bronze Horseman» A.S. Pushkin:
The Neva swelled and roared,
A cauldron bubbling and swirling[s],
And suddenly, like a frenzied beast[s],
She threw it at the city...
In the modern Russian literary language, the soft and hard pronunciation of the suffix -SYA is variable.
Task No. 8. Read lines from the poems of A.S. Pushkin and M.Yu. Lermontov. Notice how the final consonant of each line is read if you follow the rhyme?
The convoy had barely gotten out
Into the clearing, things have begun.
(M.Yu. Lermontov)
It’s like it’s filled with honey!
The seeds are visible right through...
(A.S. Pushkin)
Task No. 9. Indicate how to pronounce the following lines of N.A. when reading. Nekrasova, A.S. Pushkin and I.A. Bunin adjectives on -GIY, -KIY, -HIY so as not to break the verse. It should be remembered that the rhymes are accurate.
So the nanny will take the child into the forest
And she will hide behind a tall bush:
Alarmed, he searches and calls,
And rushes about in cruel melancholy...
(N.A. Nekrasov)
Just entered the wide courtyard
Well? Under the tall tree,
He sees the squirrel in front of everyone
The golden one gnaws a nut...
(A.S. Pushkin)
There was deep darkness in the sky,
The day fell on a dark valley.
Dawn has risen. On a distant path
The freed prisoner walked...
(A.S. Pushkin)
Thick green spruce forest by the road,
Deep fluffy snow.
A deer walked in them, powerful, thin-legged,
Throwing the heavy horns to the back...
(I.A. Bunin)
It should be remembered that in adjectives with a base in the back language [g], [k], [x], according to old Moscow norms, the ending [ъj'] appeared; under the influence of spelling, the pronunciation [иj'] arose: strong [ъj'] and strong [иj '], elastic[ъj'] and elastic[иj'], quiet[ъj'] and quiet[иj']. The same is observed in surnames in -SKY: Mayakovsk[ъj’] and Mayakovsk[иj’], etc.
The pronunciation of [ъj’], [ыj’] and [иj’] at the endings of adjectives are variants of modern spelling standards. In classical stage speech, hard endings are more often used.
Task No. 10. How do you pronounce the phrases: feel sorry for horses, pity for horses?
Remember the words and forms of words in which the sound [s e] is pronounced in place of the letter a after w, zh, c in the 1st pre-stressed syllable: regret, regret, jacket, jasmine, rye, horses, twenty, thirty, regret, k unfortunately.
Task No. 11. Read the words, observing the norms of literary pronunciation. Fill the table.
Table
Heat, regret, naughty, jacket, barrel organ, jacket, sage, miner, naughty, steps, regret, driver, scratch, highway, jockey, queen, stride, kiss, kings;
wife, sixteen, turn yellow, whisper, tin, price, iron, discount, jelly, gelatin, sixth, tin, gutters, masterpiece, groom, annually, rage, healing, yolk, sixth, cement, may, plows, blackberry, virgin, deeper, more, silk, workshop, wish, cellophane, rattle, thrown, sieve, more intact, closer, earlier.
Task No. 12. Pronounce correctly. Find errors in the transcription of words. What spelling rule did you follow?
Sozh[a]fly, [p'a]grat [zhy e]nih, for [shy e]ptal, [h'a]sat dance[tsy e]vat, [l'i e]juice, [sha]lun , [p]fly, [n'i e]sesh, about [tse]nite, [r'a]bina, [zhy e]fly, [stagger] lurking, [bar]ometer, about horses, [s'i e]doy, [m'i e]nya, [zha]ra.
Task No. 13. Read the words, observing the norms of literary pronunciation. Pay attention to how the consonant is pronounced (hard or soft) before E. Fill the table.
Table
| Firm pronunciation | Soft pronunciation | Variant pronunciation |
| Atheist [you uh]… | The term [t’e] ... | Hyphen [dy e] and [d’i e] ... |
Atheist, term, hyphen, adequate, aggression, sandwich, phonetics, sweater, overcoat, flannel, tent, tests, requiem, dash, tenor, lottery, compress, identical, computer, coffee, manager, express, lottery.
Task No. 14. Transcribe the sentences. Indicate which orthoepic norm is illustrated by the pronunciation of the highlighted elements.
Sample:
Kilometers [k'ilam'etr'f]. In this word, the final consonant [f] is pronounced in accordance with the rule of orthoepy: voiced noisy consonants at the end of the word are deafened.
Squeal [v’izh’at’] - inside the root, at the place of the combinations zhzh and zzh, a soft or a hard consonant [zh] is pronounced. Old Moscow pronunciation was characterized by the sound [zh’] in the indicated position. Currently, the pronunciation [zh] is also observed. This is an acceptable pronunciation option.
Branches [v'et'v'i]. It is recommended to soften the dental [t], [d], [s], [z] before the soft labial [p'], [b'], [m'], [v'], [f'] especially in the case when a dental consonant, in any change of word, is located before a soft labial one and if this combination of consonants is preceded by a stressed ['e]. Compare: [v’et’v’i], but it is possible to pronounce both [v’t’v’e j"] and [v’tv’e j"]; [ch't'v'ortyj"] and [ch'tv'ortyj"]. Therefore, there are two possible options [t’v’] and [tv’].
1. Frost and sun! Wonderful day!
2. The golden grove dissuaded
Birch cheerful language.
3. The willow is all fluffy
Spread around.
Task No. 15. Choose the correct pronunciation option. Are accentological variations possible in the pronunciation of these words?
Pear or pear; foil or foil; plum or plum; rally or meeting; slogan or slogan; cherry or cherry.
“From nouns that have a fixed stress on the root, an adjective with root stress is formed: iva, willows, plural. andyou – andvovy; from nouns that have fixed stress on the ending - an adjective with suffixal stress: quince, quince – quince; from nouns with movable stress - an adjective with inflectional stress: mezha, mezhi, plural. boundaries - boundaries. This stress dependence is quite stable. (In science, this relationship is called “Hartman’s law”).
However, in a number of cases there is a violation of this accentual correlation. One of the reasons contributing to the appearance of such an “unconventional” stress in an adjective may be the appearance of a different stress in the producing noun.”
“The adjective “meeting” “relating to a rally”, derived from the noun that came to us from the English language “meeting” “a mass meeting regarding any topical issues, mainly political issues“is recorded in dictionaries only with a suffixal accent, for example, rally speaker, rally democracy, rally ritual. But the adjective slogan “characteristic of a slogan,” according to dictionaries, can have an emphasis on both the root and the suffix: slogan and slogan. The noun slogan “an appeal that briefly expresses a guiding idea, task or political demand” is borrowed by Russian from German. The double stress in a derived adjective reflects the process of a typical accentual “adaptation” of a foreign word in the Russian language, namely, equal accentual variants, slogan and slogan, appear (17- and 4-volume dictionary, Orthoepic Dictionary). And therefore we can say sloganeering and sloganeering expression, sloganeering and sloganeering style, sloganeering and sloganeering passions.”
Table
| Ageenko F.L., Zarva M.V. Dictionary of accents for radio and television workers / ed. D.E. Rosenthal. M., 1985. | Gorbachevich K.S. Dictionary of difficulties of the modern Russian language. St. Petersburg: Norint, 2003. | Eskova N.A. Brief dictionary difficulties of the Russian language: Grammatical forms. Emphasis. M., 2003. |
| Lozungovy (p. 225) | Slogan (slogan not recommended)(p. 178) | Slogan, oh, oh and slogan,-aya, -oe (P. 154) |
| Meetingovy (P. 245) | Rally and outdated mi"ting(p. 191) | Rally, -aya, -oe (P. 164) |
| Foil (p. 461) | Foil and obsolete foil(p. 471) | Foil, -aya, -oh and additional obsolete foil,-aya, -oe (P. 356) |
| Grushevy (P. 117) | Pear (wrong pear)(p. 78) | ------------ |
| Plum [not plum] (P. 409) | Plum (wrong plum)(p. 397) | Plum, oh, oh! not right. plum (p. 312) |
| Cherry (P. 84) | Cherry and obsolete cherry. In the 19th century the emphasis cherry was normative. A cherry-colored yarmulke is worn on the soft curls.(M. Lermontov. “Tambov Treasurer”). In the book by K.S. Stanislavsky’s “My Life in Art” mentions that A. Chekhov originally called his play “The Cherry Orchard”. (p. 53) | Cherry, -aya, -oe (P. 52) |
Task No. 16. What differences in the presentation of words are noted in the following reference books.
Table
| Gorbachevich K.S. Dictionary of difficulties of pronunciation and stress in modern Russian. M., 2000. | Ageenko F.L., Zarva M.V. Dictionary of accents for radio and television workers / ed. D.E. Rosenthal. M., 1985. |
| Open, open, open and acceptable will open | Open, -scream, -scream, -scream |
| Give, give, give, give, give, give; past odal ( acceptable gavel), gave ( wrong gave and gave)… | Give, -yes, -yes; -ogave, gave away, ogave, ogave |
| Disable, disable, disable (not recommended to disable) | Disconnect, -chu, -chish |
| Tenor, pl. tenor, genus. tenor and outdated tenors, tenors. The pronunciation [tenor] is outdated | Tenor, -a; pl. tenor, -ов Not[te] |
| Calling, calling, calling ( Not recommended rings); ???. caller (wrong caller) | Call (s), -nny (s), -nsh (s), -nyt (s) |
Task No. 17. There are two diametrically opposed approaches to characterizing the process of dynamics in language. Read some of what linguists have to say on this issue. Have your say.
Some linguists reject the fact of the existence of linguistic changes and strive to preserve the inviolability of norms. This is the so-called purism. Purism, as G.O. aptly noted. Vinokur, “only wants his great-grandchildren to speak the way their great-grandfathers spoke in the old and better years.” On the other hand, the opinion is expressed that “everything is permitted in language, the main thing is that you be understood.”
In the works of famous Soviet linguists, both the position of the purists and the theory of permissiveness in language were debunked. It is indisputable that “the science of the Russian language has already said goodbye to the shadows of the past and does not cling to dead forms of expression,” but failure to comply with uniform rules of pronunciation contradicts the course of language development, interferes with learning spelling rules, and complicates understanding in the process of communication and reading text. Many linguists believe that it is impossible to impose anything on a language, since it develops according to its own internal laws. " Dynamic theory norms, based on the requirement of “flexible stability”, combines taking into account productive and independent of our will trends in the development of language, and careful attitude to the capital of inherited literary and traditional speech skills.”
Task No. 18. Read the statements of linguists and formulate an answer to the question: what linguistic approaches are observed in relation to the dynamism of the norm?
“The ban on stress ringing is clearly artificial” (V. Redkin).
“...colloquial speech stubbornly imposes on native speakers of the literary language the emphasis you call, you call, you call, you call, you call, etc.; This particular emphasis is supported by the law of analogy: we pronounce walk, hodit, wear, nosit, ask, asks; the verbs walk, wear, ask, call have a very similar structure, so why do you need to pronounce calling, calling, etc.? However, despite the intense pressure colloquial speech and the base available in the language itself, the support for transferring the stress in the verb to call, the correct one must be recognized as calling, calling, calling, calling, calling, ... calling, etc. Why? Because this is the prescription of a codified norm, based not only on the instructions of grammars and dictionaries, but also on the authority of classical Russian literature, on the prestige of artists of the most famous theaters, etc.” (B.N. Golovin).
“Recognition ... of the normativity of certain linguistic facts, in our opinion, should be based not on subjective assessment and personal taste, but on the presence of three main features:
1) mass and regularity of use;
2) public approval of this linguistic phenomenon;
3) the correspondence of this fact to the main trends in the development of language, the historical restructuring of the language system. Without taking into account historical changes, the normative dictionary largely loses its scientific value...” (K.S. Gorbachevich).
Tests
Orthoepy. Phonetics
Test No. 1
1. Indicate the correct pronunciation according to the norms of the Russian literary language:
1) [g]ost;
2) [γ] spine.
2. Indicate the correct pronunciation according to the norms of the Russian literary language:
1) blah [g] to bestow;
2) blah [γ] to bestow;
3) bo [γ] aty;
4) bo[g]aty.
3. Indicate the correct pronunciation according to the norms of the Russian literary language:
1) [sh̅’]uka;
2) [shch]uka;
3) [sh̅’]el;
4) [schch]el.
4. Indicate a number of words that correspond to the norms of literary pronunciation:
1) [sh’]ar; [step; [noise; [fur coat;
2) [sh]ar; [step; [noise; [fur coat.
5. Indicate one extra word according to the rules of the Russian literary language:
1) [j’u]lien;
2) pr[zh’y]na;
3) [j’u]ri.
6. Indicate which pronunciation is correct:
1) plum[sh]y; young;
2) plum[h’n]y; lactic;
3) 1st and 2nd answers are correct.
7. Indicate which pronunciation is correct:
1) battle[s], mine[s];
2) battle[s’], mine[s’];
3) 1st and 2nd answers are correct.
8. Specify correct transcription jargon words:
1) f[a]argon;
2) zh[y]rgon;
3) zh[']rgon.
9. Indicate the correct transcription of the word “tsarism”:
1) c[y]rism;
2) c[ъ]rism;
3) c[a]rism.
Test No. 2
1. In the proposed range of sounds, indicate fricative ones:
2. In the proposed series of sounds, indicate the trembling consonants:
3. Are the consonant sounds [m, m’, n, n’, l, l’] transitive?
4. Are the transcriptions of the words below correct?
Burn [ech’]; sew [sh̅yt’]; unclench [ra at’].
5. Are the transcriptions of the words below correct?
Father-[a a]; well done - [mula a]; scout-[razv’ech’ik].
6. Indicate the correct transcription of the word “bells”:
1) k[Λ]l[ъ]cola;
2) k[ъ]l[ъ]cola;
3) k[Λ]l[Λ]cola;
4) k[b]l[o]cola.
7. Indicate the correct transcription of the word “hear”:
1) hear[hu]t;
2) hear[sha]t;
3) hear[sh]t.
8. Which consonant sound is not used in Russian? phonetic transcription?
Test No. 3
1. Indicate the option(s) in which the combination [dz] is pronounced in the flow of speech:
1) well behind the house; 3) black pepper;
2) my friend's father; 4) a well in the steppe.
2. Indicate the option(s) in which the sound [h’] is pronounced:
1) get out of the way; 3) away from me;
2) the violinist performed; 4) bricks were delivered.
3. Indicate the option(s) in which the sound [γ] is pronounced:
1) the sunflower is ripe; 3) daughter's fiancé;
2) the smell of roses; 4) gunpowder burns.
4. Indicate the option(s) in which the sound [g] is pronounced.
1) lungs; 6) suddenly;
2) lips; 7) first;
3) thunder; 8) grace;
4) din; 9) soft;
5) pie; 10) ege.
5.Indicate the option(s) in which the sound [d’zh’] is pronounced:
1) ignite the soul; 3) the ball is green;
2) light a fire; 4) the doctor listened.
6. Indicate the option(s) in which the sound [h] is pronounced:
1) from a fur coat; 3) from Shura;
2) under a fur coat; 4) from what.
7. Indicate the option(s) in which the sound [s] is pronounced:
2) hut; 4) about the engineer.
8. Indicate the option(s) in which there was an error in the pronunciation of the CN combination:
1) horse[sh]o; 6) young soup;
2) sku[shn]o; 7) heart drops;
3) Nikiti[ch’n]a; 8) arrow [sh]ik;
4) bul[sh]aya; 9) empty;
5) back [ch’n]ik; 10) hot[h’n]y.
9. Indicate the option(s) in which the sound [ts’] is pronounced:
1) from Semyon; 3) under the hay;
2) the chicken cackles; 4) the smoke is smoking.
10. Indicate the option(s) in which contact, regressive assimilation is noted, based on voice (voice):
From dawn; 3) from dawn;
In relation to the compatibility of consonants with consonants in the Russian language, a number of restrictive phonetic laws apply. Allowed only certain groups Consonants, and many of them actually function only at the junction of morphemes - when a prefix or suffix is attached to the root.
The following combinations of consonants are prohibited by the phonetic system of the Russian language:
- combinations of voiceless noisy words followed by voiced noisy sounds (except for [в], [в’]): a voiceless noisy word can only appear before a voiceless noisy word;
- combinations of voiced noisy followed by voiceless noisy: a voiced noisy can only appear before a voiced noisy;
- combinations of hard teeth, except [l], followed by a soft tooth: a hard tooth can only be before a hard tooth;
- combinations of hard labial consonants followed by soft labials: a hard labial consonant can only appear before a hard labial;
- combinations of soft labial consonants followed by hard labials: a soft labial consonant can only appear before a soft labial;
- combinations of two consonants that differ only in terms of hardness-softness (i.e. [p’p], [pp’], [t’t], [tt’1, etc.).
These prohibitive laws operate only at the phonetic level: if, say, in the Russian language it is impossible to combine a voiceless noisy with a voiced one, then this is revealed only at the level of allophones, since, for example, in [z'd'yolt'] an absolutely weak phoneme appears phonologically (s3): (s3d2)eat.
All other combinations of two consonants are permitted by the phonetic system of the modern Russian literary language. In phonological terms, in most of these consonant combinations, the first member is an allophone of a phoneme weak in deafness-voicedness or hardness-softness, or both characteristics (generally a weak phoneme), and the second member is an allophone of a strong or weak phoneme in hardness-softness. For example, [pl] in cry - (p2l)ak; [d’b] in walking = ho(t’1b)a; [d’b’] in walking = ho(t3b2)yo.
Consequently, in groups of consonants, in their functioning in the language, there are certain restrictions that are phonetic in nature and determine the possibility or impossibility of the presence of certain combinations in one position or another in relation to the structure of the word.
PHONEME PARADIGMATICS
Moving on to the consideration of the paradigmatics of vowel and consonant phonemes of the Russian literary language, it should be emphasized once again that the paradigmatic relations of phonemes are determined primarily by their syntagmatic relations. This means that contrasts of phonological units, which serve to distinguish word forms, can be carried out under identical phonetic conditions only if there are corresponding combinations of sounds.
More on the topic § 98. Combinations of consonants with consonants:
- § 11. The concept of orthoepy. Consonant combinations. Unpronounceable consonants. Double consonants. Pronunciation of consonants in some grammatical forms.
- § 3. SPELLING OF CONSONANTS (verifiable and unverifiable, voiced, voiceless and unpronounceable consonants; double consonants; combinations of consonants)
1) Pronunciation of voiced and voiceless consonants
In the speech stream consonants modern Russian literary language, paired by voiced-voiceless, change in quality depending on its position in the word.
There are two cases of such changes:
a) at the end of words before a pause
b) at the end of words, not before a pause, but also inside a word. Changes in consonants, paired in voicedness-voicelessness and paired in softness-hardness, are explained by the effect of regressive assimilation.
1. Stunning voiced consonants at the end of a word. All voiced consonants at the end of a word are pronounced as paired voiceless consonants (except for sonorant r, l, m, n); two final voiced ones turn into the corresponding unvoiced ones: club, temper, horn, lie, elm, clang, izb, sober - [klup], [nraf], [rock], [losh], [v"as], [l"ask ], [sp], [tr "esf].
The deafening of final voiced consonants does not depend on the quality of the initial sound of the next word and occurs in the flow of speech before all consonants and vowels.
2. Deafening and voicing of consonants paired in terms of voicedness and voicelessness within a word. Voiced consonants inside a word are deafened in front of deaf people, and deaf consonants in front of voiced ones (except in) are voiced: tube, low, request, behind, to the wife - [truk"b], [n"isk], [prozb"b], [hell "and], [Ms. e"e].
2) Pronunciation of hard and soft consonants
At the end of a word and before some consonants, as well as before the vowel sounds [a], [o], [u], the hardness and softness of the consonants are clearly distinguished. The softness of consonants in the indicated positions is indicated in written speech: at the end of a word and before some consonants - the letter ь (cf. ryab - ripple, treasure - luggage, blow - hit, daw - pebble, housekeeper - save, etc.) , and before the vowels [a], [o], [y] - the letters i, e, yu (cf. mother - knead, knock - bale, nose - carried). The use of the letter ь after hissing [zh], [sh], [h], [sch] does not affect the pronunciation of these consonants, since it has a morphological meaning and indicates the form of the words (cf. knife - multiply, our - give, bream - thing, weaver - jump, call - cut, etc.).
1. Softness of consonants indicated in writing(b and letters i, e, e, yu): brother - take, jackdaw - pebble, shaft - sluggish, nose - carried, knock - bale - [brother - brother "], [daw - gal "kъ], [shaft - in "al", [nose - n"os], [knock - t"uk].
The final labials, in accordance with the spelling, are pronounced softly: flail - chain, blood - blood, slave - ripple - [tsep - tsep"], [krof - krof"], [rap - r "ap"].
Soft labials before ya, ё, yu are pronounced without additional articulation of softness: five, knead, chalk, vel, engraving, puree - [p"ät"], [m"ät"], [m"ol], [v"ol ], [grav "ur", [n "ype].
The softness [m] in the words seven, eight is preserved in complex numerals: seven - seventy - seven hundred, eight - eighty - eight hundred - [s"em" - s"em"ds"t - s"i e m"sot], [ vos"m" - vos"m"d"bs"yt - vos"i e m"sot).
2. Softness of consonants not indicated in writing. In the position before consonants, the hardness and softness of consonants often have a non-independent, assimilative character, i.e. depends on the hardness and softness of the subsequent consonant. The softness of consonants in this case is not indicated in writing.
The softening of hard consonants before soft ones depends on various conditions: what consonants are these, what soft consonants are they in front of, in what part of the word there is a combination of consonants, what style of speech this or that word belongs to:
a) inside a word, before the sound [j], the consonants are softened in some cases: fish, leaves, judge, guest - [fish" ъ], [lûst" ъ], [court"ja", [gos"t" ъ];
b) dental consonants [z], [s], [d], [t] before soft dental and labial consonants are pronounced softly: milk mushroom, sadness - [grus "t"], [grus "t"], wall, song - , [p"ê"s"nъ]. In a number of words, the softening is variable: ripe, star, hard, door - [s"p"ely] and [sp"ely], [z"v"i ezda] and [zv "and e zda", [t"v"orda] and [tv"orda], [d"v"i e no] and [dv"i ern];
c) the consonant [n] before soft [d], [t], [n] (less often before [z], [s]), as well as before [h], [sch] is pronounced softly: kantik, bandit, horseman, pensioner, claim, chick - [kan"t"ik], [bΛn"d"it], [ko "ik", [p"nns"iΛner], [pr"i e ten"z"i b", [ pt"ên"ch"ik];
d) the consonant of the prefix s- and the preposition consonant with it, as well as the final consonants of the prefixes consonant with it and the prepositions consonant with them before soft dental and separative ь are pronounced softly: loafer, idle, product, out of business, remove - [b "and e z"d"kl'k], [b"i e z"-del], [iz"d"l"i ь], [iz"-d"el", [iz"jat]. In other cases, the softness is variable: removed, from him - [s"n"al] and [sn"al", [s"-n"i e vo] and [s-n"i e vo];
e) labials do not soften in front of the posterior palatals: bets, breaking, tensile - [stafk"i], [lok"i], [tsepk"i];
f) final consonants [t], [d], [b] in prefixes before soft labials and separative ъ are not softened: ate, drink - [Λtjel], [Λtp "it"];
g) the consonant [p] before soft dental and labial ones, as well as before [h], [sch] is pronounced firmly: artel, cornet, feed, samovar, welder - [Λrt"kl"], [kΛrn"et], [kΛrm "ût", [samlvarch"ûk], [svar "ik].
3) Pronunciation of consonant combinations
1. The combinations ezh - zzh, ssh - zsh at the junction of morphemes, as well as a preposition and the following word are pronounced as a double solid consonant: squeezed, without fat, sewed, without a splint, carried, climbed - [al], [b "and e yr], [ yl], [b"i eyns], [n"o s], [owns].
2. Combinations zzh, as well as zhzh inside the root, are pronounced as a long soft consonant [ "]: I ride, squeal, later, reins, yeast - [ej "y", [v" and "y", [by "b", [ in "and", [dro "and] (pronunciation LJ as is acceptable).
3. Combinations сч, зч at the junction of a root and a suffix are pronounced as a long soft or [sh"ch"]: scribe ["ik", [-sh"ch"ik], customer [- "ik", [-sh"ch "hic]. At the junction of a prefix and a root or a preposition with the following word in place of сч, зч it is pronounced [ш"ч"]: without a number [b"ш"ч"isla], comb [рΛшчоскъ].
4. Combinations tch, dch at the junction of morphemes are pronounced as double soft [ "]: pilot [l "o "ik], young fellow [milo "ik], report [Λ "ot].
5. Combination of vehicles at the junction verb endings with the postfix -sya is pronounced as a double hard: proud and proud [gΛrd"and ъ];
ts, ds (in combinations tsk, dsk, tstv, dstv) at the junction of the root and the suffix are pronounced as [ts]: brotherly [bratski], factory [zavΛtskoi], kinship [rΛtstvo].
6. Combinations tts, dts at the junction of morphemes, less often in roots, are pronounced as double: brother [bra ъ], pick up [пъ еы ы п"it"], twenty [two ът"].
7. The combination chn, as a rule, is pronounced as [chn], and in the following words as [shn]: boring, of course, on purpose, scrambled eggs, trifling, laundry, birdhouse and in female patronymics like Nikitichna.
8. The combination of th, as a rule, is pronounced not as [cht], but as [pcs]: what, so, so that, something (-or, -anything), nothing.
9. Combinations gk, gch are usually pronounced as [khk], [khch]: soft [m "ahk"i ], lighter [l "ehch"b].
4) Unpronounceable consonants
When pronouncing words, some morphemes (usually roots) in certain combinations with other morphemes lose one or another sound. As a result, the spellings of words contain letters devoid of sound meaning, the so-called unpronounceable consonants. Unpronounceable consonants include:
1) t - in combinations stn (cf.: inert and bone), stl (happy), ntsk - ndsk (cf.: gigantic - intriguing, Dutch - hooligan), stsk (cf.: Marxist and Tunisian);
2) d - in combinations zdn (cf.: holiday and ugly), rdts (cf.: heart and door);
3) in - in combinations vstv (cf.: to feel and participate), lvstv (to remain silent);
4) l - in combination lnts (cf.: sun and window).
5) Pronunciation of consonant sounds indicated by two identical letters
In Russian words, combinations of two identical consonants are usually found between vowels at the junction of the morphological parts of the word: prefix and root, root and suffix. In foreign words, double consonants can be long in the roots of words. Since the longitude of sounds is not characteristic of the phonemic system of the Russian language, foreign words, as they are mastered by the Russian language, lose the longitude of consonants and are pronounced with a single sound (cf. to[n]el, te[r]asa, a[p]arat, a[p]etit, co[r]ector, co[m]ertia, etc.).
A double consonant is usually pronounced in a position after a stressed vowel (cf.: in A[nn]a, m A[ss]a, gr at[pp]a, program A[mm]a, etc.). At the end of a word, double consonants, as a rule, are not pronounced (cf. krista[l], meta[l], gri[p], gram[m], etc.).
6) Pronunciation of individual sounds
1. The sound [g] before vowels, voiced and sonorant consonants is pronounced as a voiced plosive consonant: mountain, where, hail; before voiceless consonants and at the end of a word - like [k]: burned, burned [Λzh "oks"ъ], [Λzhok]. The pronunciation of the fricative sound ([ã ]) is possible in limited cases, and with fluctuations: in the forms of the words God, Lord; in interjections aha, wow, ege, gop, goplya.
2. In place of the letters zh, sh, ts in all positions they are pronounced hard sounds[zh], [sh], [ts]: parachute, brochure - [paroshut], [brochure]; end, end, calico - [end], [end], [s"and ъм]. But in the word jury, the preferred pronunciation is [zh"ÿor"i].
3. In place of the letters ch, sch, soft consonants are always pronounced (ch), (uTj or (shch]: hour, choh, chur - [ch "as], [ch"oh], [ch"ur]; grove, Shchors , twitter, pike - [ro "b", ["ors", ["eb"b", ["uk".
4. In place of the letter and after zh, sh and c, the sound [s] is pronounced: lived, sewed, cycle - [zhyl], [shyl], [tsikl].
5. In place of the letter s in the affixes -sya - -s a soft sound [s] is pronounced: I’m afraid, I was afraid, I was afraid - [bΛjus"], [bΛjals"ъ], [bΛjals"].
6. In place of all consonant letters (except zh, sh, ts) before [e], the corresponding soft consonants are pronounced (sel, sang, chalk, del, tel, etc.) [s"el", [p"el] , [m"el], [d"el], [t"el], etc. (for the pronunciation of these combinations in foreign words, see § 83).
7) Pronunciation of individual grammatical forms
1. Unstressed ending of the nominative singular case. Part masculine adjectives -y, -y are pronounced according to the spelling: [good], [proud], [prezhn"i], [lower"i].
The pronunciation of the ending -й after [k], [g], [x] is preferable in the soft version: [n"isk"i], [poor"i], [tih"i].
2. In place of the letter g at the end genitive case units Part of the masculine and neuter adjectives -ого and -его, a fairly distinct sound [в] is pronounced with a corresponding reduction of vowels: acute, this, the one whom - [ostръвъ], [етъвъ], [тΛвъ], [кΛво]. The sound [v] is pronounced in place of the letter g in the words: today, today, total.
3. The unstressed endings of the adjectives -aya, -oe coincide when pronounced: kind, kind [dobr' - dob'].
4. The ending (unstressed) of adjectives -yu - -yuyu is pronounced in accordance with the spelling: warm, summer - [t"oplu u", [l"et"n"u".
5. Endings -е, -и in nominative case pl. parts of adjectives, pronouns, participles are pronounced as [yi], [ii]: dobrye, blue - [dobryi], [sin"i].
6. On the spot unstressed ending 3rd person plural Part of verbs of the 2nd conjugation -at - -yat is pronounced [ът]: breathe, walk - [breathe], [move "ът].
7. Forms of the verbs na -nod, -give, -hivat are pronounced with soft [k], [g], [x]: [jump"iv'l], [shudder"iv'l], [rΛzmah"iv'l].
Combination of letters in English language is a phenomenon that is closely related to phonetics, since often the reading of consonants or vowels changes if another letter appears next to them. It is important not only to navigate the various variants of such combinations, but also to understand how different methods of connecting individual letters differ and what pronunciation features will arise. Therefore, it is necessary to consider the main letter combinations in the English language and provide a special classification of this phenomenon so that it is somewhat easier to understand the entire algorithm of actions.
Basic principles of combinations of English letters
The norms of the English language allow the letters of the alphabet to be combined in such a way that new variants of sounds are subsequently formed. It must be remembered that sometimes such combinations are pronounced completely differently than it seems at first glance, and the phonetics of both letters used in a particular combination may be lost.
Methods of letter combinations in the English language allow the formation of new sounds by combining two consonant letters, two vowels, as well as a combined version of vowels and consonants. In this case, a certain combination can be formed by connecting three letters; they are called triphthongs and differ from diphthongs in that they consist of three rather than two elements. Therefore, it is necessary to consider the basic rules for reading English letter combinations, and you can start with the vowel + vowel options.
Letter combinations vowels + vowels
When reading English letter combinations that include consonants, it is necessary to take into account both letters that are part of a particular construction. The options may be as follows:
ai –– pain, rain;
ay-– game, pay;
ei –– deceive, weight, height;
ea – [e]– head, read, break;
ey –– key, grey, eye;
ee –– tree, screen;
ew –– new, few;
eu –– neutral, feudalism;
oo – [u] [ɔ:] [ʌ]– wool, pool, door, blood;
oa – [əu]– road, soap;
ou –– house, mouse;
ie – [e]– friend, field, diet.
All these variants with vowels are quite common and in English are read only in accordance with the specified reading rules. Their sound conveys only vowel sounds, however, it is important not to confuse the letter combinations, otherwise there is a risk of incorrect spelling of words and constructions.
Letter combinations consonants + consonants
It is necessary to remember very well how one or another combination of consonant letters is read, since there are significantly more such types of combinations than with vowel letters. Below are the most common ways to pronounce English consonants in combination with each other:
ch – [k] [ʃ]– chair, character, machine;
ck – [k]– stock, shock;
tch– the combination tch – is consonant with the sound ch –
– match, catch; the sound h in English is characterized by two variants of consonant combinations;
bt at the end of a word - [t]– doubt, debt;
gh– after combinations ou, au [f], [–]– cough, slight;
dg-– hedgehog, edge;
th – The interdental sound th is read in two ways. In auxiliary parts of speech and between vowel sounds, the th sound in English gives [ð]
– brother, the, and at the beginning or end of words, as well as before consonants, it sounds like [θ]
– throw, bath;
sh – the sound sh can be read as [ʃ]
– shrimp, shell;
gn – [n]– sign, reign;
mb- in the middle of a word
– remember, at the end of a word [m]– thumb;
mn – in the middle of a word
– insomnia, at the end of a word [m]– column;
kn – in the middle of a word
– sickness, at the beginning of a word [n]– knock;
wh – [w]– what, wheel;
ng- in the middle of a word [ŋg]– singer, at the end of a word [ŋ]
– ring;
ph – [f]– philosopher, photo;
wr – [r]– write, wrong.
It is important to pay attention to how th, kn and other combinations are read, which have two pronunciation options and sound differently depending on their position in the word. The rule for reading all the above combinations must always be observed, otherwise errors in the reading process and, accordingly, pronunciation will be inevitable.
Letter combinations vowels + consonants
Another option for combinations is vowels and consonants. Some letters in the alphabet can form certain ways of pronunciation, and this phonetic variation is also quite common. Here are the methods:
er- in an unstressed position [ə]
– worker, looker;
or- in an unstressed position [ə]
– doctor, traitor;
an- before consonants
– swan, plant;
al – [ɔ:]
– chat, talk. Another reading option is – half, calf;
wa –– was, water;
wor -– word, work;
war -– war, ward;
igh –– right, night;
qu –– quiet, sequence;
ild –– wild, mild;
ind -– find, bind.
All these options, presented with transcription, must be taken into account when pronouncing and reading the corresponding combinations. To display a combination of letters in English, a table can become an element that can group all the main options and present information in the most concise form. Here's what it might look like:
All these methods of combining letters of the English alphabet are very actively used in the language and are taken into account when studying phonetics and reading rules. All possible options should be memorized gradually, but it is necessary to know them, since, judging by the examples, some of them can be read differently. By focusing on all reading methods, you will be able to avoid many mistakes, and the interlocutor will be able to assess the level of preparation of the speaker, who, in turn, will correctly use the rules of letter combinations and not take liberties in pronunciation.
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