ELEMENTARY PARTICLES

Introduction

E. h. In the exact meaning of this term - primary, indecomposable particles, from the to-ry, on the assumption, the whole matter is. In the concept of "E. h." in Sovr. Physics find an expression idea of \u200b\u200bthe primordial entities that determine all the observed properties of the material world, the idea originated in the early stages of formation of natural science and always playing an important role in its development.

The concept of "E. h." Formed in close connection with the establishment of the discrete nature of the structure of the substance on microscopic. level. Detection at the turn of 19-20 centuries. The smallest carriers of the properties of the substance - molecules and atoms - and the establishment of the fact that molecules are constructed from atoms, for the first time allowed to describe all observed substances as a combination of finite, albeit large, the number of structural components - atoms. Identification of components of atoms - electrons and nuclei, the establishment of the complex nature of the nuclei itself, which were constructed from all two particles (nucleons): protons and neutrons, significantly reduced the number of discrete elements forming the properties of the substance, and gave reason to assume that the chain Component parts of matter is completed by discrete structural formations - E. Part that found out in the beginning. 20 V. The possibility of interpretation of EL - Magn. Fields as a set of special particles - photons - additionally strengthened conviction in the correctness of this approach.

Nevertheless, a formulated assumption, generally speaking, is an extrapolation of well-known facts and any strictly reasonable to be. It is impossible to argue with confidence that particles, elementary in the sense of the given definition, exist. It is also possible that the statement "consists of ..." at some stage of the study of matter will be deprived of content. From the above definition of "elementality" in this case will have to abandon. The existence of E. Ch. - This is a kind of postulate, and checking its justice is one of the most important tasks of physics.

As a rule, the term "E. h." Used in Sovr. Physics is not in its exact value, but less strictly - for the name of a large group of the smallest observed particles of matter, subordinate to the condition that they are not atoms or atomic nuclei, i.e., objects are obviously composite nature (the exception is the proton - the core of the hydrogen atom). As studies have shown, this group of particles is unusually extensive. In addition to proton (R), neutron (n), electron (e) and photon (g) These include: pi mezons (P), muons (m), tau-Leptons (T), neutrino Three types ( v. E, v. m, v. t), t. n. Strange particles ( K-Mesons and hypero), enchanted particles and charming (beautiful) particles (D- and B-Mesons and the corresponding barions), diverse resonances , in t. mesons With hidden charm and charming ( nCU-Frequencies, Ipsylon particles) And finally open in the beginning. 80s. intermediate Vector Bosons (W, Z) - There are only more than 350 particles, in the land. unstable. The number of particles included as they are discovered in this group, is constantly growing, and it can be confident that it will continue to grow. Obviously, such a huge number of particles cannot act as elementary group of matter, and indeed, in the 70s. It was shown that most of the listed particles (all the mesons and baryons) are composite systems. Particles included in this last group, more accurately should be called "subnormal" particles, since they are the specific forms of the existence of matter, unagrees in the nucleus. Using the name "E. h." For all mentioned particles has in the OSN. Stories, reasons and related to the study period (beginning of the 30s), when unity. The famous representatives of this group were a proton, neutron, electron and particle EL - Magn. Fields - Photon. Then these particles with a well-known right could apply for the role of E. h.

Opening of new microscopic. Particles gradually destroyed this simple picture of the structure of matter. However, newly discovered particles in their properties were in a number of relations close to the first four known particles: either to proton and neutron, or to an electron or to photon. As long as the number of such particles was not very large, the conviction remained that they all play the foundations. The role in the structure of matter, and they were included in the category of E. h. With the increasing of the number of particles from this belief, it was necessary to refuse, but the traditions. name "E. h." For them persisted.

In accordance with the current practice, the term "E. h." It will be used below as the overall name of all the smallest particles of matter. In cases where it comes to a part of particles applying for the role of primary elements of matter, the term will be used if necessary. "Truly elementary particles".

Brief historical information

Opening E. Part. Was a natural result of common success in the study of the structure of the substance achieved by physics in con. 19th century It was prepared by detailed studies of the spectra of atoms, the study of electric trić. phenomena in liquids and gases, the discovery of photoelectricity, RENTG. rays, nature. Radioactivity indicating the existence of a complex structure of matter.

Historically, the first open E. h. There was an electron - carrier of a negative elementary electric. Charge in atoms. In 1897 J. J. Thomson (J. J. Thomson) convincingly showed that so-called. Cathodic rays are a flow stream. Particles, which were subsequently called electrons later. In 1911 E. Rutherford (E. RUTHERFORD), skipping alpha particles from nature. Radioacte. Source through thin foil Split. Substances, came to the conclusion that put. The charge in atoms is concentrated in compact formations, and in 1919 discovered among particles embroidered from atomic nuclei, protons - particles with a single post. Charging and mass, 1840 times higher than the mass of the electron. Another particle that is part of the kernel is neutron - was opened in 1932 J. Chadwick (J. Chadwick) in studies of the interaction of A-particles with beryllium. The neutron has a mass close to the mass of the proton, but does not possess the electric. charge. The discovery of the neutron ended the detection of particles that are structural elements of atoms and their nuclei.

The conclusion about the existence of a particle of EL - Magn. Fields - photon-takes its beginning from M. Planck (M. Planck, 1900). To obtain the correct description of the spectrum of radiation absolutely black body, the placker was forced to assume that the radiation energy is divided into separate. Portions (quanta). Developing the idea of \u200b\u200bPlanck, A. Einstein in 1905 suggested that El - Magn. The radiation is the flow of quanta (photons) and on this basis explained the patterns of the photo effect. Direct experiments. The proof of the photon's existence was given by P. Milline (R. Millikan) in 1912-15 in the study of photo effect and A. Compton (A. compton) in 1922 when studying the scattering of G-quanta on electrons (see Compton Effect).

The idea of \u200b\u200bthe existence of neutrinos - particles, extremely weakly interacting with the substance, belongs to V. Pauli (W. Pauli, 1930), which indicated that such a hypothesis eliminates difficulties with the law of energy conservation in the processes of beta-decay of radioactive. nuclei. The experimental existence of neutrino was confirmed in the study of the reverse process. beta decay Only in 1956 [F. Raine (F. Reines) and K. Cowen (S. Cowan)].

From the 30s to the beginning. 50s. Exploring E. Part. It was closely related to the study space rays. In 1932 as part of Cosmich. Rays K. Anderson (S. Anderson) was discovered positron (E +) - particle with an electron mass, but with put, electric. charge. Positron was the first open anticascular. The existence of a positron directly follows from the relativistic electron theory, developed by P. Dirac (P. Dirac) in 1928-31 shortly before the positron detection. In 1936 Anderson and S. S. Neddermeyer (S. Neddermeyer) discovered when studying Cosmich. Muon rays (both signs of electric. charge) - particles with a mass of about 200 welfare electron, and otherwise surprisingly close to it by properties.

In 1947 also in Cosmich. Rays group S. Powell (S. Powell) were open + - and p - - -sezons with a mass of 274 electronic masses playing an important role in the interaction of protons with neutron in nuclei. The existence of such particles was assumed by X. Yukawa (H. Yukawa) in 1935.

Con. 40-X-NCH. 50s. Marked the discovery of a large group of particles with unusual properties that received the name. "Strange". The first particles of this group are to + and K ---Mesons, L-hyperons - were opened in Cosmich. rays, the subsequent discoveries of strange particles were made on accelerators of charged particles - installations that create intensive flow of protons and electrons of high energies. In a collision with a substance, accelerated protons and electrons give birth to new E. h., Common are then recorded with the help of complex detectors.

With nach 50s. Accelerators turned into the OSN. Tool for research E. Part in the 90s. Max. The energies of particles overclocked on accelerators amounted to hundreds of billion electronic content (GeV), and the process of energies extension continues. The desire to increase the energies of accelerated particles is due to the fact that on this path the possibilities of studying the structure of matter in the shortest distances, the higher the energy of the encountered particles, as well as the possibility of birth, all the good particles is. Accelerators significantly increased the rate of obtaining new data and in a short time expanded and enriched our knowledge of the properties of the micromyr.

The commissioning of proton accelerators with energies in billions of EV allowed to open heavy anticascies: antiproton (1955), antineutron (1956), antisigmagi-perone (I960). In 1964, the very heavy particle was opened from the group of hyperonov - W - (with a mass of approx. Two mass proton).

Starting from the 60s. With the help of accelerators, a large number was found extremely unstable (compared to other unstable E. h.) Particles received by name. reto-Nans. Most masses exceed the mass of the proton. [The first of them-D (1232), disintegrating on the p-meson and nucleon, is known since 1953.] It turned out that the computers constitute the OSN. Part of E. h.

In 1974, massive (3-4 proton masses) were found and at the same time relatively stable psi particles, over time of life, about 10 3 times a large lifetime typical of resonances. They were closely related to the new family of E. Ch. - Enchanting, the first representatives of the K-POGO (D-Mesons, L from-barion) open in 1976.

In 1977, even more difficult (approx. 10 proton masses) of the particle and particles were found, as well as psi particles, abnormally resistant for particles of such large masses. They were shifted by the existence of another unusual family of adorable, or beautiful, particles. His representatives are in-mesons - open in 1981-83, L B.- Bariona - in 1992.

In 1962, it was found that in nature there is not one type of neutrino, but at least two: electronic v. E and Muonny v. m. 1975 brought the discovery of T-lepton, the particles are almost 2 times heavier than the proton, but in the rest of the repetitive properties of the electron and the muon. Soon it became clear that another type of neutrino is connected with it v. t.

Finally, in 1983, in the course of experiments on a proton-antiprotonic collider (installation for the implementation of counter collisions of accelerated particle beams), the most difficult from those known by E. h.: Charged intermediate bosons W B (M W80 GeV) and neutral intermediate boson Z. 0 (m z \u003d. 91 GeV).

T. Oh., For almost 100 years, which have passed after the opening of the electron, a huge number of different microparticles of matter have been revealed. The world of E. h. It turned out to be quite difficult to arranged. Unexpected in MN. The relationships were the properties of detected by E. h. For their description, in addition to the characteristics borrowed from the classic. Physics, such as electric. The charge, weight, the moment of the amount of movement, it was necessary to introduce many new specials. characteristics, in particular, to describe strange, enchanted and charming (beautiful) E. Ch. weirdness [TO. Nishije (K. Nishijima), M. Gelleman (M. Gell-Mann), 1953] charm [J. Bjerken (J. Bjorken), Sh. Glashow (SH. Glashow), 1964] beauty . The names of the described characteristics reflect the unusualness of the properties described by them.

Studying The structures of the matter and properties of E. h. From the first of his steps, accompanied by a radical revision of many well-established concepts and ideas. The patterns that manage the behavior of matter in Maloma turned out to be so different from the laws of Classic. Mechanics and that demanded for their description completely new theoretical. Constructions. Such new theories were primarily private (special) relativity Theory (Einstein, 1905) and quantum mechanics (H. Bor, L. De Brogl, V. Heisenberg, E. Schrödinger, M. Born; 1924-27). The theory of relativity and quantum mechanics marked the genuine revolution in the science of nature and laid the foundations for describing the microworous phenomena. However, to describe the processes taking place with E. h., It turned out not enough. It took the next step - quantization of classic. Fields (t. N. secondary quantization) and development quantum field theory. The most important stages on the path of its development were: wording quantum electrodynamics (Dirac, 1929), quantum theory of beta decay [E. Fermi (E. Fermi), 1934] - the predecessor of the model. The phenomenological theory of weak interactions, quantum mezodynamics (X. Yukawa, 1935). This period ended with the creation follows. Calculate. The apparatus of quantum electrodynamics [C. Tomona-Ga (S. Tomonaga), P. Feynman (R. Feynman), Yu. Schvin-Ger (J. Schwinger); 1944-49] based on the use of technology renormalism . This technique was summarized in the future and on others. Options for quantum field theory.

The essential stage of the subsequent development of the quantum field theory was associated with the development of ideas about t. calibration fields or Yang - Mills Fields (Ch. Young, P. Mills, 1954), which allowed to establish the relationship of properties symmetry Interactions from fields. The quantum theory of calibration fields is currently the basis for describing the interactions of E. h. This theory has a number of serious success, and yet it is still very far from completion and can not yet claim the role of a comprehensive theory of E. h. Perhaps you will need more Not one restructuring of all ideas and a much deeper understanding of the relationship of the properties of microparticles and the properties of space-time before such the theory is built.

The main properties of elementary particles. Classes interactions

All E. h - objects of exceptionally small masses and sizes. Most of them mass M have the order of the proton mass of 1.6 · 10 -24 g (only the electron mass is noticeably: 9 · 10 -28 g). The dimensions of the proton, neutron, p- and k-mesons defined from the experiment in order of magnitude are equal to 10 -13 cm (see. "Size" of the elementary particle). The electron and muon did not determine the dimensions, it is only known that they are less than 10 -16 cm. Microscopic. The masses and sizes of E. h. Lying the quantum specificity of their behavior. Characteristic wavelengths, which should be attributed to E. in quantum theory (\u003d / TC-Compton wavelength), in order of magnitude close to typical sizes, their interaction is carried out on the reactive (for example, for P-meson / TS 1.4 · 10 -13 cm). This leads to the fact that quantum patterns are determining in the behavior of E. h.

Naib An important quantum property of all E. H is their ability to be born and destroyed (emitted and absorbing) when interacting with other particles. In this respect, they are completely similar to photons. E. C.- This is a specific. Matter quanta, more accurately - quanta appropriate fields of physical. All processes with E. h. Proceed through the sequence of acts of their absorption and emission. Only on this basis can be understood, for example, the process of the birth of P +-Meseon in a collision of two protons (P + PP + N + P +) or the electron and positron process, when instead of the disappeared particles occur, for example, two G-quanta (e + + E - G + G). But also the processes of elastic scattering of particles, for example. E - + R- > e - + P, also associated with the absorption of the beginning. Particles and the birth of finite particles. The disintegration of the unstable E. hours. On more light particles, accompanied by the release of energy, corresponds to the same pattern and is the process, in which the decay products are born at the time of the decay itself and do not exist until this point. In this regard, the disintegration of E. Part is similar to the decomposition of an excited atom on the OSN. Condition and photon. Examples of decays by E. Part. Can serve (sign "Tilda" above the particle symbol here and in the future corresponds to the antipartice).

Split. Processes with E. h. With relatively low energies [up to 10 GeV in the system of the center of mass (c. c. m.)], they differ significantly in the intensity of their flow. In accordance with this, generating their interactions by E. Part. You can phenomenologically divided into several. Classes: strong interaction, electromagnetic interaction and weak interaction . All E. h. Possess, in addition, gravitational interaction.

Strong interaction is allocated as interaction, which is responsible for processes with E. Part., Flowing with the greatest intensity compared to other processes. It leads to the strongest communication of E. Part. It is strong interaction that causes the connection of protons and neutrons in the atomic nuclei and ensures exclusions. The strength of these formations underlying the stability of the substance on earthly conditions.

El - Magn. The interaction is characterized by both the interaction, which is based on the connection with EL-Magn. Field. The processes caused by them are less intense than the processes of strong interaction, and the connection of E. h. Noticeably weaker. El - Magn. Interaction, in particular, responsible for the processes of photon radiation, for the connection of atomic electrons with nuclei and the connection of atoms in molecules.

Weak interaction, as the name itself shows, poorly affects the behavior of E. Part or causes very slow processes of changes in their state. The illustration of this statement can be, for example, the fact that neutrinos participating only in weak interaction is permanently permeated, for example, the thickness of the Earth and the Sun. Weak interaction is responsible for relatively slow decays. Quasistable E. h. As a rule, the times of life of these particles lie in the range of 10 -8 -10 -12 s, while the typical times of transitions for strong interaction of E. h. Make up 10 -23 s.

Gravitats. Interactions, well known in their macroscopic. manifestations, in the case of E. h. By virtue of the emergency smallness of their masses at characteristic distances ~ 10 -13 cm, they give extremely small effects. In the future (with the exception of Section 7), they will not be discussed.

"Power" Split. Interaction classes can be approximately characterized by dimensionless parameters associated with the squares of the corresponding constant interactions. For strong, email, weak and gravitats. Proton interactions at the energy of the processes ~ 1 BC. c. m. These parameters are correlated as 1:10 -2: 10 -10: 10 -38. The need to indicate cf. The energy of the process is associated with the fact that in the phenomenology. The theories of weak interaction is the dimensionless parameter depends on the energy. In addition, the intensity is Split. processes are very different depend on energy, and the phenomenological theory of weak interaction at the energies of large M W. in p. c. m. ceases to be fair. All this leads to what relates. The role of Split. Interaction, generally speaking, changes with an increase in the energy of interacting particles and the separation of interactions into classes based on the comparison of the intensities of the processes, is reliably carried out with not too high energies.

By Sovr. ideas, at energies above M W. (i.e. 80 GeV in p. c. m.) Weak and el - Magn. interactions are compared by strength and act as a manifestation of a single electroslab interaction. An attractive assumption was also put forward on the possible leveling of the constants of all three types of interactions, including strong, ultra-high energy, large 10 16 GeV (model T.N. Great association).

Depending on the participation in certain types of interactions, all studied by E. h., With the exception of the photon, W.- and Z-bosons are broken into two axes. Groups: hadron and leptons. The hadrons are characterized primarily by the fact that they are involved in strong interaction, along with EL - magnetic and weak, while leptons are involved only in el - magnetic and weak interactions. (The presence of a common gravity for the same group. Interaction is meant.) Mass of hadrons in order of magnitude close to the mass of the proton ( t. R ) , sometimes exceeding it in several. time; min. Mass among the hadrons has a p-meson: t. P 1 / 7 m. p ,. Mass leptons known before 1975-76 were small (0.1 m. P) - From here their name. However, later data indicate the existence of heavy T-leptons with a mass of approx. two mass proton.

The hadron-the most extensive group of famous E. h. In Shee, all baryons and mesons include, and also. Resonance (i.e., most of those mentioned 350 E. h.). As already mentioned, these particles have a complex structure and can not actually be considered as elementary. Leptons are represented by three charged (E, M, T) and three neutral particles ( v. E, v. m, v. T). Photon, W. + and Z 0 -Bosones form together an important group of calibration bosines that carry out the transfer of email interaction. The elementality of the particles from these two latter groups is not yet serious doubt.

Characteristics of elementary particles

Each E. h., Along with the specific interactions inherent in it, is described by a set of discrete values \u200b\u200bdetermined. Phys. quantities or its characteristics. In some cases, these discrete values \u200b\u200bare expressed through integer or fractional numbers and a certain common multiplier of the measurement unit; These numbers are talking about quantum numbers E. h. And only them ask them, lowering the unit of measurement.

General characteristics of all E. h - Mass ( t), lifetime (t), spin ( J.) and electric. charge ( Q).

Depending on the lifetime of T E. h. They are divided into stable, quasi-persons and unstable (resonances). Stable, within the accuracy of the Sovar. Measurements are an electron (T\u003e 2 · 10 22 years old), proton (T\u003e 5 · 10 32 years), photon and all types of neutrino. Quasistable includes particles disintegrating due to email. and weak interactions. Their lifetimes lie in the range from 900 C for the free neutron to 10 -20 C for S 0-hyperon. Romo-Nans called. E. h., Disintegrating due to strong interaction. Their characteristic times of life are 10 -22 -10 -24 s. In tab. 1 They are marked with a icon * and instead of t a more convenient value: the width of the resonance r \u003d / t.

Spin E. h. J. It is an integer or half-heer multiple value. In these units of spin p- and k-mesons are 0, proton, neutron and all leptons J \u003d. 1/2, at the photon, W B.- and z-bosons J \u003d.1. There are particles and with a big back. The magnitude of the spin E. h. Determines the behavior of the ensemble of the same (identical) particles or their statistics (Pauli, 1940). Half-heer spin particles obey Fermi - Dirac Statistics (Hello named. Fermions), K-paradium requires antisymmetry of the wave f-system of the system relative to the permutation of a pair of particles (or the odd number of such permutations) and, therefore, "prohibits" two particles of the half-ranger spin to be in the same state ( Pauli principle). Parsects of a whole back are obeying Base - Einstein Statistics (Hence the name of the bosons), K-paradium requires a wave f-connection relative to the permutations of particles and allows for the destruction of any number of particles of a whole back in the same state. Statistical. The properties of E. h. are essential in those cases when at birth or decay is formed several. identical particles.

NOTE. Sign * On the left marked particles (typically, resonances), for re-first instead of time the life of T is shown width r \u003d / t. True neutralparticles are placed in the middle between particles and antiparticles. Members of one isotopic multithe shoulders are located on the same line (in those cases, when you know the characteristics of each member of the Multipleet, - with a little shifting vertical). Changesigning sign P. Antibarion does not specify equalbut as a change in signs S, C, B y all antiparticles. For leptons and intermediate bosons inner ready is not exact (preserving) quantovisible and therefore is not indicated. Figures in brackets at the end of the cited physical quantities denote an existing error in the value of these values \u200b\u200brelating to the last of the given numbers.

Electric. Charges studied by E. h. (except) are whole multiple values e \u003d. 1.6 · 10 -19 CL (4.8 · 10 -10 CGS), called. elementary electric charge. At the famous E. h. Q \u003d. 0, + 1, B2.

In addition to these quantities, E. h. Additionally characterized by a number of quantum numbers, called. "Internal". Leptons carry specific. lepton number (L) Three types: electronic L E.equal to +1 for e - and v E., muon L. m, equal to +1 for m - and v. M, I. L. T, equal to +1 for T - and v. t.

For holders L \u003d.0, and this is another manifestation of their differences from Leptons. In turn, it means. Parts of the administs should be attributed to. baryon number in (| b | \u003d I. ) . Hadron S. B \u003d +.1 form a subgroup of Barionov (here includes proton, neutron, hyperons; fascinated and charming bars, baryon resonances), and hadrons with B \u003d.0 - subgroup of mesons (p-mesons, k-mesons, enchanted and charming mesons, boson resonances). Name The undergroups of hadrons occur from Greek. The words Baruv - heavy and mesov - the middle, which is beginning. Stage of research by E. Part. reflected comparable. The magnitude of the masses of those known then bariones and mesons. Later data showed that the mass of barions and mesons are comparable. For lepton B.\u003d 0. For photon W B.- and Z-bosons B. \u003d 0 I. L \u003d. 0.

The studied baroons and mesons are divided into already mentioned aggregates: conventional (non-penetrating) particles (proton, neutron, p-mesons), strange particles (hyperons, k-mesons), enchanted and adorable particles. This separation is responsible for the presence of special quantum numbers: oddities S., charming and charms (beauty) b. with permissible values \u200b\u200b(module) 0, 1, 2, 3. for conventional particles S.\u003d C \u003d. b.\u003d 0, for strange particles S.0, C \u003d b. \u003d 0, for placed particles C0, b.\u003d 0, and for adorable b.O. Along with these quantum numbers, a quantum number is also used hypercover Y \u003d B + S + C + Bhaving, apparently, more founts. value.

Already the first studies of conventional hadrons revealed the presence among them families of particles close by weight and with very similar properties in relation to severe interaction, but with respect. Values \u200b\u200bof electric. Charge. Proton and neutron (nucleons) were the first example of such a family. Such families were later discovered among strange, enchanted and adorable hadrons. The community of properties of particles included in such families is a reflection of the existence of the same quantum number of them - isotopic spin I.accepting, as well as ordinary spin, integers and half-purpose values. The families themselves are usually called. isotopic multiplets. The number of particles in the multiplet n. associated with I. By relationship n. = 2I.+1. Particles of single isotope. Multiplet differ from each other by the value of "projection" isotopic. back I. 3, and the corresponding values Q. Given expression

Important characteristics of hadrons - internal readiness P.associated with the operation of spaces. Inversion: P. Takes values + 1.

For all E. h. With nonzero values \u200b\u200bof at least one of the quantum numbers Q, L, B, S, C, B There are antiparticles with the same mass values t., time of life t, back J. And for Herrons Isotopic. back I.But with the opposite signs of these quantum numbers, and for barions with the opposite sign. Ready R. Particles that do not have antiparticles, called. true neutral particles. Truly neutral hadrons possess special. - charging (i.e. readily with respect to the charging interface) with the values + one; Examples of such particles can serve as p 0 - and h-mesons (C \u003d + 1), R 0 - and F-mesons (C \u003d -1), etc.

The quantum numbers of E. h. They are divided into T about ch. (I.e., those that are associated with physicals. The values \u200b\u200bthat persist in all processes) and the corresponding relevant Phys. Values \u200b\u200bin a number of processes are not saved). Spin J. associated with the strict law of conservation and therefore is an accurate quantum number. Another exact quantum number-electric. charge Q.. Without the accuracy of measurements, quantum numbers are also preserved B. and L.Although this does not exist serious theoretical. Prerequisites. Moreover observed baryon asymmetry of the Universe Naib Naturally, it can be interpreted in the assumption of a disturbance of the conservation of the baryon number IN (A. D. Sakharov, 1967). Nevertheless, the observed proton stability is the reflection of the high degree of preservation accuracy B. and L. (No, for example, the decay of PE + + P 0). The decays of M - E - + G, T - M - + G, etc., however, most of the quantum numbers of intractorous hadrons are not observed. Isotopic. Spin, persistent in strong interaction, is not preserved in EL - Magn. and weak interactions. Strangeness, charm and charming are preserved in strong and email. Interactions, but are not preserved in weak interaction. Weak interaction also changes internal. and the charge readiness of the totality of particles involved in the process. With a much greater degree of accuracy, combined readiness remains CP (CP-Change)However, it is disturbed in some processes caused. Causes causing missing MN. The quantum numbers of hadrons are not clear and, apparently, are associated both with the nature of these quantum numbers and with the deep structure of the email interaction.

In tab. 1 shows NaB. Well studied by E. Part. from the groups of leptons and hadrons and their quantum numbers. In special The group highlighted calibration bosons. Separately given particles and antiparticles (change P. Antibarion does not specify). True neutral particles are placed in the center of the first column. Members of one isotope. The multiplet is located in one line, sometimes with a slight offset (in cases where the characteristics of each multiplet member are given).

As already noted, the lepton group is very small, and the masses of particles in the OSN. Male For the masses of all types of neutrino, there are rather hard restrictions on top, but what their true values \u200b\u200bare still to find out.

OSN. Part of E. h. Make up hadron. Increasing the number of famous E. in the 60-70s. It took place exclusively at the expense of this group. The hadrons in their most presented with resonances. The trend towards the growth of the spin as the mass of resonances increases; She is well traced on Split. groups of mesons and bariones with specified I., S. and C. It should also be noted that strange particles are somewhat massive than conventional particles, the placed particles are massive than strange, and the adorable particles are massitive fascinated.

Classification of elementary particles. Quartovaya model of hadron

If the classification of calibration bosons and leptons does not cause special problems, then a large number of hadrons are already in the beginning. 50s. It was the basis for finding patterns in the distribution of masses and quantum numbers of barions and mesons, which could be the basis of their classification. Isotopic selection. Herlonom multiplets were the first step on this path. With Mat. Point of view The grouping of hadrons in isotopic. Multiplets reflect the presence of a strong interaction of symmetry associated with rotation group, more formally, with a unitary group SU. (2) - a group of transformations in a complex two-dimensional space [see SU symmetry (2 )] . It is assumed that these transformations act in a certain specificity. Internal space - t. n. Isotopic. space, different from the usual. The existence of isotope. Spaces are manifested only in the observed properties of symmetry. On Mat. Isotopic language. Multiplets essence are irreducible group presentation Symmetry SU. (2).

The concept of symmetry as a factor determining the existence of Split. Groups and families of E. h. in Sovr. Theories, is the dominant when classifying hadron and other E. h. It is assumed that internal. Quantum numbers of E. Part, allowing you to unite certain groups of particles are associated with specials. Symmetry types that occur at the expense of freedom of transformations into special ext. Spaces. From here and the name occurs. "Internal quantum numbers."

Attentive consideration shows that strange and conventional hadrons together form wider parts of particles with close properties than isotopic. Multiplets. They are called superMulte-Welders. The number of particles included in the observed super-multiplets is 8 and 10. From the point of view of symmetry, the emergence of supermultiplets is interpreted as a manifestation of existence in strong interaction of the symmetry group is wider than a group SU (2) , namely unitary group SU. (3) - groups of transformations in a three-dimensional complex space [Gell-Man, Y. Neeman (Y. Neeman), 1961]; cm. Symetry Su (3). The corresponding symmetry received the name. Unitary symmetry. Group SU. (3) It has, in particular, irreducible representations with the number of components 8 and 10, which can be compared to the observed supermultiplets: octetu and decapilation. Examples of supermultiplets can serve as the following particle groups with the same values J P. (i.e. with identical pairs of values J. and P):

Unitary symmetry is less accurate than isotope. symmetry. In accordance with this, the difference in the masses of particles entering octets and the decoupiles are quite significant. For the same reason, the splitting of the hadrons on the supermulti-rift is relatively simply carried out for E. h. Not very large masses. At large masses when there is a lot of spindlers. Particles with close masses, this partition is more complicated.

Detection among the hadrons of the allocated supermult plits of fixed dimensions corresponding to the defraged affairs. representations of the unitary group SU. (3), was the key to the most important conclusion about the existence of special structural elements at the hadrons - quarks.

The hypothesis that the observed hadrons are built of particles of unusual nature - quarks carrying spin 1 / 2, which have a strong interaction, but at the same time, not belonging to the classroom class, J. Collegum (G. zweig) was put forward and independently gel-man in 1964 (see Quark models). The idea of \u200b\u200bquarks was suggested by Mat. The structure of the ideas of unitary groups. MA-Top. Formalism opens up the possibility of describing all representations of the group SU (N.) (and, therefore, all the Multiplets associated with it) based on multiplying the simplest (founds) of the presentation of the group containing n. component. It is only necessary to allow the existence of special particles associated with these components, which was made by the collar and gel-man for a particular case of the group SU (3) . These particles were called quarks.

The specific quark composition of the mesons and baryons was derived from the fact that the mesons, as a rule, are included in the supermultiplets with a particle number of 8, and Bari-OA-8 and 10. This pattern is easily reproduced, assuming that the mesons are composed of quark And antiquark, symbolically: M \u003d (Q) , and Baryion-of three quarks, symbolically: B \u003d (QQQ). B force group properties SU.(3) 9 mesons are divided into supermultiplets from 1 and 8 particles, and 27 barione-on supermultiplets containing 1, 10 and twice 8 particles, which explains the observed allocation of octets and decumbosses.

T. Oh. Revealed by experiments of the 60s. The existence of supermultiplets compiled from ordinary and strange hadrons made it possible to conclude that all these hadrons are built of 3 quarks, usually denoted and, d, s (Table 2). The whole totality of the facts known to the point perfectly agreed with this proposal.

Table. 2..-Characteristics of quarks

* Preliminary experimental assessment.

The subsequent detection of psi particles, and then the particles, fascinated and charming hadron, showed that to explain their properties of three quarks there is not enough and it is necessary to allow the existence of two more types of quarks c. and b.carrying new quantum numbers: charm and charm. This circumstance is not shake, however, the main positions of the quark model. The center was preserved, in particular. The paragraph of its structure of the structure of the dors: M \u003d (Q), B \u003d (QQQ). Moreover, it was based on the assumption of the quark structure of Psi and Ipsylon particles that Piz was able to give. Interpretation of them in many ways unusual properties.

Historically, the discovery of psycho and inside particles, as well as new types of fascinated and charming hadrons, was an important stage in approving the ideas about the quark structure of all the most significant particles. According to the model. Theoretical. Models (see below) should expect the existence of another one - the sixth t.The welding, which was discovered in 1995.

The above quark structure of the hadron and Mat. Properties of quarks as objects associated with the foundations. representation of the group SU (N), lead to the following quantum quark numbers (Table 2). Attention is drawn to unusual (fractional) electrical values. Charge Q., as well as INnot found by any of the studied E. h. with the index a for each type of quark q I. (i.\u003d 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6) The special characteristics of quarks is associated - color , I don't have observable hadrons. Index A takes values \u200b\u200b1, 2, 3, i.e. each type of quark ( q I.) presented three varieties q. A. I. . Quantum numbers of each type of quark do not change when color changes, so Table. 2 refers to quarks of any color. As shown later, the values q. a (for everyone i.) When a change in the point of view of their transformer. Properties should be considered as components of the foundations. Representations of another group SU. (3), the color acting in the color three-dimensional space [see Color Symmetry SU.(3)].

The need to administer the color follows from the requirement of the antisymmetry of the wave f-system of the system of quarks forming baryons. Quarks, as particles with backs 1/2, must obey Fermi Dirac statistics. Meanwhile, there are baroons composed of three identical quarks with the same back orientation: D ++ (), W - (), which are clearly symmetric about the permutations of quarks, if the latter do not possess. degree of freedom. Such will complement. The degree of freedom is color. Taking into account the color required antisymmetry is easily restored. The refined structural composition of the mesons and bariones look like this as follows:

where E ABG is a completely antisymmetric tensor ( Levi-Chi-Vita symbol)(1/ 1/ - Multiple multipliers). It is important to note that neither the mesons nor Bariona carry color indices (devoid of colors) and are, as they sometimes say, "white" particles.

In tab. 2 shows only the "efficient" mass of quarks. This is due to the fact that quarks are in a free state, despite numerous careful searches, were not observed. In this, by the way, another feature of quarks as particles are completely new, unusual nature. Therefore, there are no direct data on the mass of quarks. There are only indirect estimates of the quarks of quarks, which can be extracted from them. Dynamic manifestations in the characteristics of the hadrons (including the masses of the latter), as well as in Split. Processes occurring with blood-rone (decays, etc.). For mass t.The welding is given preliminary experiments. Evaluation.

All varieties of hadrons occurs at the expense of the Split. Combinations i-, D-, S-, with- I. b.Holders forming related states. Conventional regions correspond to the associated states built only from and- I. d.-varkov [for mesons with the possible participation of combinations ( s..), (from) and ( b.)]. The presence in the associated state, along with u.- I. d.Sales, one s-, S.- or b.- welding means that the corresponding hedron is strange ( S.\u003d - 1), enchanted (c \u003d + 1) or adorable ( b.\u003d - 1). The composition of the Barione may include two and three s.Warehouse (respectively from- I. b.-Work), i.e. it is possible twice and three times strange (enchanting, charming) barions. The combinations are also allowed. numbers s.- I. from-, b.-Avarkov (especially in Bariones), which correspond to the "hybrid" forms of hadron (strange-fascinated, strangely adorable). Obviously, the more s-, S.- or b.The welders contains hell, the more massive. If you compare the main (not excited) conditions of the dors, it is such a picture and is observed (Table 1).

Since spin quarks is 1 / 2, given above, the quark structure of the hadrons has its consequence an integer spin in the mesons and a semi-free - from Barione, in full compliance with the experiment. At the same time in states corresponding to the orbital moment l.\u003d 0, in particular in the OSN. states, the values \u200b\u200bof the back of the mesons should be 0 or 1 (for anti-parallel and parallel orientation of the spins of quarks), and the spin of the Barionics: 1 / 2 or 3/2 (for spin configurations and ). Taking into account the fact that Quark-anti-kark system is negative, values J P. For mesons l. \u003d 0 equal to 0 - and 1 -, for borons: 1/2 + and 3/2 +. It is these values \u200b\u200bthat are observed in the hadrons having the smallest mass at the specified values I. and S., FROM, b..

As an illustration in Table. 3 and 4 shows the Kv-Kom composition of the mesons with J P. \u003d 0 - and Barionov J p \u003d. 1 / 2 + (Everywhere the necessary summation of quark colors) is assumed.

Table. 3. Quarter composition of studied mesons from J P.=0 - ()

Table. 4. Quick composition of the studied barionics from J P.= 1/2 + ()

NOTE. Symbol () means symmetrization by variable particles; Symbol - Antisimmetry.

T. Oh., Quark model of nature. Just explains the origin of the OSN. Adric groups and their observed quantum numbers. A more detailed dynamic consideration also makes it possible to make a number of useful conclusions regarding the interconnection of the masses inside Ring. family of hadron.

Correctly transferring the specifics of hadrons with the smallest masses and spins, the quark model of nature. The general number of hadrons and the predominance of resonances among them also explains. The numerousness of the hadrons is the reflection of their complex structure and the possibility of existence. excited states of quark systems. All excited states of quark systems are unstable relative to fast transitions due to strong interaction in the underlying states. They form the OSN. Part of resonances. A small proportion of resonances also make up quark systems with parallel orientation of spins (with the exception of W -). Quark configurations with anti-parallel orientation of spins belonging to the OSN. States form a quasi-walled hadron and a stable proton.

The excitation of quark systems occur as due to changes rotate. The movements of quarks (orbital excitations) and by changing their spaces. Location (radial excitation). In the first case, the mass increase in the system is accompanied by a change in the total spin J. And Ready P. Systems, in the second case, the increase in mass occurs unchanged J P. .

When formulating a quark model, quarks were considered as hypothetical. Structural elements opening the possibility of a very convenient description of the hadrons. In subsequent years, experiments were carried out, to-rye allow us to talk about quarks as real material formations within the hadrons. The first were experiments on scattering electrons on nucleons on very large angles. These experiments (1968) resembling classic. Rangeford experiments on the scattering of A-particles on atoms, revealed the presence within the nucleon of point charge. formations (see Party.). The formation of these experiments with similar data on the scattering of neutrino on nucleons (1973-75) made it possible to make a conclusion about Wed. The magnitude of the square of the electric. Charge of these point formations. The result was close to the expected fractional values \u200b\u200b(2/3) 2 e. 2 and (1/3) 2 e. 2. Studying the process of the birth of hadrons for annihlation of an electron and positron, which is presumably going through the following stages:

pointed out the presence of two groups of heaps, so on. jets (see String wash) Genetically associated with each of the required quarks, and made it possible to determine the spin of quarks. It turned out to be equal to 1/2. The total number of blood-born in this process also testifies that in an intermediate state, each type of quark is represented by three varieties, i.e. quarks are three times.

T. Oh., Quantum quark numbers specified on the basis of theoretical. Considerations received comprehensive experiments. the confirmation. Quarks actually acquired the status of new E. Part. And there are serious applicants for the role of true E. Part. For the strongest forms of matter. The number of known types of quarks is small. To length<=10 -16 см кварки выступают как точечные бесструктурные образования. Бесструктурность кварков, конечно, может отражать лишь достигнутый уровень исследования этих материальных образований. Однако ряд специфич. особенностей кварков даёт известные основания предполагать, что кварки являются частицами, замыкающими цепь структурных составляющих сильновзаимодействующей материи.

From all other E. h. Quarks are distinguished by the fact that they seem to do not exist in a free state, although there are clear evidence of their existence in the associated state. This feature of quarks is most likely due to the specifics of their interaction generated by the exchange of special particles - gluions, resulting in the fact that the forces of attraction between them are not weakened with distance. As a result, for separation of quarks from each other, infinite energy is required, which is obviously impossible (theory of t. N. Confinement or kvkov prison; see Hold color) .Really when trying to separate the quarks from each other, education will complement. Helrons (so-called. Adronization of quarks). The impossibility of observing quarks in free state makes them a completely new type of structural units of the substance. It is unclear, for example, whether in this case it is possible to raise the question of components of quarks and thereby fails the sequence of structural components of matter. All of the above leads to the conclusion that quarks, along with leptons and calibration bosons, also not having observed signs of the structure, form a group of E. h., K-paradium has the greatest reason to qualify for the role of truly E. h.

Elementary particles and quantum field theory. Standard interaction model

To describe the properties and interactions of E. h. In Sovr. Theories of creatures. The value of the physical field is the concept of a physical field, which is put in accordance with each particle. The field is a specific. shape distributed in the space matter; It is described by F-Qius as defined in all points of space-time and possessing the definition. Transformer. properties in relation to transformations Lorenz Group (Scalar, spinor, vector, etc.) and groups "Internal." Symmetry (isotope. Scalar, isotope. Spinor, etc.). El - Magn. Field with the properties of the four-dimensional vector A. M ( x.) (m \u003d 1, 2, 3, 4), - historically the first example of Piz. Fields. Fields compared by E. h., Have a quantum nature, i.e. their energy and impulse are composed of a set of deployment. portions - quanta, and complete energy e K. and impulse p K. Quantum are associated with the ratio of specials. Theories of relativity: E 2 K. \u003d R. 2 K S. 2 + T. 2 from four . Each such a quantum is E. h. With a mass t., with a given energy e K. and impulse p K.. Quantas El - Magn. Fields are photons, quanta dr. Fields correspond to all other famous E. h. Ma-Top. The quantum field theory of the field (KTP) allows you to describe the birth and destruction of the particle in each spatial-time point.

Transformer. The field properties are determined by the OSN. Quantum numbers of E. Part. Transformation properties in relation to the transformations of the Lorentz group set the spin of particles: the scalalar corresponds to the spin J \u003d.0, Spinard - Spin J \u003d. 1 / 2, vector - spin J \u003d.1, etc. Transformer. Properties of fields in relation to transformations "Internal." spaces ("charging space", "isotopic space", "unitary space", "color space") determine the existence of such quantum numbers as L, B, I, S, FROM, b., a for quarks and gluons also colors. Introduction "Internal" Spaces in the apparatus of theory - as long as a purely formal reception, which, however, can be an indication that the dimension of the Piz. space-time, reflected in the properties of E. Part, really more than four - i.e. More dimension space-time characteristic of all macroscopic. Phys. processes.

The mass of E. h. Not related directly to the transformer. Properties of fields. This is an additional characteristic, the origin of the rear is not understood until the end.

To describe the processes taking place with E. h., In KTP used Lagrangez formalism .IN lagrangianaBuilt from the fields involved in the interaction of particles, all information about the properties of particles and the dynamics of their behavior are concluded. Lagrangian includes two ch. The components: Lagrangian, describing the behavior of the free fields, and Lagrangian interaction, reflecting the relationship of Split. The fields and the possibility of transforming E. h. Knowledge of the exact form allows you in principle using the device scattering matrices (S.- Satisfaci), calculate the probabilities of transitions from the initial set of particles to a given finite set of particles occurring under the influence of the interaction existing between them. T. Oh., Establishing a structure that opens the possibility of quantities. Descriptions of processes with E. h., is one of the center. KTP tasks.

Creatures. Promotion in solving this problem was achieved in the 50-70s. Based on the development of ideas about vector calibration fields, formulated in the already mentioned work Yang and Mills. Stripping from a certain provision that anyone observed experimentally conservation law is associated with the invariance of the Lagrangian system relative to the transformations of some symmetry group ( Neuter Theorem.), Young and Mills demanded that this invariance be carried out locally, that is, there was a place at arbitrary dependence of transformations from the point-time point. It turned out that the implementation of this requirement physically related to the fact that the interaction cannot be instantly transmitted from the point to the point, it is possible only when introduced into the structure of Lagrangian specials. Calibration fields of vector nature, determined. The symmetry group transforming during transformations. And the structure of the free Lagrangian and found themselves in the specified approach are closely related: knowledge to it means. The least predetermined species

The latter circumstance is due to the fact that the requirement of local calibration invariance It can only be performed when in all derivatives acting on free fields in, replacement Here g. - Constant interaction; V. a M - calibration fields; T. A - symmetry group generators in the matrix representation corresponding to the free field; r. - Group dimension.

By virtue of the above-visited Lagrangian, members are automatically arising strictly determined. Structures describing the interaction of fields, originally included in, with newly entered calibration fields. In this case, calibration fields carry out the role of interaction between the source fields. Of course, since new calibration fields appeared in Lagrangian, the free Lagrangian should be supplemented with a member associated with them, and to undergo a procedure for modifications described above. With accurate compliance with calibration invariance, the calibration fields correspond to the bosons with a zero mass. With a symmetry violation, the mass of bosons is excellent from zero.

In this approach, the task of constructing a Lagrangian, reflecting the dynamics of interacting fields, is essentially reduced to the correct selection of the field system, which constitute the original free Lagrangian and fixing its shape. The latter, however, at a given transformation properties relative to the Lorentz group, is uniquely determined by the requirement of relativistic invariance and the obvious requirement of the entry of only structures, quadratic in the fields.

T. Oh., Basic to describe the dynamics is the question of choosing a system of primary fields that form, i.e. actually all the same center. The issue of physics E. h.: "What particles (and respectively fields) should be considered the most fundamental (elementary) when describing the observed particles of matter?".

Sovr. The theory, as already noted, releases as such particles structured particles with spin 1/2: quarks and leptons. Such a choice allows, relying on the principle of local calibration invariance, to build a very successful scheme for the description of strong and el - weak interactions of E. Part, which received the name. S t a n d and rk n o y m o d e l and.

The model comes first of all from the assumption that accurate symmetry takes place for strong interaction SU C.(3), which meets the transformations in the "color" three-dimensional space. It assumes that quarks are converted by the foundations. Group representation SU C.(3). The implementation of the requirement of local calibration invariance for a quark lagrangian leads to the appearance of eight massless calibration bosons in the structure of the theory, called gluons, interacting with quarks (and together) strictly determined. Uncipient (Fritzsh, Göll-Man, 1972). The scheme developed on this basis is the name of the strong interaction received named. quantum chromodynamics. The correctness of its predictions is confirmed by the numerous. Experiments, including convincing evidence of the existence of gluons. There are also serious reasons to believe that the apparatus of quantum chromodynamics contains an explanation of the phenomenon of the confinement.

When constructing an el - weak interaction theory, the fact that the existence of lepton couples with the same lepton number was used ( L E, L V, L t), but with different electrics. charge (e -, v E.; M -, v. m; T -, v. t) can be interpreted as a manifestation of symmetry associated with a group of so-called. Weak Isospin SU. Sl (2), and the couples themselves consider as spinor (double) submission of this group. A similar interpretation is possible against couples of quarks involved in weak interaction. Note that consideration within this scheme of weak interaction with the participation of quark b. Slowness leads to the conclusion about the existence of his isotopic partner quark t.constituting a pair ( t, B). The allocation of weak interaction is determined. spirality (left) In the participants in it, fermions additionally can be considered as a manifestation of symmetry U. Sl (1) associated with a weak hypercage Y. sl. At the same time, the left and right fermions should be attributed to different values \u200b\u200bof the hypercaste Y. Sl, and right fermions need to be considered as isotopic scalar. In the accepted construction, the ratio naturally occurs Q. = I. 3 CL + 1/2 Y. SL, who has already encountered the hadrons.

So, attentive analysis of el - weak interaction of leptons and quarks allows you to reveal the presence of symmetry (noticeable, however, disturbed) corresponding to the group SU. Sl (2) U. CL ( 1) . If you distract from the violation of this symmetry and take advantage of the strict condition of local calibration invariance, the el - low interaction of quarks and leptons will arise, four massless bosons (two charged and two neutral) and two interaction constants corresponding to groups appear in K-Roy SU. Sl (2) and U. Sl (1). In this theory, the members of Lagrangian, which respond to interaction with the charge. bosons, correctly reproduce the well-known structure charged currentsBut does not ensure the shortestream observed in weak processes, which is not surprising, because the zero mass of intermediate bosons leads to a long-range. Hence only the fact that in re-alistic. The theories of weak interaction of the mass of intermediate bosons should be finite. It is in accordance with the fact of the impaired symmetry SU. Sl (2) U. Sl (1).

However, the direct administration of finite masses of intermediate bosons into the Lagrangian constructed described in the manner described above is not possible, since it is in conflict with the requirement of local calibration invariance. To take into account the consistent dimension of symmetry and achieve the appearance in the theory of finite masses of intermediate bosons managed with the help of an important assumption of the existence in the nature of special scalar fields F ( Higgs Fields)interacting with fermion and calibration fields and possessing specific self-esteem leading to the phenomenon spontaneous violation of symmetry [P. Higgs (P. Higgs), 1964]. Introduction to Lagrangian theory in the simplest embodiment of one doublet (according to a group of weak isospin) Higgs fields leads to the fact that the entire field system moves to a new, lower vacuum state corresponding to the impaired symmetry. If source vacuum average from the field F was zero<Ф> 0 \u003d 0, then in a new state<Ф> 0 \u003d F 0 0. Violation of symmetry and appearance in the theory of finite F 0 results in due Higgs mechanism To the uncomfortable mass of the charge. Intermediate bosons W. + and to the emergence of mixing (linear combination) of two neutral bosons appear in theory. As a result of mixing, massless email arises. The field interacting with EL - Magn. Current of quarks and leptons, and a field of massive neutral boson Z. 0, interacting with neutral current Strictly specified structure. Parameter (angle) of mixing ( Vine Berg angle) Neutral bosons in this scheme sets the relationship interaction constants U. Sl (L) and SU. Sl (2) : TGQ. W \u003d g "/ g. The same parameter determines the connection of the masses m W. and m z (m z \u003d m w /cOSQ. W.) And the connection of the electric. Charge e S. Constant of a group of weak isospin g: E. = g.sINQ. W. . Detection in 1973 in the study of the scattering of neutrino neutral weak currents predicted by the scheme described above, and then the opening followed in 1983 W.- And Z-bosons with the masses, respectively, 80 GeV and 91 GeV brilliantly confirmed the entire concept of a single description of EL - Magn. and weak interactions. Experiment. SIN 2 Q Definition W \u003d 0.23 showed that constant g. and electric. charge e. close in magnitude. It became clear that the "weakness" of weak interaction at energies noticeably smaller m W. and m Z., in Osn. due to the large amount of mass of intermediate bosons. Indeed, the constant of the phenomenological four-footer theory of the faint interaction of Fermi G F. in the outlined scheme is equal to G f \u003d g 2 /8m. 2 W.. This means that eff. Constant of weak interaction at energy in p. c. m. ~ T R.equal G f m p 2 10 -5, and its square is close to 10 -10, i.e. to the value given above. With the energies in S.TS.m., large or order m W., the only parameter characterizing weak interaction becomes the value g. 2 / 4P or e. 2 / 4P, i.e. Weak and el - Magn. Interaction becomes comparable in intensity and should be considered jointly.

Construction of a single description of EL - Magn. and weak interactions is an important achievement of the theory of calibration fields, compared to significance with the development of Maxwell in con. 19th century Unified Theory of EL - Magn. phenomena. Quantities. The predictions of el - weak interaction in all measurements carried out with an accuracy of 1%. Important Piz. The consequence of the specified construction is the conclusion about the existence of a new type of particle - neutral Higgsa Bosona. On start 90s. Such a particle was not detected. The search has shown that its mass exceeds 60 GeV. The theory does not, however, however, the exact prediction for the weight of the Higgs boson mass. It can only be argued that the value of its mass does not exceed 1 TEV. Evaluation values \u200b\u200bof the mass of this particle lie in the range of 300-400 GeV.

So, the "standard model" selects as a Fun ladies. particles three couples quarks ( and, D.)(from, s) (t, b) and three pairs of leptons ( v E, E -)(v. M, M -) ( v. T, T -), usually grouped in accordance with their masses in the family (or generation) as follows:

and postulates that their interactions satisfy symmetries SU. Sl (3) SU. Sl (2) U. Sl (L). As a result, the theory is obtained, in which the interaction carriers are calibration bosines: gluons, photon, W B. and Z. And although the "standard model" is very successfully copes with the description of all known facts belonging to E.Ch., nevertheless, most likely, it is an intermediate stage in building a more advanced and comprehensive theory of E.C. In the structure of the "standard model" there are still quite a few arbitrary, empirically determined parameters (values \u200b\u200bof the masses of quarks and leptons, the values \u200b\u200bof the interaction constants, mixing angles, etc.). The number of generations of fermions in the model is also not defined. While the experiment confidently approves only that the number of generations does not exceed three if there is no heavy neutrino with the masses in several. Dozens of GeV.

From the point of view of the properties of symmetry of interactions, it would be more natural to expect that in the comprehensive theory of E.C. Instead of a direct product of symmetry groups, one group of symmetry will appear G. with one corresponding to the constant of interaction. A group of symmetry of the "standard model" in this case could be interpreted as the reduction products of a large group with a violation of the symmetry associated with it. On this path, in principle, the possibility of a great association of interactions could arise. The formal basis of such an association can be the property of change with energy eff. Calibration Pole Interaction Constant g I. 2 / 4p \u003d a I. (i.\u003d 1, 2, 3), which occurs when taking into account the highest order of the theory (t. N. Running constants). In this case, the constant A 1 is related to the group U (i); A 2 - with a group SU (2); a 3 -c group SU (3) . Mentioned very slow (logarithmic) changes are described by the expression

binding values \u200b\u200beff. Constant A. I (M.) and A. I.(m) at two differing energy values: M. and M ( M\u003e m). The nature of these changes is different for Split. Symmetry groups (and, consequently, Split. interactions) and gives coefficients b I., absorbing information both about the structure of symmetry groups and parties participating in the interaction. Insofar as b. 1 , b. 2 I. b. 3 different, permissible the possibility that, despite the noticeable discrepancies of the values \u200b\u200bof A I. -1 (m) with the energies studied M, with very large energies M. All three meanings a I. -1 (M.) Socons, i.e., a great interaction association will be implemented. Careful analysis, however, showed that within the standard model using known values \u200b\u200ba I. -1 (m), get a coincidence of all three values \u200b\u200ba I. -1 (M.) With some big M. It is impossible, i.e. An option of the theory with the great association in this model is not implementing. At the same time, it was found out that in schemes other than the standard model, with a modified composition of the OSN. (Foundams.) Fields or particles, a great association may take place. Changes in the ASN. Particles lead to changes in the values \u200b\u200bof the coefficients " b I."And thereby ensure the possibility of coincidence A I. (M.) With big M..

Guideling idea when choosing a changed composition of the OSN. The theory particles appeared the idea of \u200b\u200ba possible existence in the world of E. h. supersymmetry, K-paradium sets the definition. Relationships between particles of the whole and half-ranger spin appear in theory. To comply with the requirements of supersymmetry, for example. In the case of a standard model, each particle must be delivered to a particle with spin, offset by 1/2 - and in case of accurate supersymmetry, all these particles must have the same masses. So, quarks and leptons Spin 1/2 must be put in line with their supersymmetric partners (superparter) with spin zero, all calibration bosons with backs 1 -ach superparter with back 1/2, and boson Higgs spin zero - SuperPartner with back 1 / 2. Since in the explorer the energy of quarks, leptons and calibration bosons are not observed, supersymmetry, if it exists, should be noticeably impaired, and the mass of the superpartrines must have values \u200b\u200bsignificantly exceeding the values \u200b\u200bof the masses of known fermions and bosons.

The consistent expression requires the requirement of supersymmetry in the minimum supersymmetric model (MCCM), in which in addition, in addition to the changes already listed as part of the particles of the standard model, the number of higgs bosons increases to five (two of them are charged and three-neutral particles). Accordingly, in the model there are five superpartineers of Higgs bosons with spin 1/2 - MCCM - the simplest generalization of the standard model in case of supersymmetry. Value M., when coincided, the coincidence is I. (M.) (Great Combination), in MCCM approximately equal to 10 16 GeV.

A hypothesis about the existence of supersymmetry is associated with one of the promising possibilities for the development of the theory of calibration fields, which is allowed to be internal. Problems related to the resistance of the parameters that appear in it. Supersymmetry, as noted, allows you to preserve in the theory of E. Part. An attractive possibility of a great interaction unification. The decisive confirmation of the existence of supersymmetry would be the detection of superpartinerals of famous particles. According to estimates, their masses lie in the range of hundreds of GeV to 1 TEV. Particles of such masses will be available to study on the proton collides of the next generation.

Checking the hypothesis about the existence of supersymmetry and the search for supersymmetric particles, of course, one of the most important tasks of Physics E. Part, in the near future, will undoubtedly be given priority attention.

Some common problems of the theory of elementary particles

The newest development of particle physics clearly allocated from all microsowing matter groups of particles playing a special role and having the greatest bases (at the beginning of the 90s) are called True E. h. To it relate to the foundations. Fermions Spin 1. / 2 - leptons and quarks constituting three generations, and calibration bosons spin 1 (gluons, photons and intermediate bosons), which are carriers of strong and email interactions. To this group, most likely, the particle with spin 2 should be connected, graviton. like a carrier gravitats. Interactions binding all particles. A special group consists of spin particles 0, higgs bosons, while not detected.

Many questions nevertheless remain unanswered. So, it remains unclear whether there is a Phys. Criterion fixing the number of generations of elementary fermions. It is not clear how important is the difference in the properties of quarks and leptons associated with the presence of the first color, or this difference is specific only for the studied energy area. This issue is adjacent to the issue of physical. The nature of the great association, since in its formalism quarks and leptons are treated as objects with close properties.

It is important to understand whether the existence of various "internal" does not indicate. Quantum numbers of quarks and leptons ( B, L, I, S, C, B etc.) on a more complex micromyr geometry that meets a greater number of measurements than the four-dimensional geometry of macroscopic usual. space-time. With this question, the question of what Max is closely related. Group of symmetry G., I am satisfying the interactions of E. Part. And the symmetry groups are nested, showing themselves in the studied energy area. The answer to this question would help determine the limit number of carriers of the interaction of E. Part. And find out their properties. It is possible that Max. Group G. In fact, reflects the properties of symmetry of the ne-pho of multidimensional space. This circle of ideas found a well-known reflection in theory superstrunFit are analogues of ordinary strings in spaces with a measurement number, more than four (usually in the measurement space 10). The theory of superstrun interprets E. h. As a manifestation of specific excitations, superstrins that respond to the Split. backs. It is believed that unnecessary (over four) measurements do not detect themselves in observations by virtue of the T.N. compactification, i.e. the formation of closed subspaces with characteristic dimensions of ~ 10 -33 cm. Ex. The manifestation of the existence of these subspaces is observed "internal." Quantum numbers of E. h. any data confirming the correctness of the approach to the interpretation of the properties of E. h. related to the submission of super trunks until there exists.

As can be seen from the above, ideally completed theory of E. Part. Should not only correctly describe the interactions of a given set of particles selected as fundamental, but also to comprise an explanation of what factors the number of these particles is determined, their quantum numbers, interaction constants, The values \u200b\u200bof their masses, etc., should also be understood by the cause of allocated NaB. Wide group of symmetry G. And at the same time the nature of the mechanisms caused by a violation of symmetry as they transition to lower energies. In this regard, it is paramount to clarify the role of higgs bosons in physics E.C. Models, to-rye offers Sovr. E. Theory, still far from meeting all listed criteria.

Description of the interactions of E.Ch., as already noted, is associated with the calibration theories of the field. These theories have a developed Mat. The device, to-ry, allows calculations of the processes with e.ch. At the level of strictness as in quantum electrodynamics. However, in the device of the calibration theories of the field, in its owf. The wording is present one creatures. The flaw, common with quantum electrodynamics, - in the process of calculations in it, meaningless infinitely large expressions appear. With the help of special Reception of the observed values \u200b\u200b(mass and interaction constants) - renormalism - It is possible to eliminate infinity from the finish. Results of calculations. However, the renormalization procedure is a purely formal circumvention of the difficulty that exists in the theory of theory, K-paradium at a level of accuracy may affect the degree of consent of the predictions of the theory with measurements.

The appearance of infinities in the calculations is due to the fact that in the Lagrangians of the interactions of the field of different particles are attributed to one point x., i.e. it is assumed that the particles are point, and the four-dimensional space-time remains flat until the smallest distances. In fact, the indicated assumptions seem to be incorrect to several. reasons:

a) True E. Part, as the media of the ultimate mass, the natural all attribute, albeit very small, but the final sizes, if we want to avoid infinite density of matter;

b) The properties of space-time at low distances are most likely radically different from his macroscopic. Properties (starting from a certain characteristic distance, to-ry usually called. fundamental length);

c) at the shortest distances (~ 10 -33 cm) affects the change of geo. The properties of space-time due to the influence of quantum gravity. Effects (metric fluctuations; see Quantum gravity theory).

Perhaps these reasons are closely related. So, it is accounting gravity. Effects are naib. Naturally leads to the dimensions of True E.Ch. About 10 -33 cm, and fondam. Length can actually coincide with t. n. planck Length L. Pl \u003d 10 -33 cm, where x. -Gorvitz. Permanent (M. Markov, 1966). Any of these reasons should lead to modification of the theory and eliminating infinity, although the practical implementation of this modification may be very complex.

One of the interesting opportunities of consistent accounting effects of gravity is associated with the spread of the ideas of supersymmetry on gravitats. Interaction (Theory. supergravity, in particular extended supergravity). Joint accounting gravitats. and other types of interactions lead to a noticeable reduction in the number of divergent expressions in theory, but whether supergravity leads to the complete elimination of divergences in the calculations, is strictly proven.

T. Oh., The logical conclusion of the ideas of the Great Association is likely to become inclusion in the general scheme of consideration of interactions of E. Part. Also gravitats. Interactions, I can turn out to be fundamental at the shortest distances. It is on the basis of simultaneous accounting for all types of interactions is NaB. Probably expect the creation of the future theory of E. h.

LIT: Elementary particles and compensating fields. Sat Art., Per. from English, M., 1964; KokkecedE Ya., Quark theory, per. from English, m .. 1971; Markov M. A., On Nature of Matter, M., 1976; GLE-Show Sh., Quarks with color and aroma, per. from English .. "UFN", 1976, t. 119, c. 4, p. 715; Bernstein J., Spontaneous violation of symmetry, calibration theories, Higgs mechanism, etc., in the book: Quantum theory of calibration fields. Sat Art., Per. from English, M., 1977 (News of fundamental physics, in. 8); Bogolyubov H. H., Shirkov D.V., Quantum Fields, 2 ed., M., 1993; Okun L. B., Leptons and quarks, 2 ed., M., 1990.

Few people do not know such a concept as "electron", but it is precisely "elementary particle". Of course, most people weakly imagine what it is and why it is necessary. On TV, in books, in newspapers and magazines, these particles are depicted in the form of small points or balls. Because of this, unenmended people believe that the shape of the particles and is in fact a row, and that they fly freely, interact, face, etc. But such a judgment is incorrect. The concept of elementary particle is extremely complex for awareness, but it's never too late to try to acquire at least a very approximate idea of \u200b\u200bthe essence of these particles.

At the beginning of the past century, scientists were seriously puzzled by why the electron does not fall on as, according to Newtonian mechanics, with the return of all its energy, he should simply fall on the core. To surprise, this does not happen. How to explain it?

The fact is that physics in its classic interpretation and elementary particle are low-quality things. It does not obey any laws of ordinary physics, as it acts according to the principles of the fundamental principle at the same time is uncertainty. He says that it is impossible to exactly and at the same time identify two interrelated values. The greater the first one of them, the less you can determine the second. From this definition, quantum correlations, corpuscular-wave dualism, a wave function and much more are followed.

The first important factor is the uncertainty of the impulse coordinate. Based on the basics of classical mechanics, it is possible to recall that the concepts of the pulse and the body trajectory are inseparable and are always clearly defined. Let's try to transfer this pattern to the microscopic world. For example, the elementary particle has a precise pulse. Then, when trying to determine the trajectory of movement, we will face in the urgency of the coordinates. This means that the electron is detected immediately at all points of a small amount of space. If you try to focus on the trajectory of its movement, the impulse acquires a blurred value.

It follows from this that no matter how they tried to determine any specific value, the second immediately becomes uncertain. This principle is based on the basis of the wave properties of particles. The electron does not have a clear coordinate. It can be said that it is simultaneously located in all points of space, which is limited to the wavelength. Such a representation allows us to more clearly understand what is an elementary particle.

Approximately the same uncertainty arises in the ratio of energy-time. The particle constantly interacts, even if there is such an interaction lasts for some time. If you submit that this indicator is more or less defined, then the energy becomes indecented. This violates adopted in the laid grounds.

The presented pattern generates low-energy particles - quanta of fundamental fields. This field is not a continuous substance. It consists of the smallest particles. The interaction between them is ensured by the emission of photons, which are absorbed by other particles. It maintains the energy level and formed stable elementary particles that cannot fall on the kernel.

Elementary particles are essentially inseparable, although they differ from each other with their mass and certain characteristics. Therefore, certain classifications were developed. For example, by type of interaction, leptons and hadrons can be distinguished. The hadrons, in turn, are divided into mesons, which consist of two quarks, and Barione, which contains three quarts. The most famous Bariones are neutrons and protons.

Elementary particles and their properties make it possible to highlight two more classes: bosons (with integer and zero spin), fermions (with half-spin). Each particle has its own antipartice with opposite characteristics. Only protons, leptons and neutrons are stable. All other particles are susceptible to decay and turn into stable particles.

The word atom means "indivisible." It was introduced by Greek philosophers to designate the smallest particles, of which, according to their representation, the matter is.

The physics and chemists of the nineteenth century adopted this term to designate the smallest particles known to them. Although we have long been able to "split" atoms and the indivisible has ceased to be indivisible, nevertheless this term has been preserved. According to our presentation, the atom consists of the smallest particles, called us elementary particles. There are also other elementary particles that are not actually part of atoms. They are usually obtained using powerful cyclotons, synchrotrons and other particle accelerators, specifically designed to study these particles. They also occur when the cosmic rays passes through the atmosphere. These elementary particles disintegrate after several million dollars of a second, and often for an even shorter period of time after their appearance. As a result of decay, they are either modified, turning into other elementary particles, or energized energy in the form of radiation.

The study of elementary particles is concentrated on an ever-increasing number of short-lived elementary particles. Although this problem is of great importance, in particular, because it is associated with the most fundamental laws of physics, however, the study of particles is currently being carried out in almost the separation from other industries of physics. For this reason, we restrict ourselves to the consideration of only those particles that are permanent components of the most common materials, as well as some particles, very close to them adjacent. The first of the elementary particles opened at the end of the nineteenth century was the electron, which then became an exceptionally useful servant. In radiolams, the electron flux moves in vacuo; And it is by adjusting this stream that incoming radio signals are enhanced and converted into sound or noise. In the TV, the electronic beam serves as a pen, which instantly and accurately copies on the receiver's screen what sees the transmitter camera. In both of these cases, electrons move in vacuo so that, if possible, nothing prevented their movement. Another useful property is their ability, passing through the gas, to force it to glow. Thus, allowing electrons to pass through a glass tube filled with gas under certain pressure, we use this phenomenon to produce neon light used at night to illuminate large cities. But another meeting with electrons: flashed lightning, and the myriad of electrons, making his way through the thickness of the air, create a rolled sound of thunder.

However, on earthly conditions there is a relatively small number of electrons that can move freely, as we have seen in previous examples. Most of them are reliably related in atoms. Since the atomic core is charged positively, it attracts negatively charged electrons to itself, causing them to be held in orbits that are relatively close to the nucleus. The atom usually consists of a kernel and a certain number of electrons. If the electron leaves an atom, it, as a rule, immediately replaces another electron, which atomic core with great strength attracts to himself from his nearest environment.

How does this wonderful electron look like? No one saw him and never see; Nevertheless, we know his properties so good that we can predict with all the details, as he will behave in a wide variety of situations. We know His Mass (his "weight") and its electric charge. We know that most often he behaves as if we were very small particlein other cases it detects properties waves. Exceptionally abstract, but at the same time a very accurate electron theory was proposed in a finished form a few decades ago by the English physicist Dirac. This theory gives us the opportunity to determine under what circumstances an electron will be more similar to a particle, and at which it will prevail his wave character. Such a dual nature is a particle and a wave - it makes it difficult to give a clear picture of an electron; Consequently, the theory, which takes into account both of these concepts and nevertheless, giving a complete description of the electron, should be very abstract. But it would be unreasonable to limit the description of such a wonderful phenomenon as an electron, such terrestrial images, like peas and waves.

One of the parcels of the theory of Dirac about the electron was that the elementary particle should exist, which possesses the same properties as an electron, with the exception of only the fact that it is charged positively, and not negatively. And indeed, such a twin of the electron was discovered and named positron. It is part of the cosmic rays, and also arises as a result of the collapse of some radioactive substances. On earthly conditions, the life of the positron is short. As soon as it turns out to be adjacent to the electron, but it happens in all substances, the electron and the positron "destroy each other"; Positive electric charge positron neutralizes negative electron charge. Since, according to the theory of relativity, the mass is a form of energy and since the energy is "non-destructive", the energy represented by the combined masses of the electron and the positron should be somehow preserved. This task is performed by photon (quantum of light), or usually two photons that are emitted as a result of this fatal collision; Their energy is equal to the total energy of the electron and the positron.

We also know that the reverse process occurs, the photon can under certain conditions, for example, flying near the nucleus of the atom, to create "from nothing" electron and positron. For such creation, it must have energy at least equal to the energy corresponding to the total weight of the electron and the positron.

Therefore, elementary particles are not eternal or permanent. And electrons and positrons can appear and disappear; However, energy and resulting electrical charges are saved.

Excluding electron, elementary particle known to us much earlier any other particle, is not a positron, which occurs relatively rarely, but proton - the core of the hydrogen atom. As well as the positron, it is charged positively, but the mass of it is about two thousand times greater than the mass of the positron or an electron. Like these particles, the proton sometimes exhibit wave properties, but only in extremely special conditions. The fact that his wave nature is less pronounced is actually a direct consequence of the possession of them much more. Wave nature, characteristic of the whole matter, does not acquire important importance for us until we start working with extremely light particles, such as electrons.

Proton is a very common particle, a hydrogen atom consists of a proton, which is its core, and an electron rotating around it in orbit. Proton also includes all other atomic nuclei.

Physico theorists predicted that the proton, like an electron, there is an antiparticle. Opening negative proton or antiprotonaholding the same properties as the proton, but the charged negative, confirmed this prediction. The collision of antiproton with the proton "destroys" them both in the same way as in the case of a collision of an electron and a positron.

Another elementary particle, neutron, It has an almost as mass as a proton, but electrically neutral (without an electric charge at all). Its discovery in the thirties of our century - approximately simultaneously with the opening of the positron - was extremely important for nuclear physics. The neutron is part of all atomic nuclei (except, of course, the conventional nucleus of the hydrogen atom, which is simply a free proton); Destroying, the atomic core allocates one (or more) neutron. The explosion of the atomic bomb occurs due to neutrons released from uranium or plutonium nuclei.

Since protons and neutrons together form atomic kernels, and those and others are called nucleons, after some time the free neutron turns into a proton and an electron.

We know another particle called antineatronwhich is similar to neutron, electrically neutral. It possesses many properties of the neutron, but one of the indigenous differences is that the antineutron decays to antiproton and electron. Finding, neutron and antineutron destroy each other,

Photon, or luminous quantum, extremely interesting elementary particle. Wanting to read the book, we turn on the light bulb. So, the inclusive light generates a huge number of photons, which rushed to the book, as well as in all other parts of the room, with the speed of light. Some of them, hovering about the wall, immediately die, others again and again hit and bounce off the walls of other items, but after less than one millionth of a second from the moment of appearance, they all die, with the exception of only a few, which can be broken through the window and Slip into space. The energy required to generate photons is supplied by electrons flowing through the light bulb; Die, photons give this energy to a book or other subject, heating it, or an eye, causing the stimulation of visual nerves.

The photon energy, and therefore, and its mass is not-noted unchanged: there are very light photons along with very heavy. Photons, giving ordinary light, very easy, their mass is only a few millionth of the mass of the electron. Other photons have a mass of about the same as the electron mass, and even much greater. Examples of heavy photons are X-ray and gamma rays.

Here is a general rule: the lighter the elementary particle, the expressiveness of its wave nature. The most severe elementary particles - protons - detect relatively weak wave characteristics; they are slightly stronger in electrons; The strongest - at the photons. In fact, the wave nature of the world was open much earlier than its corpuscular characteristics. We knew that the light is nothing but the movement of electromagnetic waves since Maxwell demonstrated it for the second half of the last century, but it was the plaque and Einstein at the dawn of the twentieth century that the light also has a corpuscular characteristics that he sometimes Masputs in the form of individual "quanta", or, in other words, in the form of photons flow. It does not have to deny that it is difficult to combine and merge together in our consciousness these two clearly unrestricted the concept of the nature of light; But we can say that like the "dual nature" of an electron our idea of \u200b\u200bsuch an elusive phenomenon, which is the light, should be very abstract. And only when we want to express our presentation in coarse images, we must sometimes like the light of the flow of particles, photons, or the wave movement of electromagnetic nature.

There is a relationship between the corpuscular nature of the phenomenon and its "wave" properties. The heavier particle, the shorter the wavelength corresponds to it; The longer the wavelength, the easier the corresponding particle. X-rays consisting of very heavy photons have a very short wavelength accordingly. Red light characterized by a greater wavelength compared to blue light consists of photons lighter compared to photons that carry blue light. The longest electromagnetic waves from all existing - radio waves - consist of the smallest photons. These waves do not significantly show the properties of particles, their wave nature is the entire prevailing characteristic.

Finally, the smallest of all small elementary particles is neutrino. It is deprived of an electric charge, and if he has any weight, it is close to zero. With some exaggeration, we can say that neutrino is simply devoid of properties.

Our knowledge of elementary particles is a modern boundary of physics. The atom was opened in the nineteenth century, and scientists of that time discovered an increasing number of different types of atoms; Similarly, today we find more and more elementary particles. And although it was proved that atoms consist of elementary particles, we cannot expect that it will be found by analogy, it was found that the elementary particles consist of even smaller particles. The problem facing us today is completely different, and there are not the slightest signs that indicate that we can split elementary particles. Rather, it is necessary to hope that it will be shown that all elementary particles are a manifestation of one even more fundamental phenomenon. And if it would be possible to establish, we would manage to understand all the properties of elementary particles; Could calculate their masses and ways to interact. A lot of attempts have been made to resolve this problem, which is one of the most important problems of physics.

In which there is information that all elementary particles that are part of any chemical element consist of various numbers of indivisible phantom particles of software, it became interesting for me why the report does not speak of quarks, because traditionally it is believed that they are structural Elementary particles.

The theory of quarks has long been generally recognized among scientists who are engaged in the research of the microworous particles. And although at the very beginning, the introduction of the concept of "quark" was a purely theoretical assumption, the existence of which only was presumably confirmed experimentally, to date, this concept is operated as an adequate true. The scientist of the world agreed to call quarks by fundamental particles, and in a few decades this concept became the central theory of theoretical and experimental surveys in the field of high-energy physics. "Quark" entered the program of learning all natural scientific universities in the world. A huge remedies are allocated for research in this area - which is only worth the construction of a large hadron collider. New generations of scientists, studying the theory of quarks, perceive it in the form in which it was filed in textbooks, practically not interested in the history of this issue. But let's try unbiased and honestly to look at the root of the quark issue.

By the second half of the 20th century, due to the development of technical capabilities of the accelerators of elementary particles - linear and circular cyclotons, and then synchrotrons, scientists managed to open a lot of new particles. However, what to do with these discoveries they did not understand. Then the idea was put forward, based on theoretical considerations, try to group particles in search of a certain order (like a periodic system of chemical elements - the Mendeleev table). Scientists agree Heavy and medium-sized particles call adronomes, and in the future they are broken on barions and mesons. All hadrons participated in strong interaction. Less heavy particles called leptonThey participated in electromagnetic and weak interaction. Since then, physics tried to explain to the nature of all these particles, trying to find a common model for all describing their behavior.

In 1964, American Physicists of Murray Gel-Man (Laureate of the Nobel Prize in Physics 1969) and George Tsweig independently of each other offered a new approach. A purely hypothetical assumption was put forward that all hadrons consist of three smaller particles and the corresponding antiparticles. And gell-man called these new particles quarks.It is engaged that the name itself was borrowed from the novel James Joyce "Pominiki by Finnegan," where the hero in dreams often heard the words about the mysterious three quarks. Whether Gell-Man was too emotionally perceived by this novel, whether he just liked the number three, but in his scientific writings he proposes to introduce the first three quarts to the physics of elementary particles, which received the titles of the top (and -from English. Up), Nizhny (D -dOWN) and strange (S.- Strange), which have a fractional electric charge + 2/3, - 1/3 and - 1/3, respectively, and for antiques to accept that their charges are opposite to the sign.

According to this model, protons and neutrons, from which scientists suggest, consist of all cores of chemical elements, composed of three quarks: UUD and UDD, respectively (again these omnipresent three quarts). Why exactly three and precisely in this order was not explained. Just so invented authoritative scientific men and that's it. Attempts to make the theory are beautiful do not bring close to truth, but only currries the mirror and without that curve, in which its particle is reflected. Complicating simple, we are moving away from the truth. And everything is so simple!

This is how "high-precision" generally accepted official physics is built. And although initially the introduction of quarks was offered as a working hypothesis, but after a short time, this abstraction was tightly entered into theoretical physics. On the one hand, it allowed us from a mathematical point of view to solve the issue of the streamlining of an extensive series of open particles, on the other, remained only the theory on paper. As is usually done in our consumer society, there were a lot of human forces and resources on experimental testing of the hypothesis of the existence of quarks. Funds of taxpayers are spent, people need to talk about something, reports to show, talk about their "great" discoveries to get another grant. "Well, if necessary, it means that they will do," they say in such cases. And this happened.

The team of researchers of the Stanford branch of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (USA) on the linear accelerator was engaged in the study of the kernel, shelling hydrogen and deuterium electrons (heavy hydrogen isotope, the kernel of which contains one proton and one neutron). At the same time, the angle and energy of electron scattering after a collision was measured. In the case of small electron energies, multiple protons with neutrons behaved like "homogeneous" particles, slightly deflecting the electrons. But in the case of electron beams of high energy, individual electrons lost a significant part of their initial energy, scattered into large corners. American physicists Richard Feynman (Nobel Prize winner in 1965 physics and, by the way, one of the creators of the atomic bomb in 1943-1945 in Los Alamos) and James Bjerken interpreted the data on the scattering of electrons as evidence of the composite device of protons and neutrons, namely : in the form of previously predicted quarks.

Please pay attention to this key point. Experimentors in accelerators Finding particle bundles (not single particles, and bundles !!!), gaining statistics (!!!) they saw that the proton and neutron from something there is consisting. But what about? After all, they did not see quarks, and even among the three pieces, it is impossible, they simply saw the distribution of the energies and the angles of the beam scattering of the particles. And since the very theory of the structure of elementary particles at the same time, although very fantastic, there was a quark theory, then this experiment was considered the first successful verification of the existence of quarks.

Later, of course, other experiments and new theoretical justifications followed, but their essence is the same. Any schoolboy, reading the history of discovery data, will understand how everything in this field of physics is drawn behind the ears, as far as everything is dishonest.

This is how experimental studies are being conducted in the field of science with a beautiful name - high-energy physics. Let's be honest for themselves, today there are no clear scientific substantiations of the existence of quarks. These particles are simply not in nature. Does this specialist understand that in fact occurs when two beams of charged particles in accelerators are collided? The fact that the so-called standard model was built on this quark theory, which allegedly is the most accurate and correct, nothing else says. Specialists are well known all flaws of this next theory. That's just for some reason this is customary to silence. But why? "And the greatest criticism of the standard model concerns the burden and origin of the mass. The standard model does not take into account gravity and requires the mass, charge, and some other properties of the particles are measured by experimenting for subsequent setting in the equation. "

Despite this, huge funds are allocated to this area of \u200b\u200bresearch, think about the confirmation of the standard model, and not the search for truth. A large hadron collider (CERN, Switzerland) was built, hundreds of other accelerators around the world, premiums, grants are issued, contains a huge staff of technical specialists, but the essence of all this is a banal deception, Hollywood and no more. Ask any person - what real benefit society bring these studies - no one will answer you, because it is a dead-end branch of science. Since 2012, they spoke about the opening of the Higgs boson at the CERN accelerator. The history of these studies is a whole detective, which is based on the same deception of the world community. It is entertaining that this boson was supposedly discovered after she had seen a discontinuation of the financing of this expensive project. And in order to show the Company's importance of these studies, to justify its activities in order to get new tranches for the construction of even more powerful complexes, CERN employees working in these studies, and had to go to a deal with their conscience, issuing the desired for the actual.

In the report "Isonomic Physics of the Allara" on this score, there is such interesting information: "Scientists have discovered a cha poot, presumably similar to Higgs Boson (Boson was pre-said by the English physicist Pete-Rom Higgs (Peter Higgs; 1929), CO-Glasno theory , He must have a finite mass and not to have a back). In fact, what discovered scientists is not the desired boa zone of Higgs. But these people, not yet realizing, did a really important discovery and found much more. They experimentally discovered the testimony, which described in detail - but in the book "Allara" (Note: the book "Allara", page 36 of the paragraph of paragraph). .

How is the microworld of matter actually arranged? The report "The Archite Physics of Allara" has reliable information about the true structure of elementary particles, knowledge that were known and ancient civilizations, which is irrefutable evidence in the form of artifacts. Elementary particles consist of different numbers phantom particles of PA. "The phantom particle of software is a clutch consisting of septons around which there is a small sparse-wide septon field. The phantom particle of software has internal potential (it is its carrier), renewing in the esoosmos process. According to the inner potential, the phantom particle of software has its own proportion. The smallest phantom particle of software is unique power phantom particle of allat (Note: For more information, see further on the report). Phantom particle of software is an ordered structure that is in constant spiral-like motion. It can only exist in the associated state with other phantom particles of software, which in the conglomerate form primary manifestations of matter. Due to its unique features, is a kind of phantom (ghost) for the material world. Considering that all matter is consisting of phantom particles of software, it sets it the characteristic of the illusory design and the form of being dependent on the EZOOSMOS process (internal potential filling).

Phantom particles of software are intangible formation. However, in the coupling (sequential compound), among themselves, built according to the information program in a certain amount and order, at a certain distance from each other, they constitute the basis of the structure of any matter, set its variety and properties, due to its internal potential (energy and information). The phantom particle of software is what elementary particles (photon, electron, neutrino, and so on) are based on, as well as particles of interactions. This is the primary manifestation of matter in this world. "

After reading this report, such a small study of the history of the development of quark theory and in general, high-energy physics, it became clear how many people know little if he limits his knowledge only by the framework of the materialistic worldview. Some assumptions from the mind, theory of probability, conditional statistics, agreements and lack of reliable knowledge. But people sometimes spend their lives on these studies. I am confident that among the scientists and this field of physics there are many people who really came to science not for the sake of glory, authorities and money, but for the sake of one goal - the knowledge of the truth. When they are available to know the knowledge of the "original physics of the altrand", they themselves will bring order and make really epochemical scientific discoveries that will bring real benefit to society. With the release of this unique report today, a new world of world science has been opened. Now there is no question not in knowledge as such, but whether people themselves are ready for the creative use of these knowledge. In the forces of each person it is possible to do everything possible so that we all overcome the consumer format of thinking and have come to understand the need to create the basics of building a spiritual and creative society of the future in the coming era of global cataclysms on the planet Earth.

Valery Verchigora

Keywords:quarks, quark theory, elementary particles, Higgs Boson, Altrand Physics, Large Hadron Collider, Science of the Future, Phantom Party, Septon Field, Alla, Knowledge of Truth.

Literature:

KokkecedE Ya., Quark theory, M., Mir Publishing House, 340 s., 1969, http://nuclphys.sinp.msu.ru/books/b/kokkedee.htm;

Arthur W. Wiggins, Charles M. Wynn, The Five Biggest Unsolved Problems in Science, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2003 // Wiggins A., Winn Ch. "Five unsolved problems of science" in the lane. into Russian;

OBSERVATION OF AN Excess Of Events In The Search for the Standard Model Higgs Boson With the Atlas Detector at the LHC, 09 Jul 2012, Cern LHC, Atlas, http://cds.cern.ch/record/1460439;

OBSERVATION OF A NEW BOSON WITH A MASS NEAR 125 GEV, 9 JUL 2012, CERN LHC, CMS, http://cds.cern.ch/record/1460438?ln\u003den;

The report of the "original physics of the alto" of the international group of scientists of the International Public Movement "Allatra" ed. Anastasia New, 2015;

Elementary particles in the exact meaning of this term are primary, further non-consistent particles, of which, by assumption, consists of all matter. In the concept of "elementary particles" in modern science of natural science, the idea of \u200b\u200bthe primordial essences, which determine all the well-known properties of the material world, the idea originated in the early stages of formation of natural science and always playing an important role in its development. The concept of "elementary particles" was formed in close connection with the establishment of the discrete nature of the structure of the substance on the microscopic level. Detection at the turn of 19-20 centuries. The smallest carriers of the properties of the substance - molecules and atoms - and the establishment of the fact that molecules are constructed from atoms, for the first time allowed to describe all known substances as a combination of finite, albeit large, the number of structural components - atoms. In the future, in the future, the presence of composite leveling atoms - electrons and nuclei, the establishment of the complex nature of the nuclei that converted from all two types of particles (protons and neutrons) has significantly reduced the number of discrete elements forming the properties of the substance, and gave reason to assume that the chain of the components of the matter Completed by discrete structureless formations - elementary particles such an assumption, generally speaking, is an extrapolation of well-known facts and any strictly reasonable can not be. It is impossible to argue with confidence that particles, elementary in the sense of the given definition, exist. Protons and neutrons, for example, for a long time, considered elementary particles, as it turned out, have a complex structure. It is not eliminated that the sequence of structural components of matter is fundamentally infinite. It may also be that the statement "consists of ..." at some stage of the study of matter will be deprived of the content. From the above definition of "elementality" in this case will have to be abandoned. The existence of elementary parts is a kind of postulate, and the test of its justice is one of the most important tasks of science of natural science.

The elementary particle is a collective term belonging to micro-lectures in a subject scale, which cannot be broken down (or until it is proven) to composite parts. Their structure and behavior is studied by the physics of elementary particles. The concept of elementary particles is based on the fact of the discrete structure of the substance. A number of elementary particles have a complex internal structure, but it is impossible to divide them into parts. Other elementary particles are structureless and can be considered primary fundamental particles.

Since the first discovery of the elementary particle (electron) in 1897, more than 400 elementary particles were found.

By the magnitude of the spin, all elementary particles are divided into two classes:

fermions - particles with a half-heer spin (for example, electron, proton, neutron, neutrino);

bosons - particles with a whole spin (for example, photon).

By types of interactions, elementary particles are divided into the following groups:

Composite particles:

adrons - particles involved in all types of fundamental interactions. They consist of quarks and are divided, in turn, on:

mesons (hadron with a whole spin, i.e. bosons);

barione (Herona with a half-heer back, i.e. fermions). In particular, particles constituting the nucleus of the atom, proton and neutron.

Fundamental (structureless) particles:

leptons - Fermions, which have a view of point particles (i.e. not consisting of anything) up to scale of about 10-18 m. Do not participate in strong interactions. Participation in electromagnetic interactions was experimentally observed only for charged leptons (electrons, muons, tau-leptons) and was not observed for neutrino. Known 6 types of leptons.

quarks are fractional particles that are part of the hadrons. In the free state were not observed. Like leptons are divided into 6 types and are structureless, however, unlike leptons, participate in strong interaction.

calibration bosons - particles, by sharing which interactions are carried out:

photon - particle carrying electromagnetic interaction;

eight gluons - particles carrying strong interaction;

three intermediate vector bosons W +, W- and Z0 carrying weak interaction;

graviton is a hypothetical particle carrying gravitational interaction. The existence of gravitons, although not yet been proven experimentally due to the weakness of gravitational interaction, is considered quite probable; However, Graviton is not included in the standard model.

Adrics and leptons form a substance. Calibration bosines are quanta of different types of radiation.

In addition, in the standard model, the Higgs boson is present with the need, which, however, has not yet been detected experimentally.

The ability to mutual transformations is the most important property of all elementary particles. Elementary particles are able to be born and destroyed (emit and absorb). This also applies to stable particles with the only difference that the conversion of stable particles occurs not spontaneously, and when interacting with other particles. Annigilation may be an example (i.e. the disappearance) of an electron and a positron, accompanied by the birth of high energy photons. There may also be a reverse process - the birth of an electron-positron pair, for example, when a photon collision with a sufficiently large energy with the core. Such a dangerous twin, which for the electron is the positron, is also a proton. It is called antiproton. Antiproton electrical charge negative. Currently, antiparticles are found in all particles. Anticascies are opposed to particles because when meeting any particle with its antiparticle, their annihilation occurs, i.e., both particles disappear, turning into radiation quanta or other particles.

In the variety of elementary particles, known to date, a more or less slender classification system is found. The most convenient systematics of numerous elementary particles is their classification by type of interactions in which they are involved. In relation to severe interaction, all elementary particles are divided into two large groups: hadron (from Greek. Hadros is big, strong) and leptons (from Greek. Leptos is light).

Initially, the term "elementary particle" meant something absolutely elementary, the first-turn of matter. However, when hundreds of hadrons with similar properties were opened in the 1950s and 1960s, it became clear that at least hadrons had internal degrees of freedom, i.e. are not in the strict sense of the word elementary. This suspicion was further confirmed when it turned out that the hadrons consist of quarks.

Thus, humanity has advanced a little more deep into the structure of the substance: leptons and quarks are now considered the most elementary, point parts of the substance. For them (together with calibration bosons) and the term "fundamental particles" applies.

2. Characteristics of elementary particles

All elementary particles are objects of exceptionally small masses and sizes. In most of them, the masses have the order of the proton mass, equal to 1.6 × 10 -24 g (only the electron mass is noticeably: 9 × 10 -28 g). Dimensions of the proton, neutron, p-meson in order of magnitude are equal to 10 -13 cm. The size of the electron and muon could not be determined, it is only known that they are less than 10 -15 cm. Microscopic masses and dimensions The elementary particles underlie the quantum specificity their behaviors. Characteristic wavelengths that should be attributed to elementary particles in a quantum theory (, where - a constant plank, M - the mass of the particle, C - the speed of light) in order of magnitude close to the typical dimensions on which their interaction is carried out (for example, for P-meson 1 , 4 × 10 -13 cm). This leads to the fact that quantum patterns are determining for elementary particles.

The most important quantum property of all elementary particles is their ability to be born and destroyed (emitted and absorbing) when interacting with other particles. In this respect, they are completely similar to photons. Elementary particles are specific matter of matter, more accurately, the quanta of the corresponding physical fields. All processes with elementary particles proceed through the sequence of acts of absorption and emission. Only on this basis, it is possible to understand, for example, the process of the birth of P +-Meseon in a collision of two protons (P + P + N + P +) or the process of annihilation of an electron and a positron, when, for example, two G-quantum arise instead of the disappeared particles ( E + + E - ®G + G). But the processes of elastic scattering of particles, for example E - + P ® E - + P, are also associated with the absorption of initial particles and the birth of finite particles. The disintegration of unstable elementary particles to the fierce particles, accompanied by the release of energy, corresponds to the same pattern and is a process in which decay products are born at the time of the decay itself and do not exist until this point. In this regard, the decay of elementary particles is similar to the decomposition of an excited atom to an atom in the main state and the photon. Examples of decays of elementary particles can be: ; P + ®M + + V M; K + ®p + + P 0 (the sign "Tilda" above the particle symbol here and the corresponding antiparticles are labeled).

Various processes with elementary particles are noticeably different in the intensity of the flow. In accordance with this, the interaction of elementary particles can be phenomenologically divided into several classes: strong, electromagnetic and weak interactions. All elementary particles have, in addition, gravitational interaction.

Strong interactions Eliminate as interactions that generate processes flowing with the greatest intensity among all other processes. They lead to the strongest communication of elementary particles. It is strong interactions that cause the connection of protons and neutrons in the nuclei of atoms and ensure the exceptional strength of these formations underlying the stability of the substance on earthly conditions.

Electromagnetic interactions Characterized as interactions based on the connection with the electromagnetic field. The processes caused by them are less intense than the processes of strong interactions, and the bond generated is noticeably weaker. Electromagnetic interactions, in particular, are responsible for the connection of atomic electrons with nuclei and the connection of atoms in molecules.

Weak interactionsAs the name itself shows, cause very slow processes with elementary particles. An illustration of their small intensity can be the fact that neutrinos with only weak interactions permanently permeate, for example, the thickness of the Earth and the Sun. Weak interactions also determine the slow decays of the so-called quasi-walled elementary particles. The times of life of these particles lie in the range of 10 -8 -10 -10 seconds, while typical times for strong interactions of elementary particles are 10 -23 -10 -24 sec.

Gravitational interactions, well known in their macroscopic manifestations, in the case of elementary particles at characteristic distances ~ 10 -13 cm, they give extremely small effects due to the small mass of the elementary particles.

The force of various collections of interactions can be approximately characterized by the dimensionless parameters associated with the squares of the constants of the corresponding interactions. For strong, electromagnetic, weak and gravitational interactions of protons at the average energy of the process ~ 1, these parameters are correlated as 1:10 -2: L0 -10: 10 -38. The need to indicate the average energy of the process is related to the fact that for weak interactions, the dimensionless parameter depends on energy. In addition, the intensities themselves of various processes depend in different ways. This leads to the fact that the relative role of various interactions, generally speaking, changes with an increase in the energy of the interacting particles, so that the separation of interactions into classes based on the comparison of the intensities of the processes is carried out reliably with not too high energies. Different classes of interactions have, however, other specifics associated with the various properties of their symmetry, which contributes to their separation and at higher energies. Whether such a division of interactions will remain in the limit of the greatest energies, while it remains unclear.

Depending on the participation in certain types of interactions, all the elementary particles studied, with the exception of the photon, are divided into two main groups: hadron (from Greek Hadros - large, strong) and leptons (from Greek leptos - small, thin, light). Adrics are characterized primarily by the fact that they have strong interactions, along with electromagnetic and weak, while leptons are involved only in electromagnetic and weak interactions. (The presence of common gravitational interactions for the same group is meant.) The mass of the hadrons in order of magnitude close to the mass of the proton (T p); The minimum mass among the hadrons has a p-meson: T P "M 1/7 × T p. The masses of leptons known before 1975-76 were small (0.1 m p), but the latest data, apparently indicate the possibility of the existence of heavy leptons with the same masses as the hadrons. The first studied representatives of the hadron were proton and neutron, leptons - electron. Photon with only electromagnetic interactions cannot be attributed to the admins or leptons and must be allocated in deployment. Group. According to developed in the 70s. The ideas of the photon (particle with zero mass of rest) is included in one group with very massive particles - t. n. Intermediate vector bosons responsible for weak interactions and while not observed on experience.

Each elementary particle, along with the specific interactions inherent in it, is described by a set of discrete values \u200b\u200bof certain physical quantities, or its characteristics. In some cases, these discrete values \u200b\u200bare expressed through integer or fractional numbers and some common factor - a unit of measurement; These numbers are indicated by both quantum numbers of elementary particles and they only specify them, lowering the unit of measurement.

The total characteristics of all elementary particles are mass (M), lifetime (T), spin (J) and electrical charge (q). So far there is no sufficient understanding of how the elementary particles are distributed through the mass and whether there is some unit for them
Measurements.

Depending on the lifetime, elementary particles are divided into stable, quasistable and unstable (resonances). Stable, within the accuracy of modern measurements, are an electron (T\u003e 5 × 10 21 years), proton (T\u003e 2 × 10 30 years), photon and neutrino. Quasistable includes particles disintegrating at the expense of electromagnetic and weak interactions. Their lifetimes\u003e 10 -20 sec (for free neutron, even ~ 1000 seconds). Resonances are the elementary particles disintegrating due to strong interactions. Their characteristic times of life are 10 -23 -10 -24 seconds. In some cases, the disintegration of heavy resonances (with a mass of ³ 3 GeV) due to strong interactions is suppressed and the lifetime increases to the values \u200b\u200b- ~ 10 -20 sec.

Spin Elementary particles is an integer or half-heer multiple. In these units, the spin p- and k-mesons is 0, in proton, neutron and electron J \u003d 1/2, in the photon J \u003d 1. There are particles and with a higher back. The magnitude of the spin of elementary particles determines the behavior of the ensemble of the same (identical) particles, or their statistics (V. Pauli, 1940). The half-heer spin particles are obeyed by Fermi - Dirac Statistics (hence the name fermions), which requires antisymmetry of the wave function of the system relative to the permutation of a pair of particles (or the odd number of pairs) and, therefore, "prohibits" two particles of the half-ranking spin to be in the same state (Pauli principle). Whole spin particles obey the Bose - Einstein statistics (hence the name of the bosons), which requires symmetry of the wave function relative to the permutations of particles and allows for the destruction of any number of particles in the same state. The statistical properties of elementary particles are essential in cases where several identical particles are formed at birth or decay. Fermi - Dirac Statistics also plays an extremely important role in the structure of the nuclei and determines the patterns of filling atomic shells by electrons underlying the periodic system of elements D. I. Mendeleev.

The electrical charges of the studied elementary particles are integers from the value of E "1.6 × 10 -19 K, are called an elementary electrical charge. In the known elementary particles q \u003d 0, ± 1, ± 2.

In addition to these quantities of elementary particles, it is additionally characterized by another quantum numbers, called internal. Leptons carry a specific lepton charge L of two types: electronic (L E) and muleon (L M); L E \u003d +1 for an electron and electronic neutrino, L m \u003d +1 for a negative muon and muon neutrino. Heavy lepton t; And the neutrino associated with it, apparently, are carriers of a new type of lepton charge l t.

For admins L \u003d 0, and this is another manifestation of their differences from leptons. In turn, significant parts of the dors should be attributed to a special baryon charge in (| e | \u003d 1). Hadron with B \u003d +1 form a subgroup
Barionov (here includes proton, neutron, hyperons, baryon resonances), and hadrons with B \u003d 0 - subgroup of mesons (p- and k-mesons, boson resonances). The name of the undergroups of hadrons occurs from the Greek words Barýs - heavy and mésos - the average that at the initial stage of studies the elementary particles reflected the comparative values \u200b\u200bof the masses known then barion and mesons. Later data showed that the mass of barions and mesons are comparable. For leptons B \u003d 0. For a photon B \u003d 0 and L \u003d 0.

Barions And the mesons are divided into already mentioned aggregate: conventional (nonsense) particles (proton, neutron, p-mesons), strange particles (hyperons, k-mesons) and fascinated particles. This separation meets the presence of special quantum numbers: strangeness S and charm (English Charm) CH with valid values: 151 \u003d 0, 1, 2, 3 and | ch | \u003d 0, 1, 2, 3. For conventional particles S \u003d 0 and CH \u003d 0, for strange particles | S | ¹ 0, CH \u003d 0, for enchanted particles | ch | ¹0, a | s | \u003d 0, 1, 2. Instead of strange, a quantum number of a hypercage Y \u003d S + B, having, apparently, is more fundamental meaning.

Already the first studies with conventional adronons revealed the presence among them families of particles close by weight, with very similar properties in relation to strong interactions, but with different values \u200b\u200bof the electric charge. Proton and neutron (nucleons) were the first example of such a family. Later, similar families were discovered among strange and (in 1976) among the enchanted hadrons. The community of properties of particles belonging to such families is a reflection
The existence of their identical value of a special quantum number is the isotopic spin I accepting, as well as the usual spin, integers and half-purpose values. The families themselves are usually called isotopic multiplets. The number of particles in the multiplet (P) is associated with the I ratio: n \u003d 2i + 1. The particles of one isotopic multiplet differ from each other by the value of the "projection" of isotopic spin I 3, and the corresponding values \u200b\u200bq are given by the expression:

An important characteristic of the hadrons is also the internal readiness of the P associated with the operation of spaces, inversion: p takes ± 1.

For all elementary particles with non-zero values \u200b\u200bof at least one of the charges of O, L, B, Y (S) and charm CH there are anti-particles with the same values \u200b\u200bof mass T, T, spin, back j and for isotopic spin admins 1, but with opposite The signs of all charges and for baryons with the opposite sign of the internal readiness R. particles that do not have antiparticles are called absolutely (truly) neutral. Absolutely neutral hadrons have a special quantum number - charges (i.e., with respect to the charging interface) with ± 1; Examples of such particles can be photon and P 0.

Quantum numbers Elementary particles are divided into accurate (i.e., such that are associated with physical quantities persistent in all processes) and inaccurate (for which the corresponding physical quantities are not saved in terms of processes). Spin J is associated with the strict law of maintaining the moment of the amount of movement and therefore is an accurate quantum number. Other accurate quantum numbers: Q, L, B; According to modern data, they are preserved with all transformations elementary particles proton stability is the direct expression of conservation in (no, for example, decay p ® E + G). However, most quantum numbers are inaccurate. Isotopic spin, persistent in strong interactions, is not preserved in electromagnetic and weak interactions. Strangeness and charm are stored in strong and electromagnetic interactions, but are not preserved in weak interactions. Weak interactions also change internal and charges. With a much greater degree of accuracy, the combined readiness of CP is preserved, however, it is broken in some processes due to weak interactions. The reasons that cause disavowal of many quantum numbers of hadrons are unclear and, apparently, are associated both with the nature of these quantum numbers and with the deep structure of electromagnetic and weak interactions. The preservation or disservation of certain quantum numbers is one of the significant manifestations of the differences in the class of interactions of elementary particles.

Conclusion

At first glance, it seems that the study of elementary particles has a purely theoretical value. But it is not. The use of elementary particles found in many spheres of life.

The simplest use of elementary particles - on nuclear reactors and accelerators. On nuclear reactors with neutrons, the kernel of radioactive isotopes are broken, getting energy. At accelerators, elementary particles are used for research.

In electronic microscopes, bundles of "hard" electrons are used, allowing you to see smaller objects than in an optical microscope.

Bombarding the nuclei of some elements of polymer films, you can get a kind of "sieve". The size of the holes in it can be 10 -7 cm. The density of these holes reaches a billion per square centimeter. Such "Sita" can be used for ultra-thin cleaning. They filter water and air from the smallest viruses, coal dust, sterilize medicinal solutions, are indispensable when monitoring the environment.

Neutrinos in the future will help scientists to penetrate into the depths of the universe and obtain information about the early period of development of galaxies.