Topic 2.1. Phonemes. Features of Russian accent.
Our speech is made up of an almost countless number of different sounds, which are the result of complex human articulatory activity. In each language, these sounds are grouped and combined into a limited number of sound types - phonemes.
Phoneme- This is a sound standard that serves to distinguish significant units of language. For example, the words tom, catfish, house differ in phonemes<т>, <с>, <д>. The Russian language has 6 vowels and 35 consonant phonemes.
Our speech is a sound stream, which is divided into separate units. These include phrases, speech beats, phonetic words, syllables and sounds.
Phrase – This is an utterance that has intonation and semantic completeness and is separated from other units by long pauses. In writing, pauses are indicated by two slanted parallel lines. We must move forward. If you encounter a wall // it must be destroyed. If you come across a mountain // you need it
tear down. If you encounter an abyss // you must cross it. If there are no wings // you need to make them! (L. Andreev).
Speech tact - part of a phrase highlighted by rhythmic and intonation means. It is characterized by unfinished intonation and shorter pauses. A speech beat can contain from one to seven words. For example, he only asked for a piece of bread, and his gaze revealed living flour, and someone put a stone in his outstretched hand (M.Yu. Lermontov).
Phonetic word – part of a speech beat, united by one stress. For example, in the forest, like that, out of town, arm in arm.
Syllable – part of a phonetic word pronounced with one impulse of exhaled air. The word contains one sound that stands out for its sonority. How is that
usually a vowel sound. As many vowels as there are in a word, there are as many syllables in it. For example, oh-bad; a-vi-a-bi-let; theater. Phonetic division into syllables often does not coincide with morphological division and rules of transfer in writing. Wed. u-ro-dly-vy (phonetic division), ugly-liv-y (morphological division), ugly-li-vy (word hyphenation).
Stress is the selection, by one means or another, of one of the syllables in a word or a word within a speech beat or phrase.
The emphasis on the object of emphasis can be logical or verbal.
Logical stress is the highlighting of one or more words in a speech beat or phrase in order to emphasize their special meaning.
Intonation plays a big role in this emphasis. Raising or lowering the tone allows the speaker to emphasize an important word.
So, depending on the purpose of the statement in the phrase We are going to the cinema any can be selected phonetic word.
Important feature Russian accent is his mobility, i.e. V different forms of the same word it can move from one syllable to another. For example, house - houses; city - cities; understood - understood. Stress can serve as a means of delimiting grammatical forms (traves - I.p.m. numbers,
HERBS – R.p.unit of number; cut - owl. view., cut – ness. type) and individual lexical units (to buy - to buy, road - road).
Topic 2.2. Orthoepic norms: pronunciation,
When speaking or reading aloud, it is important not only to pronounce words correctly, but also to emphasize the necessary phrases that carry the main semantic load. Even if the material that is presented orally is very valuable, but it is presented without the necessary logical emphasis, it will not be properly absorbed by the audience. When a speaker speaks sluggishly and monotonously, it is unlikely that he will be able to hold the attention of listeners for a long time, not to mention convincing them of something or encouraging them to take action.
Logical stress is the selection in speech of a word or phrase that is the most important in the message. How to do it? And is it related to pauses and changes in intonation?
Methods for conveying logical stress
There are several of them, and skilled presenters have learned to combine them. For example, if you need to highlight an important idea, you can do it like this: increase the strength of your voice, say the desired phrase more slowly, pause before and/or after it, use appropriate gestures and facial expressions. Another way to focus attention is through the correct changes in volume, pitch and tempo, that is, intonation. Logical stress helps to assimilate the meaning of what is said, but intonation helps to make speech colorful. These two tools complement each other.
Which of these methods is the most appropriate in specific situation, depends on the content of the material and the circumstances.
What to highlight?
If we talk about the report, logical stress can indicate the beginning of a new thought or a transition from one thought to another so that listeners understand how the speech is structured. This can be done by emphasizing words such as “first of all,” “ultimately,” “it follows from this,” “therefore,” “the conclusion suggests itself,” etc.
If we are talking about several factors, causes or components of something, it would be quite appropriate to highlight each of them with accented phrases “firstly”, “secondly”, “thirdly” along with enumerating gestures.
Also, the speaker, with the help of logical stress, can show a personal attitude to the discussion. These are the thoughts to which he wants to give special emotional coloring. And the words “certainly”, “extremely important”, “inconceivable”, “completely” will help to highlight them. This is where the correct change in intonation comes in handy. In this case, the speaker's opinion can be transmitted to the audience and even influence their own position.
Logical stress when reading text
In everyday conversations, people use semantic stress without difficulty, without even thinking about it, because they are clearly aware of what exactly they want to say. The difficulty arises when you have to read aloud a text written by someone else.
The key to success is to understand for yourself what the main idea of the text is. Then you need to carefully analyze each paragraph, sentence by sentence, and find not individual words, but entire phrases that express this thought.
For convenience, you can highlight them with a pencil or marker. If a word is already in italics, then this is an additional reminder that it should also be emphasized.
Logical stress: errors
When reading a text, you should not highlight too much a large number of words: it distracts attention.
Also, some use the technique of periodic underlining, that is, they emphasize words at regular intervals, no matter whether these words carry a semantic load or not. And some unnecessarily highlight prepositions and conjunctions such as “and”, “but”, “also”, “for”, “before”, etc. This is very distracting and looks like bad manners.
If the speaker speaks very quickly and without stopping, then the benefit of such a speech is reduced to zero. Logical pauses and stress contribute to the clarity of what is said.
To become a skilled speaker, you need to practice hard until you can emphasize words and phrases so that they sound natural.
Isolating a word or group of words from other words in a sentence or group of sentences using sound means is called logical stress.
The purpose of emphasis is the most important words for conveying ideas, expressing the very essence of the text.
Stanislavsky spoke about stress: “Stress - forefinger, distinguishing the most important word in a phrase or measure.”
Putting equal emphasis on all words in a sentence means nothing. It is as meaningless as a phrase that has no accents at all. A phrase, depending on the movement of logical stresses in it, can be filled with new meaning each time. The accent depends on what exactly the speaker wants to say.
A sentence can have one main and several secondary and even tertiary stresses.
Exist the following types accents:
Clock
Phrasal I
Phrasal II
The stress of a word within a speech beat is called a beat. Isolating the main meaning of a speech tact in a sentence is called phrasal stress I. When, with the help of phrasal stress, an entire phrase in a passage is highlighted, such stress is called phrasal stress II.
For example:
« Normal women| they hardly suffer." (A. S. Pisareva “Happiness”)
This sentence has two speech beats. Each of them has its own bar stress: in the first bar - “women” (subject group), in the second - “do not suffer” (predicate group). “Women” is highlighted with a secondary emphasis, and the main, meaningful emphasis is placed on the word “do not suffer.”
For example:
"Daughter, | Ekaterina Ivanovna, | young girl, | played the piano." (A. Chekhov “Ionych”)
This sentence has four speech beats, each with its own stressed word. But the main speech bar is the last one, its main stressed word is “on the piano.”
In the examples given, it is possible to highlight logical stresses and mark pauses, but it is impossible to convey all the modulations of the voice, all shades of intonation on paper.
You need to work a lot practically on analysis, because it is a good, strong basis for further work over literary texts.
Isolating the main meaning of a word can be achieved different ways: slowing down the rate of speech on this word, strengthening, raising or lowering the voice.
A stressed word can be highlighted if the stress is removed or almost removed from the remaining words in order to avoid multi-stress and nonsense. Stanislavsky gave great value the ability to remove unnecessary stress. He recommended that actors remove emphasis from words that do not carry the main idea and suggested a special technique: “deliberately leisurely, colorless intonation, almost complete absence of emphasis.”
Colorless intonation is monotony - speech at the same or almost the same pitch. Monotonous speech in itself is monotonous and can tire the listener, but if it is used in contrast with main part phrases, on the contrary, it will help highlight this emphasis.
The difficulties in setting logical stresses lie in the fact that at the beginning of the work there is a large number of speech beats, beat stresses, and this makes reading difficult; It’s difficult for the reader to figure it out right away; it begins to seem to him that everything is the main thing. An overload of accents makes the text incomprehensible. We must learn to “skeleton” a phrase, that is, remove stress from words that do not carry the main idea, but accurately determine the semantic centers of a sentence and highlight them with emphasis.
Stanislavsky recommends that when determining stress, first of all, choose one of the most important words among the entire phrase, highlighting it with emphasis. Then do the same with less important, but still highlighted words. And secondary, non-main words should be pushed into the background.
It is important to remember that the path of logical analysis is always the path from the whole to the part and from the part to the whole, therefore it is possible to understand the definition of the main and secondary stresses only based on the main idea of the work.
In the first stage of working on logical analysis, we need to understand what idea we want to convey to the listener and, starting from this, determine the place of logical stress in the sentence.
There is a certain pattern in Russian speech: in a phrase, the stressed word of the last syntagma (speech beat) stands out most clearly. This is phrasal stress; it marks the boundary of a phrase.
The phrasal stress I is not found in every sentence. Its presence or absence depends entirely on the context literary work, from his main idea.
Phrase stress I carries a significant semantic load and often represents the semantic center of a small piece.
Phrase stress II has an even more active position in one or another plot piece. It truly functions as a “index finger”, marking for the performer and listener main idea selected literary passage.
For example:
“His eyes were incomparable | - big, | black, | with a look that, when we met him, | it seemed to be the only thing that exists in the world at this moment. | There seemed to be nothing around us now, | only this view exists. ||
When I remember Mayakovsky, | I immediately see those eyes | - through the wallpaper, | through the foliage. | They look at me | and it seems to me that in the world | it becomes quiet, | mysteriously. | What kind of look is this? | This is the gaze of reading.” (Yu. Olesha “Not a day without a line”)
In the first sentence, the phrasal emphasis is emphasized: “His eyes were incomparable” and “only this look exists.”
The peculiarity of the Russian language is that the stress gravitates towards the end of the phrase and most often receives the strongest stress.
In the author's text there is often inversion, which must be taken into account when placing emphasis. Inversion is a violation of the usual word order in a sentence (in the Russian language, direct word order is observed: the subject, as a rule, is usually found before the predicate, the definition before the word being defined, and so on). The use of inversion allows the writer to highlight the word he needs. As soon as this word falls “out of place,” the reader’s attention is drawn to it, and the emphasis usually falls on it.
But every rule has its exceptions. The phrasal stress I - “only this view exists” shows that the penultimate word takes the main stress.
“This is the look of a genius” is highlighted by phrasal stress II.
The definition of "genius" is central stressed word the entire passage. This word is the center of meaning, for it is precisely this word that characterizes Mayakovsky’s view.
Logical stress is stronger than phrasal stress. It can occur at any beat in a phrase and even at any word, depending on the purpose of the utterance. “Most often, logical stress is associated with the actual division of a sentence, with highlighting the topic of the statement. Logical is recognized as a semantic stress that is strongly accentuated and performs the function of highlighting a “psychological predicate” that is new in a phrase and/or the function of accentuation of elements of hidden or explicit opposition.”
For example:
“I was at the theater” (not you).
“I was in the theater” (this has already happened).
“I was at the theater” (there, and not anywhere else).
Live colloquial speech logical stresses occur very often. In a specific situation, logical stress turns out to be quite definite. Moreover, it always coincides with the bar or phrase stress. This coincidence gives us the right to use the term “semantic stress” to designate all types of stress - logical, tact, phrasal.
So, for example, in the line from Krylov’s fable “The Harrow and the Fox”: “The Fox sees cheese” - the word “cheese” is the main one in meaning, since because of the cheese the Fox stopped and started a conversation with Vorona, so this particular word should be highlighted logical stress.
Logical stress is very great importance for expressive reading. A phrase read without emphasizing in the voice a word that carries a dignitary meaning sounds unclear, its essence does not quickly reach the consciousness of the listeners.
“The accent,” wrote Stanislavsky, “is the index finger, marking the most important word in a phrase or measure! The highlighted word contains the soul, the inner essence, the main points of the subtext!” 1
Logical stress is achieved by various means: the strength of the voice, its lowering or raising, a pause before the highlighted word, or slowing down the rate of pronunciation of this word. However, we must remember that when placing logical stress, you should never abuse excessive pressure on the highlighted word, as this breaks its semantic connection with other words in the phrase and takes it out of the text.
In order to correctly place the logical emphasis, you need to very carefully read the text, delve into its content, understand what is important, basic, about what, how and for what purpose the author is telling the story in it.
Let us remember A. Pushkin’s poem “Autumn”. In this poem, the author depicts the autumn state of nature and the feelings that arise with the onset of autumn. Therefore, when reading, one should highlight with logical emphasis precisely those words with the help of which the poet most vividly recreates the picture of autumn and conveys the feelings associated with its approach:
Already the sky in autumn was breathing
Already re or the sun was shining
Briefly speaking it was getting day
Lesov mysterious canopy
With sad exposed herself with noise,
Lay down on the fields fog,
Geese loud caravan
Reached to the south: was approaching
Enough boring it's time;
stood n November already at the yard.
Placing a logical emphasis without preliminary understanding of the text, without thinking through and consciously pronouncing each individual phrase can lead to a distortion of the meaning, and, consequently, to an incorrect perception of what is being read.
So, if in V. Oseeva’s story “Just an Old Lady” the girl’s question is: “Is this your grandmother?” - pronounce with emphasis not the word “yours”, but the word “grandmother”, then the meaning of the work will be conveyed incorrectly, since the main thing in the story is not whether it is the grandmother, mother or another of the boy’s relatives, but that he gave way to a stranger, an old woman, showing politeness towards elders.
Logical stress can be used to highlight any word in a phrase depending on its meaning and the conscious intention of the reader to draw the listener’s attention to a particular word.
Let’s take the phrase: “I had a really bad headache yesterday.” Let's pronounce it with emphasis different words and let's see how this phrase is perceived.
U me Yesterday I had a really bad headache (me, not anyone else).
I have yesterday I had a very bad headache (yesterday, not any other time).
I have yesterday Very I had a headache (not just a headache, but a very bad one).
Yesterday I had a very was sick head (he was not healthy, but was sick).
I was very sick yesterday head(head, not something else).
There are rules for setting logical stresses, which help in some cases to find the most important words in semantic relations.
Logical emphasis is placed on:
1. New concepts, phenomena, characters mentioned for the first time:
There was a boy, his name was Philip.
(L. Tolstoy “Filippok”)
Trees funny made noise
“when spring returned to us;
and only one spruce between them
was silent and gloomy.
Trees plaintively
made noise when it got cold;
only the spruce was silent indifferently
and turned green as always.
(A. Pleshcheev “Spruce”)
3. Subject (if highest value has an object, a person) or a predicate (if the process, action is of greatest importance) in the non-extended
sentence:
Cold air blew winds.
(I. Sokolov-Mikitov “Blizzard Winter”)
Let's run both Frosts...
("Two Frosts")
4. Noun in genitive case when combined with another noun:
It's already getting dark rivers,
smoke from the fire rises.
(A. Tvardovsky “Autumn”)
5. Noun coming after an adjective:
Under blue skies
Magnificent carpets,
Shining in the sun snow lies...
(A. Pushkin “Winter Morning”)
However, if the reader wants to particularly highlight a feature of an object, a feature actor, to emphasize the exclusivity of a phenomenon, event, logical emphasis can be placed on the adjective:
January. Beginning of the year.
Frost in the yard.
good weather
happens in January:
(N Sakonskaya “Visiting Lenin”)
6. An adjective (or several adjectives) coming after a noun:
Freezing ten-degree
crackling in the alleys of the park.
(3. Alexandrova “Skiers”)
7. Explanation of the verb:
Instantly my team fled...
(N. Nekrasov “Grandfather Mazai and the Hares”)
8. Words expressing comparisons:
Our river as if
in a fairy tale,
frost hit the pavement overnight.
(S. Marshak “Christmas tree”)
9. Words denoting transfer or account:
Pass, get up in front of me
villages, fields And forests,
And month above the pipe itself,
And Linden opposite the porch.
(M. Isakovsky “At the very border”)
10. Appeal at the beginning of the phrase:
Neighbor, have you heard the good rumor?
(I. Krylov “Mouse and Rat”)
If the appeal is in the middle or at the end of a phrase, then it is not emphasized with logical emphasis:
Do not eat me, slanting bunny, I'm for you song I'll sing!
(Russian folk tale"Kolobok")
Do not Cry, bunny!
(Russian folk tale “The Fox, the Hare and the Rooster”)
11. Words expressing short words fast action, such as grab, kick, push, look etc.:
The ram ran away - yes bam, bam, began to push the wolf to the sides.
(Russian folk tale “Winter quarters of animals”)
12. Words expressing a question:
Who there?
13. An adjective with a noun, if they denote the main person, object, phenomenon:
Pos day autumn.
Through wavy fogs
The moon is creeping in.
(A. Pushkin)
The rules for setting logical stress apply equally to both prose and poetry. Unreasonable passion for the rhythmic and melodic side, the desire to especially highlight rhyming words can lead to a violation of the meaning of the verse. Thus, when placing logical emphasis only on rhyming words, the meaning of the quatrain will be distorted:
Snow would be better blizzard
Meet with breasts glad!
As if with frightened
Having shouted, to the south
Cranes flying.
And, conversely, with the correct selection of the most semantically important words, the text of the quatrain will be perceived quickly and accurately:
It would be better dream yes blizzard
Meet breasts glad!
As if in fright
Screaming, to the south
Cranes flying.
(A. Fet “Autumn”)
The following rules will make it easier to prepare for expressive reading. However, depending on the intention of the reader to highlight any word that, in his opinion, has important, deviation from these rules is permissible if it does not contradict the author’s intention, the idea of the work and follows from inner meaning text (subtext).
Thus, in a couplet from M. Lermontov’s poem “The Death of a Poet”:
An empty heart beats evenly,
The pistol did not tremble in my hand -
the logical emphasis can be placed not on the noun “heart”, but on the adjective “empty”, if the reader wants to especially note the callousness of the killer.
Tasks
1. For each rule, select two examples, write them down in a notebook, add logical emphasis and read aloud.
We We walk through the dark spruce forest.
We let's go then a dark spruce forest.
We are going in the dark spruce forest
We're walking in the dark spruce forest.
Who threw a bow at Luka?
Threw a bow Klim to Luka.
What did Klim do?
Threw bow Klim to Luka.
What did Klim throw at Luka?
Threw onions Klim to Luka.
4. Copy the text into a notebook, underline the words that are highlighted with logical emphasis, and explain why these particular words should be highlighted.
Stress characterizing the semantic load of the components of a judgment. In some teachings about narrowing
denia in traditional logic, belonging to psychological direction, the main semantic load in simple attributive judgments related to the predicate of the judgment: it was in the predicate of the judgment that new information about the subject. The judgment was interpreted as a certain response to the request of thought, expressed in the corresponding interrogative sentence(see: Question). Thus, in the judgment “Andreev is writing a letter,” depending on the context, i.e., depending on what question it answers, various components of the judgment will play the role of a predicate. If the judgment is an answer to the question: “What is Andreev doing?”, then the predicate will be “writes a letter.” If we know that a certain person is writing a letter, and we are interested in who writes the letter, then the predicate will be "Andreev" (" Writing a letter there is Andreev").
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"logical stress" in books
Stress and participles
From the book How to Speak Correctly: Notes on the Culture of Russian Speech author Golovin Boris NikolaevichIntonation and stress
From the book Learn to speak so that you can be heard. 245 simple exercises according to the Stanislavsky system author Sarabyan ElviraIntonation and stress To build the correct intonation, you need to correctly distribute stress in the text. Each phrase should have one highlighted word, each passage of text should have one or two stressed phrases
Accent
From the book Encyclopedic Dictionary (T-F) author Brockhaus F.A.Monotonic stress
From the book Big Soviet Encyclopedia(MO) of the author TSBDynamic stress
From the book Great Soviet Encyclopedia (DI) by the author TSBPolytonic stress
From the book Great Soviet Encyclopedia (PO) by the author TSBQuantitative stress
From the book Great Soviet Encyclopedia (KB) by the author TSBBlunt accent
From the book Great Soviet Encyclopedia (TU) by the author TSBMusical Accent
From the book Great Soviet Encyclopedia (MU) by the author TSBLogical stress
From the book Great Soviet Encyclopedia (LO) by the author TSBExpiratory stress
From the book Great Soviet Encyclopedia (EC) by the author TSBAccent
From the book Great Soviet Encyclopedia (UD) by the author TSB2.6. Accent
From the book Modern Russian Language. Practical guide author Guseva Tamara Ivanovna2.6. Stress Stress is the allocation of one syllable in a word, which serves to phonetically combine this word and is called word stress. In addition to verbal stress, there are also syntagmatic and phrasal stress, the function of which is also phonetic.
4. Accent
From the book Fundamentals of Judicial Eloquence (rhetoric for lawyers). Tutorial 2nd edition author Ivakina Nadezhda Nikolaevna4. Stress An important element of the sound organization of speech is compliance with accentological norms related to the placement of stress in a word. “Verbal stress,” writes Z.V. Savkova, - forms the word. It cements it, pulls sounds and syllables into a single whole - a word, not
Accent
From the book Iron Arguments [Win, even if you're wrong] by Piri MadsenStress The effectiveness of stress placement is based on the fact that the meaning of a statement can change depending on which words are emphasized by intonation. Emphasizing certain words and phrases can give meaning to a statement, quite
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