Is an important process that must be carried out regularly in industrial plants.

High-quality and timely execution of operations, performed in accordance with regulatory documents, can prevent potential breakdowns and malfunctions of specialized equipment.

Diagnostics of technological equipment performs many functions and tasks.

One of the priorities for this process is to ensure the safe and high-quality operation of machines, apparatus and machines at domestic enterprises. The diagnostics also ensure the reliability of the object.

A well-conducted survey guarantees a reduction in the consumption of material resources of the enterprise for maintenance, as well as during scheduled preventive maintenance (PM).

Diagnostics of machines, tools, machines makes it possible to assess the real state of the equipment at the moment.

Diagnostics also reveals the exact location of a potential or existing problem. By evaluating the performance indicators of the equipment, it is possible to establish the power and efficiency of its labor operation.

With the help of a general assessment of the technical condition of equipment, a forecast is made for its further use and the exact time of its maximum operation in production is determined.

There are two types of diagnostic parameters: direct and indirect. In this case, the first characterize directly the current state of the object, and the second speak about the functional dependence of the direct parameters.

Technological equipment diagnostics methods

Diagnostics of technological equipment is carried out using various methods, in particular:

• organoleptic;


• vibrating;


• acoustic;


• thermal;


• magnetic powder;


• vortex;


• ultrasonic;

All these methods are widely used in assessing the condition of objects at industrial enterprises.

At the same time, it is important to remember that diagnostics of technological equipment has its drawbacks. One of them is a skipping of a problem when examining. This may later cause damage to equipment or lead to work-related injuries to workers.

Another big drawback of technological diagnostics is the emergence of a high probability that the alarm was false and there are no potential threats to the operation of the equipment.

Inspection of units requires, first of all, time. At the same time, all equipment remains inoperative, which leads to downtime.

The equipment of the material and technical base is important for every enterprise. Especially carefully you need to monitor the serviceability of the equipment, the timely replacement of consumables. This contributes to the efficient functioning of the enterprise.

Planned preventive work at all organizations is carried out through regular checks in accordance with all the requirements of regulatory documents.

Modern diagnostic methods for technological equipment at the exhibition

It will present the best samples of metalworking equipment, as well as innovative technologies in the field of metalworking. Among other things, modern methods of diagnosing technological equipment will be discussed.

Traditionally, the exhibition will take place in the international complex "Expocentre".

Leading domestic and foreign experts will present the latest developments, talk about the problems and prospects for the development of the industry.

In the mining industry, a large number of mechanisms and machines are in operation, the defects of which can be successfully determined by vibration diagnostics methods. These are fans, pumps, mills, gearboxes, roller conveyors, electric motors, etc. However, there are not many examples of successful solutions for equipment diagnostics.

What is the reason?

The advantages of using equipment diagnostics are confirmed by numerous examples in world and domestic practice:
prevention of emergencies caused by technical reasons;
reduction of equipment downtime;
optimal planning and reduction of the volume of repairs;
optimal planning and reduction of spare parts purchases.

But there are circumstances that can hinder your success.

1. The use of diagnostic systems is not easy. These are expensive systems that require highly qualified personnel to be successful. Poor choice of diagnostic systems, their incorrect use and low qualification of personnel can reduce the reliability of detecting defects and lead to distrust of the results.

2. Often, equipment diagnostics is carried out on a case-by-case basis, without understanding the goals and without any idea of ​​how the results can be used. At the same time, the established practice suits almost everyone.

3. For some types of equipment (for example, low-speed machines) or for equipment with special operating conditions, there are no reliable diagnostic methods.

As a result of the analysis and generalization of practical experience, the VAST Association has developed a technology for a comprehensive assessment of the state of rotary (rotating) equipment and a program to improve the efficiency of the enterprise's diagnostic service.
.
The program includes the following activities:
technical audit - an independent analysis of diagnostic processes, interaction with repair services, assessment of the effectiveness of diagnostics;
development of recommendations for optimizing the operation of the diagnostic service and equipping with diagnostic systems;
development of a regulatory and methodological framework for organizing maintenance and repair processes and equipment diagnostics;
creation and maintenance of a database on the state of equipment;
equipping the enterprise with portable and stationary diagnostic systems for rotating equipment, including hardware and software;
control of the level of qualifications of specialists, organization of training.

The scope of the program depends on the state of the diagnostic service of a particular enterprise. As one of the measures, it is proposed to attract a specialized organization to carry out diagnostic maintenance of equipment.

The diagnostic service technology has been worked out in the organization of diagnostics of locomotives on the railways. Outsourcing of diagnostics allowed not only to improve the results, but also to reduce the costs of the customer.

The main task of diagnostic maintenance is to ensure the reliability of the equipment and prevent emergencies. A distinctive feature of the diagnostic service is the provision of a guarantee of trouble-free operation of the diagnosed equipment.

The diagnostic service program can be adjusted based on customer-specific problems. For some enterprises, this is high maintenance costs, for others - low energy efficiency, economy and other financial indicators, for others - a decrease in the resource of equipment and its frequent breakdowns.

GOST 20911-89 provides for the use of two terms: "technical diagnostics" and "technical condition control". The term "technical diagnostics" is used when the solved problems of technical diagnostics listed in 1.1 are equivalent or the main task is to find a place and determine the causes of failure. The term "technical condition control" is used when the main task of technical diagnostics is to determine the type of technical condition.

There are the following types of technical condition, characterized by the value of the parameters of the object at a given moment in time:

Serviceable - the object meets all the requirements of the regulatory and technical and (or) design documentation;

Defective - the object does not meet at least one of the requirements of the normative-technical and (or) design documentation;

Efficient - the values ​​of all parameters characterizing the facility's ability to perform the specified functions comply with the requirements of the normative-technical and (or) design documentation;

Inoperative - the value of at least one parameter characterizing the facility's ability to perform the specified functions does not meet the requirements of the normative-technical and (or) design documentation;

Limiting - further operation of the facility is technically impossible or impractical due to non-compliance with the requirements
safety or irreparable decrease in work efficiency.

The concept of "healthy state" is broader than the concept of "healthy state". If the object is healthy, it is sure to be functional, but a functional object may be faulty, since some malfunctions may be insignificant, not disrupting the normal functioning of the object.

For complex objects, in particular for main pipelines, a deeper classification of the workable state is allowed with the allocation of a partially workable (partially inoperable) state in which the object is able to partially perform the specified functions. An example of a partially operable state is such a state of the linear part of the main pipelines, in which the section is able to perform the required functions for pumping the process medium with reduced performance, in particular, with reduced productivity with a decrease in the allowable pressure (RD 51-4.2-003-97).

Technical diagnostics system(technical condition control) is the set of means, object and performers necessary to carry out diagnostics (control) according to the rules established in the technical documentation. The objects of technical diagnostics are technological equipment or specific production processes.

Control tool - technical device, substance or material for control. If the control means provides the ability to measure the controlled value, then the control is called measuring. Controls are built-in, which are an integral part of the object, and external, made structurally separate from the object. A distinction is also made between hardware and software controls. Hardware includes various devices: devices, consoles, stands, etc. Software means are computer applications.

Performers - these are specialists of the control service or technical diagnostics, trained and certified in the prescribed manner and having the right to carry out control and issue conclusions based on its results.

Control methodology - a set of rules for the application of certain principles and controls. The technique contains the procedure for measuring parameters, processing, analyzing and interpreting the results.

For each object, you can specify a variety of parameters characterizing its technical condition (PTS). They are chosen depending on the method of diagnosis (control) used. Changes in the PFS values ​​during operation are associated either with external influences on the object, or with damaging (degradation) processes (processes leading to degradation failures due to metal aging, corrosion and erosion, fatigue, etc.).

The parameters of an object used in its diagnostics (control) are called diagnostic (controlled) parameters. A distinction should be made between direct and indirect diagnostic parameters. A direct structural parameter (for example, wear of rubbing elements, clearance in the interface, etc.) directly characterizes the technical condition of the object. An indirect parameter (for example, oil pressure, temperature, CO2 content in exhaust gases, etc.) indirectly characterizes the technical condition. The change in the technical state of the object is judged by the values ​​of the diagnostic parameters, which make it possible to determine the technical state of the object without disassembling it. A set of diagnostic parameters is established in the normative documentation for the technical diagnostics of an object or is determined experimentally.

Quantitative and qualitative characteristics of diagnostic parameters are signs of a particular defect. Each defect may have several features, including some of them that may be common to a group of defects of different nature.

The general theory of pattern recognition, which is a section of technical cybernetics, is considered the theoretical foundation of technical diagnostics. There are two approaches to solving the recognition problem: probabilistic and deterministic. Probabilistic uses statistical relationships between the state of an object and diagnostic parameters and requires the accumulation of statistics on the correspondence of diagnostic parameters to types of technical conditions. In this case, the assessment of the state is carried out with a certain reliability. The deterministic approach, which is most often used, uses the established patterns of changes in the diagnostic parameters that determine the state of the object.

In addition to the recognition theory, the theory of controllability is also used in technical diagnostics. Controllability is determined by the design of the object, is set during its design and is a property of the object to provide the possibility of a reliable assessment of diagnostic parameters. Insufficient reliability of the technical condition assessment is the fundamental reason for the low reliability of equipment condition recognition and assessment of its residual life.

Thus, as a result of previous studies, relationships are established between the characteristics of diagnostic parameters and the state of the object and diagnostic algorithms (recognition algorithms) are developed, which are a sequence of certain actions necessary for making a diagnosis. Diagnostic algorithms also include a system of diagnostic parameters, their reference levels and the rules for making a decision about the belonging of an object to a particular type of technical state.

Determination of the type of technical condition of the equipment can be carried out both in the assembled state and after its complete disassembly. During normal operation, CIP methods are used as the most economical. Methods of technical diagnostics that require disassembly are usually used during the overhaul of equipment - when detecting its elements. The main problem of CIP technical diagnostics is the assessment of the equipment condition in conditions of limited information.

According to the method of obtaining diagnostic information, technical diagnostics are divided into test and functional. In test diagnostics, information about the technical condition is obtained as a result of the impact on the object of the corresponding test. Test diagnostics are based on the use of various non-destructive testing methods. In this case, control is carried out, as a rule, on non-working equipment. Test diagnostics can be carried out both assembled and disassembled. Functional diagnostics are carried out only on operating equipment in an assembled state.

Functional diagnostics, in turn, are subdivided into vibration and parametric diagnostics. When using functional parametric diagnostics, the technical condition is assessed by the value of the functional parameters of the equipment during its operation, while the supply of targeted test influences is not required. The deviation of these parameters from their nominal values ​​(temperature, pressure, power, amount of pumped product, efficiency, etc.) indicates a change in the technical state of the elements of the object that form this parameter. The control of functional parameters is usually carried out in a continuous mode by operational service personnel using standard instrumentation and measuring complexes of technological equipment. In this regard, functional parametric diagnostics is often called operational. The methods of functional parametric diagnostics are usually described in the instructions and manuals for the operation of the corresponding type of equipment and are not specifically discussed in this manual.

There are two types of vibration diagnostics: test and functional (see 2.1). The essence of functional vibration diagnostics is to use the vibration parameters of the equipment when operating under operating conditions to assess its technical condition without disassembly. A feature of functional vibration diagnostics is the use of not static parameters such as temperature or pressure as diagnostic parameters, but dynamic ones - vibration displacement, vibration velocity and vibration acceleration.

In addition to the types of diagnostics noted above, destructive testing methods are used to assess the condition of the equipment, providing for partial destruction of the object (for example, when cutting out samples to establish the properties of materials by means of their mechanical tests), as well as instrumental measuring control of equipment elements during its disassembly during inspection or repair. ... The classification of types of technical diagnostics is shown in Fig. 1.3.

Diagnostic systems differ in the level of information received about the object. Depending on the problem to be solved, the following types of diagnostic systems are distinguished: for sorting objects into serviceable and faulty ones or for attestation of objects by classes; search and measurement of defects and damages; monitoring the state of the object and predicting its residual resource. The last of the listed systems is the most complex and is used for critical and expensive hazardous production facilities and technological equipment. Such systems, which provide for continuous monitoring using a set of methods for monitoring the technical condition, make it possible to promptly correct the predictive estimates of the determining parameters and clarify the residual resource. The main methods for monitoring the development of defectiveness in integrated monitoring systems are currently used: for capacitive equipment - acoustic emission control, for machine equipment - control of vibration parameters.

Modern technological equipment is a complex technical system. Ensuring the required reliability of such systems, assessed by the probability of failure-free operation P (1)(see Table 1.1) is more problematic than simple ones. The reliability of any technical system is determined by the reliability of its constituent elements. In most cases, for complex systems, the control of one or several elements is ineffective, since the state of the rest remains unknown.

The constituent elements of complex technical systems can be interconnected in sequential, parallel or combined ways. With a series connection of elements with a probability of failure-free operation R 1 R 2,..., Pn the probability of failure-free operation of the system is determined from the expression

,

Where P i - the probability of failure-free operation of the i-th element.

Parallel connection

With the combined method, the probability of failure-free operation of the elements with parallel connection is first determined, and then with serial connection.

The method of parallel connection of duplicating elements is called reservation. Redundancy can dramatically increase the reliability of complex technical systems. For example, if the crude oil pumping system has two independent parallel pumps with the probability of failure-free operation P 1 = P 2 = 0.95, then the probability of failure-free operation of the entire system

P (t)= 1 - (1 – R 1) (1- P 2) = 1 - (1 - 0.95) (1 - 0.95) = 0.998.

The overall reliability of a system is determined by the reliability of its components. The greater the number of components that make up the system, the higher should be the reliability of each of them. For example, if a technical system consists of 100 series-connected elements with an equally high probability of failure-free operation of 0.99, then its overall reliability will be equal to 0.99 100, which will be about 0.37, i.e., the probability of failure-free operation of the system for a given time t is only 37%. In this regard, when diagnosing complex systems, primarily including a large number of components without redundancy, in order to obtain a reliable assessment of their reliability, it is necessary to carry out a complete control of all components.

The state of a technical system can be described by many parameters. When diagnosing complex systems, the performance of which is characterized by a large number of parameters, a number of additional problems arise, namely:

It is necessary to establish the nomenclature of the main diagnostic parameters that characterize the system operability, and set the technical means of their control;

Based on the combination of these parameters, it is necessary to develop an algorithm for assessing the technical state of the system and the corresponding software products for computers.

When carrying out diagnostics, continuous and random control is used. An extremely important factor is that the use of modern non-destructive methods allows you to go to continuous testing. For complex technological equipment, consisting of a large number of dependent elements, the introduction of continuous non-destructive testing is a necessary condition for a reliable assessment of its technical condition.

Diagnostics requires a certain cost, which grows as the requirements for reliability and safety increase. For comparison: in the US nuclear industry, the cost of flaw detection is up to 25% of all operating costs, in Russia - about 4%. According to VNIKTI petrochemical equipment, the cost of diagnostics of petrochemical equipment in the United States is about 6% of operating costs, in Russia - less than 1%. At the same time, this expense item is justified, since the use of technical diagnostics systems allows each piece of technological equipment to be operated to the limit state and, due to this, to obtain a significant economic effect.

Technical diagnostics- the area of ​​knowledge, covering the theory, methods and means of determining the technical state of the object. The purpose of technical diagnostics in the general maintenance system is to reduce the volume of costs at the operation stage due to targeted repairs.

Technical diagnostics- the process of determining the technical condition of the object. It is subdivided into test, functional and express diagnostics.

Periodic and planned technical diagnostics allows:

carry out incoming control of units and spare units when purchasing them;

to minimize sudden unscheduled shutdowns of technical equipment;

manage equipment aging.

Comprehensive diagnostics of the technical condition of the equipment makes it possible to solve the following tasks:

to carry out repairs according to the actual state;

increase the average time between repairs;

reduce the consumption of parts during the operation of various equipment;

reduce the amount of spare parts;

reduce the duration of repairs;

improve the quality of repairs and eliminate secondary breakdowns;

extend the life of the operating equipment on a rigorous scientific basis;

to increase the safety of operation of power equipment:

reduce the consumption of fuel and energy resources.

Test technical diagnostics- this is diagnostics, in which test influences are applied to the object (for example, determining the degree of wear of the insulation of electrical machines by changing the tangent of the dielectric loss angle when voltage is applied to the motor winding from the AC bridge).

Functional technical diagnostics- this is diagnostics, in which the parameters of an object are measured and analyzed during its operation but for its intended purpose or in a special mode, for example, determining the technical condition of rolling bearings by changing vibration during the operation of electrical machines.

Express diagnostics- this is diagnostics based on a limited number of parameters in a predetermined time.

Object of technical diagnostics- a product or its component parts to be (subjected to) diagnostics (control).

Technical condition- this is a condition that is characterized at a certain point in time under certain environmental conditions by the values ​​of the diagnostic parameters established by the technical documentation for the object.

Technical diagnostics tools- equipment and programs with the help of which diagnostics (control) is carried out.

Built-in technical diagnostics- these are diagnostic tools that are an integral part of the object (for example, gas relays in transformers for a voltage of 100 kV).

External devices for technical diagnostics- these are diagnostic devices made structurally separate from the object (for example, a vibration control system on oil transfer pumps).

Technical diagnostics system- a set of tools, object and performers required to carry out diagnostics according to the rules established by the technical documentation.

Technical diagnosis- the result of diagnosis.

Prediction of technical condition it is a determination of the technical state of an object with a given probability for the forthcoming time interval during which the operable (inoperative) state of the object will remain.

Algorithm for technical diagnostics- a set of prescriptions that determine the sequence of actions when carrying out diagnostics.

Diagnostic model- a formal description of the object, which is necessary for solving problems of diagnostics. The diagnostic model can be represented as a set of graphs, tables or standards in the diagnostic space.

There are various methods of technical diagnostics:

It is implemented using a magnifying glass, an endoscope, and other simple devices. This method is used, as a rule, constantly, conducting external inspections of equipment during its preparation for work or in the process of technical inspections.

Vibroacoustic method implemented with various vibration measuring instruments. Vibration is assessed by vibration displacement, vibration velocity or vibration acceleration. Evaluation of the technical condition by this method is carried out by the general level of vibration in the frequency range of 10 - 1000 Hz or by frequency analysis in the range of 0 - 20,000 Hz.

Implemented with. Pyrometers measure temperature in a non-contact way at each specific point, i.e. to obtain information about the temperature zero, it is necessary to scan an object with this device. Thermal imagers allow you to determine the temperature field in a certain part of the surface of the diagnosed object, which increases the efficiency of detecting incipient defects.

Acoustic emission method based on the registration of high-frequency signals in metals and ceramics in the event of microcracks. The frequency of the acoustic signal varies in the range of 5 - 600 kHz. The signal appears at the moment of microcracking formation. At the end of the crack development, it disappears. As a result, when using this method, various methods of loading objects are used in the process of diagnostics.

The magnetic method is used to detect defects: microcracks, corrosion and breaks of steel wires in ropes, stress concentration in metal structures. The stress concentration is detected with the help of special devices, which are based on the principles of Barkhaussen and Villari.

Partial discharge method It is used to detect defects in the insulation of high-voltage equipment (transformers, electrical machines). The physical basis of partial discharges is that local charges of different polarity are formed in the insulation of electrical equipment. A spark (discharge) arises with charges of different polarities. The frequency of these discharges varies in the range of 5 - 600 kHz, they have different power and duration.

There are various methods for registering partial discharges:

method of potentials (partial discharge probe Lemke-5);

acoustic (high-frequency sensors are used);

electromagnetic (partial discharge probe);

capacitive.

To detect defects in the insulation of station synchronous generators with hydrogen cooling and defects in transformers for a voltage of 3 - 330 kV, it is used gas chromatographic analysis... When various defects occur in transformers, various gases are released in the oil: methane, acetylene, hydrogen, etc. The proportion of these gases dissolved in the oil is extremely small, but nevertheless there are devices (chromatograms) with the help of which these gases are detected in transformer oil and the degree of development of certain defects is determined.

To measure the tangent of the dielectric loss angle in isolation in high-voltage electrical equipment (transformers, cables, electrical machines), a special device is used -. This parameter is measured at voltage supply from nominal to 1.25 nominal. With a good technical condition of the insulation, the dielectric loss tangent should not change in this voltage range.

Graphs of changes in the tangent of the angle of dielectric losses: 1 - unsatisfactory; 2 - satisfactory; 3 - good technical condition of insulation

In addition, the following methods can be used for technical diagnostics of electric machine shafts, transformer housings: ultrasonic, ultrasonic thickness measurement, radiographic, capillary (color), eddy current, mechanical testing (hardness, tension, bending), X-ray flaw detection, metallographic analysis.

Gruntovich N.V.

System of maintenance and repair of general industrial equipment: Handbook of Yashchur Alexander Ignatievich

3.3. Equipment technical diagnostics

3.3.1. Technical diagnostics (TD) is an element of the PPR System that allows you to study and establish signs of malfunction (operability) of equipment, establish methods and means by which a conclusion is given (a diagnosis is made) about the presence (absence) of malfunctions (defects). Acting on the basis of studying the dynamics of changes in the indicators of the technical condition of the equipment, the TD solves the issues of forecasting (foreseeing) the residual resource and the trouble-free operation of the equipment within a certain period of time.

3.3.2. Technical diagnostics is based on the assumption that any equipment or its component part can be in two states - serviceable and faulty. Serviceable equipment is always operational, it meets all the requirements of the technical specifications established by the manufacturer. Defective (defective) equipment can be both operable and inoperative, that is, in a state of failure.

3.3.3. The equipment may fail due to a change in the external environment and due to physical wear and tear of parts located both outside and inside the equipment. Failures are the result of wear or misalignment of components.

3.3.4. Technical diagnostics is mainly aimed at finding and analyzing the internal causes of failure. External causes are determined visually, using a measuring tool, simple devices.

Methods, means and a rational sequence of searching for internal causes of failure depend on the complexity of the equipment design, on the technical indicators that determine its condition. The peculiarity of TD is that it measures and determines the technical condition of the equipment and its components during operation, directs its efforts to search for defects.

3.3.5. By the size of defects in components (units, assemblies and parts), it is possible to determine the equipment operability. Knowing the technical condition of individual parts of the equipment at the time of diagnosis and the magnitude of the defect in which its performance is impaired, it is possible to predict the uptime of the equipment until the next scheduled repair, provided for by the frequency standards of the PPR System, as well as the need to correct them.

3.3.6. The periodicity standards laid down in the basis of the PPR are experimentally averaged values, established so that the repair periods are multiples and tied to the scheduling of the main production (year, quarter, month).

3.3.7. Any averaged values ​​have their own significant drawback: even with a number of clarifying coefficients, they do not give a complete objective assessment of the technical condition of the equipment and the need for scheduled maintenance. Almost always there are two superfluous options: the residual resource of the equipment is far from being exhausted, the residual resource does not ensure trouble-free operation until the next scheduled repair. Both options do not meet the requirement of Federal Law No. 57-FZ to establish the useful life of fixed assets by objectively assessing the need for repair or decommissioning.

3.3.8. An objective method for assessing the need for equipment for repair is constant or periodic monitoring of the technical condition of the facility with repairs only in the case when the wear of parts and assemblies has reached the limit value, which does not guarantee safe, trouble-free and economical operation of the equipment. Such control can be achieved by means of TD, and the method itself becomes an integral part of the SPR (control) system.

3.3.9. Another task of the TD is to predict the residual life of the equipment and establish the period of its trouble-free operation without repair (especially capital), i.e., adjusting the structure of the repair cycle.

3.3.10. Technical diagnostics successfully solves these problems for any repair strategy, especially a strategy for the technical condition of equipment. In accordance with this strategy, work on maintaining and restoring the operability of equipment and its components should be carried out on the basis of equipment TD.

3.3.11. Technical diagnostics is an objective method for assessing the technical condition of equipment in order to determine the presence or absence of defects and the timing of repairs, including predicting the technical condition of equipment and adjusting the standards for the frequency of repairs (especially overhaul).

3.3.12. The basic principle of diagnostics is to compare the regulated value of the operating parameter or the parameter of the technical condition of the equipment with the actual value using diagnostic tools. Here and below, according to GOST 19919-74, a parameter is understood as a characteristic of the equipment that reflects the physical value of its functioning or technical condition.

3.3.13. The objectives of the TD are:

control of the parameters of functioning, i.e. the course of the technological process, in order to optimize it;

monitoring the parameters of the technical condition of the equipment changing during operation, comparing their actual values ​​with limit values ​​and determining the need for maintenance and repair;

forecasting the resource (service life) of equipment, units and assemblies in order to replace them or take them out for repair.

3.3.14. Predicting the frequency of current and, especially, overhaul of equipment is possible only with the simultaneous TD of all or most of its components.

3.3.15. Experience shows that the most effective use of the advantages of TD is achieved when a special task "Diagnostics of equipment", provided with computer technology, is functioning at the enterprise.

Despite the wide variety of devices used for diagnosing equipment, sensor wiring diagrams, their design performance, etc., as domestic and world experience shows, approaches to the introduction of TD into practice remain common. Appendix 8 briefly discusses the methodology and shows one of the general ways of organizing TD at the enterprise, and in table. 3.1 shows a list of diagnostic devices available in special mobile repair shops.

Table 3.1

List of diagnostic devices in mobile repair shops

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