At dawn on June 24 (12, old style), 1812, Napoleon's troops crossed the Neman River without declaring war and invaded Russia. Napoleon's army, which he himself called the "Great Army", numbered over 600,000 men and 1,420 guns. In addition to the French, it included the national corps of the European countries conquered by Napoleon, as well as the Polish corps of Marshal Y. Ponyatovsky.
The main forces of Napoleon were deployed in two echelons. The first (444,000 men and 940 guns) consisted of three groups: the right wing, led by Jerome Bonaparte (78,000 men, 159 guns), was to move to Grodno, diverting as many Russian forces as possible; the central grouping under the command of Eugene de Beauharnais (82,000 men, 208 guns) was supposed to prevent the connection of the 1st and 2nd Russian armies; the left wing, led by Napoleon himself (218,000 men, 527 guns) moved to Vilna - he was assigned the main role in the entire campaign. In the rear, between the Vistula and the Oder, the second echelon remained — 170,000 men, 432 guns and a reserve (the corps of Marshal Augereau and other troops).
The invading enemy was opposed by 220-240 thousand Russian soldiers with 942 guns - 3 times less than the enemy had. In addition, the Russian troops were divided: the 1st Western Army under the command of the Minister of War, General of Infantry M.B. Barclay de Tolly (110 - 127 thousand people with 558 guns) stretched more than 200 kilometers from Lithuania to Grodno in Belarus; The 2nd Western Army, led by General of Infantry P.I.Bagration (45-48 thousand men with 216 guns) occupied a line up to 100 kilometers east of Bialystok; The 3rd Western Army of General of the Cavalry A.P. Tormasov (46,000 men with 168 guns) was stationed in Volyn near Lutsk. On the right flank of the Russian troops (in Finland) was the corps of Lieutenant General F.F. Steingel, on the left flank - the Danube army of Admiral P.V. Chichagov.
Given the enormous size and power of Russia, Napoleon planned to complete the campaign in three years: in 1812, capture the western provinces from Riga to Lutsk, in 1813 - Moscow, in 1814 - in St. Petersburg. This gradualness would allow him to dismember Russia, providing the rear and communications of the army operating over vast areas. The conqueror of Europe did not count on the blitz-krieg, although he was going to quickly defeat the main forces of the Russian army one by one in the border areas.
But realizing that it was impossible to resist with scattered units, the Russian command began to retreat inland. And this foiled the strategic plan of Napoleon. Instead of the gradual dismemberment of Russia, Napoleon was forced to follow the elusive Russian armies inland, stretching communications and losing superiority in forces.
THE FIRST STAGE OF THE WAR: RETREAT
Retreating, the Russian troops fought rearguard battles, inflicting significant losses on the enemy. The main task was to combine the forces of the 1st and 2nd Western armies. Particularly difficult was the situation of Bagration's 2nd army, which was threatened by encirclement. It was not possible to break through to Minsk and connect with Barclay's army there: the path was cut off. Bagration changed the direction of movement, but the troops of Jerome Bonaparte overtook him. On July 9 (June 27, old style), near the town of Mir, a battle took place between the rearguard of the Russian troops (it was the Cossack cavalry of Ataman M.I. Platov) with the French cavalry. The French were defeated and retreated in disarray. The next day, another battle took place, and again the French were defeated. On July 14 (2), near the town of Romanovo, Platov's Cossacks held back the French for 24 hours in order to allow the army convoys to cross the Pripyat. Platov's successful rearguard battles allowed the 2nd Army to reach Bobruisk unhindered and concentrate its forces, which had been stretched until that moment. All attempts to surround Bagration failed. Poleon was furious; he accused his brother Jerome of slowness and handed over command of his corps to Marshal Davout.
From Tarutin, Kutuzov launched a "small war" with the forces of army partisan detachments. The detachments of D.V. Davydov, A.N.Seslavin, A.S. Figner, I.S.Dorokhov, N.D. Kudashev, I.M. Vadbolsky were especially successful. Kutuzov sought to expand the peasant partisan movement, merging it with the actions of army detachments. Some of the peasant detachments numbered several thousand people. For example, the detachment of Gerasim Kurin consisted of 5,000 people. The detachments of Ermolai Chetvertakov, Fedor Potapov, Vasilisa Kozhina were widely known.
The actions of the partisans inflicted heavy human and material losses on the enemy, disrupted his communication with the rear. In just six autumn weeks, the guerrillas killed about 30,000 enemy soldiers.
On October 18 (6), on the Chernishna River, Russian troops defeated the strong vanguard of the French army, commanded by Marshal Murat. This victory marked the beginning of the counter-offensive of the Russian army.
On the same days, active operations of the 3rd Western Army began. On October 17 (5), the battle for Polotsk began, in which, in addition to the soldiers of the Wittgenstein corps, the soldiers of the Novgorod and Petersburg militias took an active part. By the morning of October 20, Polotsk was liberated. In the southwestern direction, Admiral Chichagov threw back the troops of Schwarzenberg and Rainier beyond the Southern Bug, within the Duchy of Warsaw, and moved towards Minsk.
All this prompted Napoleon to take action. On October 19 (7), the French set out from Moscow to Tarutin, hoping to catch Kutuzov by surprise, defeat him and break through to Kaluga. The ancient capital of Russia was burned and plundered. The French tried to blow up the Kremlin, but fortunately the destruction was not too great. Napoleon's new plans were again ruined. Seslavin's partisan detachment discovered Naoleon's army near the village of Fominskoye and transmitted information about this to Kutuzov's headquarters. The Russian army emerged from the Tarutino camp and advanced towards the French. On October 24 (12), a fierce battle of the advanced units of both armies took place for Maloyaroslavets. The city passed from hand to hand 8 times. And although in the end the French captured the city, Napoleon had to give up the hope of breaking through to Kaluga: the main forces of the Russian army that had approached took up strong positions near Maloyaroslavets. Napoleon gave the order to begin a retreat to Mozhaisk and further to the old Smolensk road, ravaged by the war.
Having finally snatched the strategic initiative from the hands of the enemy, Kutuzov launched a general counteroffensive. It was active in nature and set as its goal, while preserving the army, not only to expel, but to completely destroy the enemy. Army and peasant partisan detachments, as well as mobile Cossack units of Ataman Platov, played a huge role in the persecution of the French.
In the battles of Vyazma and Dorogobuzh, the enemy fleeing to the west lost about 13,000 people killed, wounded and captured. In the battle near Lyakhov, the partisans surrounded and forced to surrender an entire enemy division led by General Augereau. Leaving Moscow, Napoleon had an army of 107,000 men. In Smolensk, he managed to bring only about 60,000 people, counting with the replenishment.
In mid-November, Russian troops surrounded the Napoleonic army at the Berezina River. However, due to the inconsistency in the actions of the Russian corps, Napoleon managed to cross the Berezina near the village of Studyanka. However, only about 9,000 people crossed over to the west coast. The rest either died or were taken prisoner. After the Berezina, Napoleon fled to Paris. To the question "What is the position of the army?" he replied: "The army is no more."
On November 28, according to the old style, Russian troops occupied Vilna. On December 2, about 1,000 enemy soldiers crossed the Neman near Kovno. These were the last remnants of Napoleon's main forces. In total, about 30,000 people fled from the 600,000-strong "Great Army". The war, as Kutuzov wrote, "ended after the complete extermination of the enemy."
"No matter how critics speak about certain moments of the persecution, we must attribute the energy with which this persecution was carried out, the fact that the French army was completely destroyed, and a greater result could not be imagined," wrote the German military theorist and historian Karl Clausewitz. "
As a result of the defeat of the Napoleonic army in Russia, the national liberation movement intensified in Europe. The patriotic upsurge of 1812 had a tremendous impact on the growth of self-awareness of the peoples of Russia.
And invaded Russian lands. The French rushed to the offensive like a bull during a bullfight. Napoleon's army included a European hodgepodge: in addition to the French, there were also (forcibly recruited) Germans, Austrians, Spaniards, Italians, Dutch, Poles and many others, totaling up to 650 thousand people. Russia could have fielded about the same number of soldiers, but some of them, together with Kutuzov was still in Moldova, the other part in the Caucasus. In the process of Napoleon's invasion, up to 20 thousand Lithuanians joined his army.
The Russian army was split into two lines of defense, under the command of a general Peter Bagration and Michael Barclay de Tolly... The invasion of the French fell on the troops of the latter. Napoleon's calculation was simple - one or two victorious battles (maximum - three), and Alexander I will be forced to sign a peace on the terms of France. However, Barclay de Tolly gradually, with minor skirmishes, retreated deep into Russia, but did not enter the main battle. Near Smolensk, the Russian army almost fell into encirclement, but did not enter the battle and eluded the French, continuing to drag them deep into its territory. Napoleon occupied the deserted Smolensk and could stop at this for now, but Kutuzov, who arrived in time from Moldavia to replace Barclay de Tolly, knew that the French emperor would not do this and continued his retreat to Moscow. Bagration was eager to attack, and the majority of the country's population supported him, but Alexander did not allow, leaving Peter Bagration on the border in Austria, in case of an attack by the allies of France.
Along the way, Napoleon got only abandoned and burned out settlements - no people, no supplies. After the "show" battle for Smolensk on August 18, 1812, Napoleon's troops began to get tired of Russian campaign of 1812 because the conquest was somehow negative: there were no large-scale battles and high-profile victories, there were no trophy supplies and weapons, winter was approaching, during which the "Great Army" had to spend the winter somewhere, and nothing suitable for quartering was captured.
Battle of Borodino.
At the end of August, near Mozhaisk (125 kilometers from Moscow), Kutuzov stopped in a field near the village Borodino where he decided to give a general battle. For the most part, he was compelled by public opinion, since the constant retreat did not correspond to the moods of either the people, or the nobles, or the emperor.
On August 26, 1812, the famous Battle of Borodino. Bagration pulled himself up to Borodino, but the Russians were still able to deploy just over 110 thousand soldiers. Napoleon at that time had up to 135 thousand people.
The course and result of the battle are known to many: the French repeatedly stormed the defensive redoubts of Kutuzov with the active support of artillery ("Horses, people mixed up in a heap ..."). Hungry for a normal battle, the Russians heroically repelled the attacks of the French, despite the enormous superiority of the latter in weapons (from rifles to cannons). The French lost up to 35 thousand killed, and the Russians ten thousand more, but Napoleon only managed to slightly displace the central positions of Kutuzov, and in fact, Bonaparte's attack was stopped. After the battle, which lasted all day, the French emperor began to prepare for a new assault, but Kutuzov, by the morning of August 27, withdrew his troops to Mozhaisk, not wanting to lose even more people.
On September 1, 1812 in a nearby village there was a military council in Fili during which Mikhail Kutuzov with the support of Barclay de Tolly decided to leave Moscow in order to save the army. Contemporaries say that this decision was extremely difficult for the commander-in-chief.
On September 14, Napoleon entered the abandoned and devastated recent capital of Russia. During his stay in Moscow, sabotage groups of the Moscow governor Rostopchin repeatedly attacked French officers and burned their seized apartments. As a result, from September 14 to 18, Moscow was on fire, and Napoleon did not have enough resources to cope with the fire.
At the beginning of the invasion, before the Battle of Borodino, and also three times after the occupation of Moscow, Napoleon tried to negotiate with Alexander and sign a peace. But the Russian emperor from the very beginning of the war adamantly forbade any negotiations while enemy feet trample on Russian soil.
Realizing that it would not be possible to spend the winter in ruined Moscow, on October 19, 1812, the French left Moscow. Napoleon decided to return to Smolensk, not by a scorched path, but through Kaluga, hoping to get at least some supplies along the way.
In the battle at Tarutino and a little later at Maly Yaroslavets on October 24, Kutuzov repulsed the French, and they were forced to return to the ruined Smolensk road, which they had previously followed.
On November 8, Bonaparte reached Smolensk, which was ruined (and half by the French themselves). All the way to Smolensk, the emperor was constantly losing man after man - up to hundreds of soldiers a day.
During the summer-autumn of 1812, a hitherto unprecedented partisan movement was formed in Russia, leading the liberation war. Partisan detachments numbered up to several thousand people. They attacked Napoleon's army, like Amazonian piranhas on a wounded jaguar, waited for convoys with supplies and weapons, exterminated the vanguards and rearguards of the troops. The most famous leader of these detachments was Denis Davydov... Peasants, workers and nobles alike joined the partisan detachments. It is believed that it was they who destroyed more than half of Bonaparte's army. Of course, the soldiers of Kutuzov did not lag behind, who also pursued Napoleon on the heels and constantly made sorties.
On November 29, a major battle took place on the Berezina, when admirals Chichagov and Wittgenstein, without waiting for Kutuzov, attacked Napoleon's army and killed 21 thousand of his soldiers. However, the emperor was able to slip away, with only 9 thousand people left at his disposal. With them he reached Vilna (Vilnius), where his generals Ney and Murat were waiting for him.
On December 14, after Kutuzov's attack on Vilna, the French lost 20 thousand soldiers and abandoned the city. Napoleon fled in haste to Paris, ahead of the rest of his The great army... Together with the remnants of the garrison of Vilna and other cities, a little more than 30 thousand Napoleonic warriors left Russia, while about 610 thousand, at least, invaded Russia.
After the defeat in Russia French empire began to fall apart. Bonaparte continued to send ambassadors to Alexander, offering almost all of Poland in exchange for a peace treaty. Nevertheless, the Russian emperor decided to completely rid Europe of dictatorship and tyranny (and these are not big words, but reality) Napoleon Bonaparte.
The Patriotic War of 1812 is war between the French and Russian empires, which took place on the territory. Despite the superiority of the French army, under the leadership, the Russian troops managed to show incredible valor and ingenuity.
Moreover, the Russians managed to emerge victorious in this difficult confrontation. Until now, the victory over the French is considered one of the most significant in Russia.
We bring to your attention a short history of the Patriotic War of 1812. If you want a brief summary of this period of our history, we recommend reading it.
Causes and nature of the war
The Patriotic War of 1812 occurred as a result of Napoleon's desire for world domination. Prior to that, he managed to successfully defeat many opponents.
It remained his main and only enemy on the territory of Europe. The French emperor wanted to destroy Britain through a continental blockade.
It is worth noting that the Tilsit Peace Treaty was signed between Russia and Russia 5 years before the start of the Patriotic War of 1812. However, the main clause of this treaty was not published at that time. According to him, he pledged to support Napoleon in the blockade against Great Britain.
Nevertheless, both the French and the Russians were well aware that sooner or later a war would also begin between them, since Napoleon Bonaparte was not going to stop at the subordination of Europe alone.
That is why countries began to actively prepare for a future war, building up their military potential and increasing the size of their armies.
Patriotic War of 1812 in brief
In 1812 Napoleon Bonaparte invaded the territory of the Russian Empire. Thus, for this war became Patriotic, since not only the army took part in it, but also the majority of ordinary citizens.
The balance of forces
Before the start of the Patriotic War of 1812, Napoleon managed to assemble a huge army, which consisted of about 675 thousand soldiers.
All of them were well armed and, most importantly, had extensive combat experience, because by that time France had subdued almost all of Europe.
The Russian army was almost not inferior to the French in the number of troops, of which there were about 600 thousand. In addition, about 400,000 Russian militias took part in the war.
Russian Emperor Alexander 1 (left) and Napoleon (right) In addition, unlike the French, the advantage of the Russians was that they were patriotic and fought for the liberation of their land, which raised the national spirit.
In Napoleon's army, patriotism was exactly the opposite, because there were many hired soldiers who did not care for what or against what to fight.
Battles of the Patriotic War of 1812
At the height of the Patriotic War of 1812, Kutuzov chose defensive tactics. On the left flank, the troops were commanded by Bagration, in the center was Raevsky's artillery, and on the right flank was the army of Barclay de Tolly.
Napoleon, on the other hand, preferred to attack rather than defend, since this tactic has repeatedly helped him emerge victorious from military campaigns.
He understood that sooner or later the Russians would stop retreating and they would have to accept the battle. At that time, the French emperor was confident in his victory and, I must say, there were good reasons for that.
Until 1812, he had already managed to show the whole world the power of the French army, which was able to conquer more than one European country. The talent of Napoleon himself, as an outstanding military leader, was recognized by everyone.
Battle of Borodino
The battle of Borodino, which he glorified in the poem "Borodino", took place on August 26 (September 7), 1812 near the village of Borodino, 125 km west of Moscow.
Napoleon entered from the left and conducted several attacks on the enemy, entering into an open battle with the Russian army. At that moment, both sides began to actively use artillery, suffering serious losses.
Ultimately, the Russians retreated in an organized manner, but this did nothing for Napoleon.
Then the French began to attack the center of the Russian troops. In this regard, Kutuzov (see) ordered the Cossacks to bypass the enemy from the rear and strike at him.
Although the plan did not benefit the Russians, it forced Napoleon to halt the attack for several hours. Thanks to this, Kutuzov managed to pull up additional forces to the center.
Ultimately, Napoleon still managed to take the Russian fortifications, however, as before, this did not bring him any significant benefits. Due to constant attacks, he lost many soldiers, so the fighting soon began to subside.
Both sides lost a large number of men and weapons. However, the Battle of Borodino raised the morale of the Russians, who realized that they could very successfully fight the great army of Napoleon. The French, on the other hand, were demoralized, depressed by failure and were in complete confusion.
From Moscow to Maloyaroslavets
The Patriotic War of 1812 continued. After the Battle of Borodino, the army of Alexander 1 continued its retreat, getting closer and closer to Moscow.
Ferry of the Italian corps of Eugene de Beauharnais across the Neman, June 30, 1812 The French followed, but no longer aspired to engage in open battle. On September 1, at the military council of Russian generals, Mikhail Kutuzov made a sensational decision, with which many did not agree.
He insisted that Moscow be abandoned and all property in it destroyed. As a result, it all happened.
The entry of the French into Moscow, September 14, 1812 The French army, physically and mentally exhausted, needed replenishment of food and rest. However, they were in for a bitter disappointment.
Once in Moscow, Napoleon did not see a single inhabitant or even an animal. Leaving Moscow, the Russians set fire to all the buildings so that the enemy could not use anything. It was an unprecedented case in history.
When the French realized the pitiful nature of their stupid situation, they were completely demoralized and defeated. Many soldiers ceased to obey the commanders and turned into gangs of robbers running around the city's outskirts.
On the contrary, Russian troops were able to break away from Napoleon and enter the Kaluga and Tula provinces. There they had hidden food supplies and ammunition. In addition, the soldiers could take a break from a difficult campaign and replenish the ranks of the army.
The best solution to this absurd situation for Napoleon was the conclusion of peace with Russia, but all his proposals for an armistice were rejected by Alexander 1 and Kutuzov.
A month later, the French began to leave Moscow in disgrace. Bonaparte was furious at this outcome of events and did everything possible to join the battle with the Russians.
Having reached Kaluga on October 12, near the town of Maloyaroslavets, a major battle took place, in which both sides lost many people and military equipment. However, the final victory did not go to anyone.
Victory in the Patriotic War of 1812
The further retreat of the Napoleonic army was more like a chaotic flight than an organized exit from Russia. After the French began to loot, the locals began to unite in partisan detachments and engage in battles with the enemy.
At this time, Kutuzov carefully pursued Bonaparte's army, avoiding open clashes with it. He wisely guarded his warriors, knowing full well that the enemy's forces are dwindling before our eyes.
The French suffered serious losses in the battle of Krasny. Tens of thousands of invaders died in this battle. The Patriotic War of 1812 was drawing to a close.
When Napoleon tried to save the remnants of the army and ferry them across the Berezina River, he once again suffered a heavy defeat from the Russians. At the same time, it should be understood that the French were not ready for the unusually severe frosts that hit at the very beginning of winter.
Obviously, before the attack on Russia, Napoleon did not plan to stay in it for so long, as a result of which he did not take care of warm uniforms for his troops.
Napoleon's retreat from Moscow As a result of the inglorious retreat, Napoleon abandoned the soldiers to their fate and secretly fled to France.
On December 25, 1812, Alexander 1 issued a manifesto, which spoke of the end of the Patriotic War.
Reasons for Napoleon's defeat
Among the reasons for Napoleon's defeat in his Russian campaign, the following are most often cited:
- nationwide participation in the war and mass heroism of Russian soldiers and officers;
- the length of the territory of Russia and the harsh climatic conditions;
- military leadership talent of the commander-in-chief of the Russian army Kutuzov and other generals.
The main reason for Napoleon's defeat was the nationwide rise of the Russians to defend the Fatherland. In the unity of the Russian army with the people, one must look for the source of its power in 1812.
Results of the Patriotic War of 1812
The Patriotic War of 1812 is one of the most significant events in the history of Russia. The Russian troops managed to stop the invincible army of Napoleon Bonaparte and show unprecedented heroism.
The war caused serious damage to the economy of the Russian Empire, which was estimated at hundreds of millions of rubles. More than 200 thousand people were killed on the battlefields.
Battle of Smolensk Many settlements were completely or partially destroyed, and their restoration required not only large sums, but also human resources.
However, despite this, the victory in the Patriotic War of 1812 strengthened the morale of the entire Russian people. After her, many European countries began to respect the army of the Russian Empire.
The main result of the Patriotic War of 1812 was the almost complete destruction of Napoleon's Great Army.
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Russian Emperor ALEXANDER I was born on December 12 (23), 1777 in St. Petersburg. Firstborn of Grand Duke Pavel Petrovich (later Emperor Paul I) and Grand Duchess Maria Feodorovna.
Immediately after his birth, Alexander was taken from his parents by his grandmother, Empress Catherine II, who intended to educate him as an ideal sovereign, the successor of his work. On the recommendation of D. Diderot, the Swiss F.Ts. Laharpe, Republican by conviction. The Grand Duke grew up with a romantic faith in the ideals of the Enlightenment, sympathized with the Poles who lost their statehood after the partition of Poland, sympathized with the Great French Revolution and critically assessed the political system of the Russian autocracy. Catherine II made him read the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen and herself explained its meaning to him. At the same time, in the last years of his grandmother's reign, Alexander found more and more discrepancies between her declared ideals and everyday political practice. He had to carefully hide his feelings, which contributed to the formation in Alexakndr of such traits as pretense and slyness. This was reflected in the relationship with his father during a visit to his residence in Gatchina, where the spirit of military and tough discipline reigned. Alexander constantly had to have, as it were, two masks: one for his grandmother, the other for his father. In 1793 he was married to Princess Louise of Baden (in Orthodoxy Elizaveta Alekseevna), who enjoyed the sympathy of Russian society, but was not loved by her husband.
Before her death, Catherine II intended to bequeath the throne to Alexander bypassing her son, but her grandson did not agree to accept the throne.
After Paul's accession to the throne, Alexander's position became even more complicated, for he had to constantly prove his loyalty to the suspicious emperor. Alexander's attitude to his father's policies was sharply critical. It was these sentiments of Alexander that contributed to his involvement in a conspiracy against Paul, but on the condition that the conspirators would save his father's life, and would only seek his abdication. The tragic events of March 11, 1801 seriously affected Alexander's mental state: he felt guilt for the death of his father until the end of his days.
The beginning of reforms
Alexander I ascended the Russian throne, intending to carry out a radical reform of the political system in Russia by creating a constitution that guaranteed all subjects personal freedom and civil rights. He was aware that such a "revolution from above" would actually lead to the liquidation of the autocracy, and was ready, if successful, to retire from power. Already in the first days after accession to the throne, Alexander announced that he would rule Russia "according to the laws and according to the heart" of Catherine II. On April 5, 1801, the Indispensable Council was created, a legislative body under the sovereign, which received the right to protest the actions and decrees of the tsar. In May of the same year, Alexander submitted to the council a draft decree prohibiting the sale of peasants without land, but the members of the council made it clear to the emperor that the adoption of such a decree would cause ferment among the nobles and lead to a new coup d'etat. After that, Alexander concentrated his efforts on developing the reform in the circle of his “young friends” (V. P. Kochubei, A. A. Chartoryisky, P. A. Stroganov, N. N. Novosiltsev). During the discussion of the projects, sharp contradictions between the members of the Indispensable Council were exposed, and as a result, none of the projects was made public. It was only announced that the distribution of state peasants to private hands was stopped. Further consideration of the peasant question led to the appearance on February 20, 1803, of a decree on "free cultivators", which allowed landowners to release peasants free and to assign them land ownership, which for the first time created the category of personally free peasants. In parallel, Alexander carried out administrative and educational reform.
Gradually, Alexander began to feel a taste of power and began to find advantages in autocratic rule. Disappointment in his inner circle made him look for support in people who were personally devoted to him and not associated with the dignified aristocracy. He draws closer to himself first A. A. Arakcheev, and later M. B. Barclay de Tolly, who became Minister of War in 1810, and M. M. Speransky, whom Alexander entrusted with the development of a new draft of state reform. Speransky's project assumed the actual transformation of Russia into a constitutional monarchy, where the power of the sovereign would be limited by a bicameral legislature of the parliamentary type. The implementation of Speransky's plan began in 1809, when the practice of equating court ranks with civilian ranks was abolished and an educational qualification for civilian officials was introduced. On January 1, 1810, the Council of State was established to replace the Indispensable. During 1810-11, the State Council discussed plans for financial, ministerial and senate reforms proposed by Speransky. The implementation of the first of them led to a reduction in the budget deficit; by the summer of 1811, the transformation of the ministries was completed. Meanwhile, Alexander himself experienced the strongest pressure from the court environment, including members of his family, who sought to prevent radical reforms. The factor of Russia's international position was also of no small importance: the growing tension in relations with France and the need to prepare for war made it possible for the opposition to interpret Speransky's reform activities as anti-state, and declare Speransky himself a Napoleonic spy. All this led to the fact that Alexander, inclined to compromise, although he did not believe in Speransky's guilt, dismissed him in March 1812. 
Foreign policy
Having come to power, Alexander tried to pursue his foreign policy from a blank slate. The new Russian government sought to create a collective security system in Europe, linking all the leading powers to each other by a series of treaties. However, already in 1803, peace with France turned out to be unprofitable for Russia, in May 1804 the Russian side recalled its ambassador from France and began to prepare for a new war.
Alexander considered Napoleon a symbol of the violation of the legality of the world order. But the Russian emperor overestimated his capabilities, which led to the disaster at Austerlitz in November 1805, and the presence of the emperor in the army, his inept orders had the most disastrous consequences. Alexander refused to ratify the peace treaty signed with France in June 1806, and only the defeat at Friedland in May 1807 forced the Russian emperor to agree to an agreement. During his first meeting with Napoleon in Tilsit in June 1807, Alexander managed to prove himself an outstanding diplomat and, according to some historians, actually "beat" Napoleon. An alliance and an agreement on the division of zones of influence was concluded between Russia and France. As further developments showed, the Tilsit agreement turned out to be more beneficial for Russia, allowing Russia to accumulate strength. Napoleon sincerely considered Russia to be his only possible ally in Europe. In 1808, the parties discussed plans for a joint campaign against India and the partition of the Ottoman Empire. At a meeting with Alexander in Erfurt (September 1808), Napoleon recognized the right of Russia to Finland, captured during the Russian-Swedish war (1808-09), and Russia - the right of France to Spain. However, already at this time, relations between the allies began to heat up thanks to the imperial interests of both sides. Thus, Russia was not satisfied with the existence of the Duchy of Warsaw, the continental blockade harmed the Russian economy, and in the Balkans, each of the two countries had their own far-reaching plans. In 1810, Alexander refused to Napoleon, who asked for the hand of his sister, Grand Duchess Anna Pavlovna (later Queen of the Netherlands), and signed a provision on neutral trade, which effectively nullified the continental blockade. All this led to the fact that on June 12, 1812, French troops crossed the Russian border. The Patriotic War of 1812 began.
Patriotic War of 1812
The invasion of Napoleon's armies into Russia (which he learned about while in Vilna) was perceived by Alexander not only as the greatest threat to Russia, but also as a personal insult, and from now on Napoleon himself became a mortal personal enemy for him. Not wanting to repeat the experience of Austerlitz, and submitting to the pressure of his entourage, Alexander left the army and returned to St. Petersburg. During the entire time, while Barclay de Tolly carried out a retreating maneuver, which caused sharp criticism of both society and the army on him, Alexander almost did not show his solidarity with the military leader. After Smolensk was abandoned, the emperor yielded to general demands and appointed MI Kutuzov to this post, to whom the emperor was hostile. With the expulsion of Napoleon's troops from Russia, Alexander returned to the army and was in it during the overseas campaigns of 1813-14, on an equal footing with everyone, exposing himself to the difficulties of a field life and the dangers of war. In particular, the emperor personally participated in the attack of the Russian cavalry at Fer-Champenoise, when Russian troops suddenly clashed with the French.
Sacred union
The victory over Napoleon strengthened Alexander's authority, he became one of the most powerful rulers of Europe, who felt himself to be the liberator of its peoples, who was entrusted with a special mission determined by God's will to prevent further wars and ruin on the continent. He also considered the tranquility of Europe to be a necessary condition for the implementation of his reformist plans in Russia itself. To ensure these conditions, it was necessary to maintain the status quo, determined by the decisions of the Congress of Vienna (1815), according to which the territory of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw was ceded to Russia, and the monarchy was restored in France, and Alexander insisted on the establishment of a constitutional monarchical system in this country, which should was set as a precedent for the establishment of similar regimes in other countries. The Russian emperor, in particular, managed to enlist the support of his allies for his idea of introducing a constitution in Poland. As a guarantor of compliance with the decisions of the Vienna Congress, the emperor initiated the creation of the Holy Alliance - the prototype of international organizations of the 20th century. Alexander was convinced that he owed the victory over Napoleon to the providence of God, his religiosity was constantly increasing, he gradually became a mystic.
Strengthening the reaction
One of the paradoxes of Alexander's internal policy of the post-war period was the fact that attempts to renovate the Russian state were accompanied by the establishment of a police regime, which later became known as "Arakcheevism." Its symbol was military settlements, in which Alexander himself, however, saw one of the ways to free the peasants from personal dependence, but which aroused hatred in the widest circles of society. In 1817, instead of the Ministry of Education, the Ministry of Spiritual Affairs and Public Education was created, headed by the Chief Prosecutor of the Holy Synod and the head of the Bible Society A. N. Golitsyn. Under his leadership, the destruction of Russian universities was actually carried out, and cruel censorship reigned. In 1822, Alexander banned the activities of Masonic lodges and other secret societies in Russia and approved the Senate's proposal, which allowed landowners to exile their peasants to Siberia for "bad deeds". At the same time, the emperor was aware of the activities of the first Decembrist organizations, but did not take any measures against their members, believing that they shared the delusions of his youth.
In the last years of his life, Alexander often spoke to his relatives about his intention to abdicate the throne and “retire from the world,” which, after his unexpected death from typhoid fever in Taganrog, gave rise to the legend of “Elder Fyodor Kuzmich”. According to this legend, in Taganrog on November 19 (December 1), 1825, it was not Alexander who died and was then buried, but his double, while the tsar lived for a long time as an old hermit in Siberia and died in 1864. But there is no documentary evidence of this legend does not exist.
With this, he created his own outpost near the Russian borders, hostile to Russia, participating in the divisions of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Despite the protests of St. Petersburg, Napoleon gave the Poles hope for the restoration of their state, which increased the danger of a new redistribution of borders in Eastern Europe. Bonaparte continued to seize the lands of the German principalities, including the Duchy of Oldenburg, where the husband of the sister of the Russian emperor (Ekaterina Pavlovna) ruled. A serious breakdown in Franco-Russian relations occurred after Napoleon's unsuccessful matchmaking to Alexander I's sister, Grand Duchess Anna. This was facilitated by the court circles and the family of the king, who, in general, were sharply opposed to an alliance with Bonaparte. Trade and economic contradictions were no less acute. The French emperor demanded from St. Petersburg a strict implementation of the Continental blockade, as a result of which the turnover of Russian foreign trade fell by almost 2 times. The blockade suffered, first of all, the landowners - exporters of grain, and the nobility who bought expensive imports. The alliance with Alexander I was for Napoleon only a temporary maneuver, facilitating France's path to world domination. Having achieved power over almost all of continental Europe, the French emperor no longer needed the support of Russia. Tenep, she had already become an obstacle to the implementation of his further plans. "In five years," he said, "I will be the master of the world; Russia alone remains, but I will crush it." By the beginning of 1812, Napoleon had persuaded most European countries and even its former ally, Prussia, to an alliance against Russia. Moreover, the Prussian king demanded Courland and Riga for participating in the future campaign. England remained the only state that continued to fight Napoleon. But she was then in hostile relations with St. Petersburg. In short, on the eve of the invasion, the Russian Empire found itself in the face of a united and hostile Europe. True, the defeat of Sweden and Turkey, as well as the skill of Russian diplomacy, prevented Napoleon from attracting these countries to his camp and, with their help, organize formidable flank attacks on the north and southwestern borders of the empire.
The alignment of forces. For the invasion of Russia, Napoleon concentrated at the Russian border a huge for those times grouping with a total number of about 480 thousand people. Together with the French, the Poles, Italians, Belgians, Swiss, Austrians, Dutch, Germans and representatives of other European peoples, who made up about half of the Napoleonic army, also took part in the campaign. She focused on the 700-kilometer front from Galicia to East Prussia. On the right flank of the Napoleonic troops, in Galicia, the main force was represented by the army of Prince Schwarzenberg (40 thousand people). On the left, in East Prussia, was the army of Marshal MacDonald (30 thousand people), consisting mainly of the Prussians. The central forces of Napoleon were located in Poland, in the region of Polotsk and Warsaw. Here, in the direction of the main attack, there were three armies with a total number of about 400 thousand people. There were also rear troops (about 160 thousand people), which were in reserve between the Vistula and the Oder. The campaign was carefully prepared. It was taken into account, for example, that in a sparsely populated and vast theater of military operations, a huge army would not be able to feed itself only from requisitions. Therefore, Napoleon created large quartermaster warehouses on the Vistula. Danzig alone had a 50-day supply of food for 400,000 people. There were two main plans for the Napoleonic campaign. One of them was nominated by the Poles. They proposed a phased struggle with Russia - first, to push the Russian army back to the eastern borders of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1772, and then, having strengthened and reorganized Poland, conduct further hostilities. But Napoleon nevertheless chose the "lightning-fast" war, traditional for him, using general battles to defeat the main forces of the enemy. His huge, multilingual army was not designed for protracted campaigns. She needed quick and decisive success. The Napoleonic army on the western borders of Russia was opposed by approximately half the size of the forces, with a total strength of about 240 thousand people. The 1st Army under the command of General Barclay de Tolly (127 thousand people) covered the Russian border along the Neman. To the south, between the Neman and the Bug, in the Bialystok area, the 2nd Army was located under the command of General Bagration (45 thousand people). In the area of Lutsk, in Western Ukraine, there was the 3rd Army under the command of General Tormasov (45 thousand people). In addition, the Riga direction was covered by the corps of General Essen (about 20 thousand people). A large contingent of Russian troops (about 50 thousand people) was then in the southwest, where the war with Turkey had just ended. Part of the troops remained in the Caucasus, where hostilities continued against Persia. In addition, the troops were stationed in Finland, Crimea and in the interior regions of Russia. In general, the size of the Russian armed forces and at that time was not inferior to the Napoleonic ones. Based on the situation on the western borders, the Russian command rejected the idea of an offensive and chose a defensive action plan. However, at first he did not envision a protracted war. So, according to the adopted plan of the German theoretician Ful, the main military operations took place on the territory of Belarus. According to the Fule strategy, the 1st Army retreated, luring Napoleon's troops to the Western Dvina, where the so-called. Drissa fortified camp. At that time, the 2nd Army was delivering a blow from the south to the flank and rear of the Napoleonic formations that had gone deeper into the Russian borders. This plan suffered from schematism. He did not take into account the real balance of forces, the peculiarities of the theater of operations and possible countermeasures of Napoleon. Despite the weak tactical elaboration of the campaign plan, the Russian armed forces were, on the whole, ready for a decent resistance. The Russian army possessed high combat qualities, a strong commanding and rank-and-file personnel, who had a wealth of military experience behind them. Over the years, the Russian armed forces have grown both quantitatively and qualitatively. So, the number of jaeger regiments increased significantly, the composition of the guard increased greatly. New types of troops appear - lancers (light cavalry armed with pikes and sabers), engineering troops, etc. The number of field artillery increased and its organization improved. On the eve of the war, new regulations and instructions appeared in the Russian army, reflecting modern trends in the art of war. The armament of the Russian army was provided by a sufficiently developed military industry at that time. Thus, Russian factories annually produced up to 150-170 thousand guns, 800 guns, over 765 thousand poods of shells. The quality of Russian weapons, in general, was not inferior, and in some cases even surpassed European counterparts. For example, the resource of the Russian gun of those years (in terms of the number of shots) was 2 times higher than the French one. Nevertheless, the coalition created by Bonaparte surpassed Russia both in population (almost 2 times) and in economic potential. For the first time, the West managed to unite on such a large scale and move its best forces to the east. The defeat promised Russia territorial losses, political and economic dependence on France, one-sided development as an agrarian and raw material appendage of Europe. In addition, taking into account the experience of the exploration and conquest of America by Europeans, it can be assumed that if the Napoleonic campaign was successful, the Old World opened a new immense direction of colonization - the east. For the Russian people, this was the first such large invasion since the time of Batu. But if then the enemy was opposed by scattered principalities, now he was dealing with a single empire capable of worthy resistance.
The course of the war. Napoleon's forces crossed the Russian border without declaring war on June 12, 1812. The French emperor presented this treacherous aggression to everyone as a struggle for the revival of Poland, calling his invasion the "Second Polish War". The Warsaw Sejm announced the restoration of the Kingdom of Poland and announced the mobilization of Poles into the Napoleonic army (this also applied to those who served in the Russian armed forces). The course of the Patriotic War of 1812 can be conditionally divided into a number of stages. 1st stage: Belarusian-Lithuanian operation. This period covers June and July, when the Russians managed to avoid encirclement in Lithuania and Belarus, to repel the onslaught on the St. Petersburg and Ukrainian directions and to unite in the Smolensk region. 2nd stage: Smolensk operation. It includes fighting in the Smolensk region. 3rd stage: Hike to Moscow, or the culmination of the Napoleonic invasion. 4th stage: Kaluga campaign. It represents Napoleon's attempt to break through from Moscow in the Kaluga direction. 5th stage: Expulsion of Napoleonic troops from Russia.
Belarusian-Lithuanian operation
Soon after the invasion, the Fule plan came to light. The 1st and 2nd armies were cut off from each other by the French corps, which immediately tried to seize the junction lines in order to cut off the escape routes for both armies and defeat them one by one. The Russian armies did not have a unified command. Each of them had to act according to the circumstances. Avoiding defeat one by one, both armies began to retreat to the east.
Battle of Peace (1812). The most difficult situation was for the 2nd Army. After the start of the invasion, she received an order on June 18 to join the 1st Army. Bagration went to Nikolaev and began crossing the Neman to go to Minsk. But the city was already occupied by Marshal Davout. Meanwhile, in the rear of the 2nd Army, near Slonim, the French vanguards appeared. It became clear that Napoleon's troops had already outflanked the 2nd Army from the north, and now they were trying to outflank it from the south. Then Bagration quickly turned south, towards Nesvizh, and then headed east towards Bobruisk, moving parallel to the advancing marshal Davout to the north. Before that, Bagration's rearguard under the command of the Don Ataman Matvey Platov fought on June 27-28 near the town of Mir to the vanguard of the French army of the Westphalian king Jerome Bonaparte. Platov left one Cossack regiment in Mir, and hid his main forces (7 regiments with artillery) in the nearest forest. The French cavalry, suspecting nothing, burst into the town, on the streets of which a fierce battle broke out. Then Jerome sent fresh Lancers' regiments to reinforce the attackers. They were attacked by Platov from the rear, surrounded and killed. For two days of battles near Mir, 9 lancers' regiments of the Napoleonic army were defeated. This was the first major success of the Russians in the Patriotic War. He ensured the withdrawal of Bagration's army from Western Belarus.
Battle of Saltanovka (1812). Having reached the Dnieper near Novy Bykhov, Bagration was ordered to try again to break through to join the 1st Army - now through Mogilev and Orsha. To do this, he sent a vanguard under the command of General Nikolai Raevsky (15 thousand people) to Mogilev. But there was already the corps of Marshal Davout. His units (26 thousand people) moved to the village of Saltanovka and blocked the way to Raevsky. He decided to fight his way to Mogilev. On 11 July, Russian attacks were repelled by superior French forces. Then Davout tried to bypass Raevsky's detachment from the right flank, but the marshal's plan was thwarted by the resilience of the division of General Ivan Paskevich. In this hot battle, Raevsky personally led the soldiers into the attack together with his 17-year-old son. The damage of the French in the battle at Saltanovka amounted to 3.5 thousand people. The Russians lost 2.5 thousand people. The next day, Davout, having strengthened his position, expected a new attack. But Bagration, seeing the impossibility of a breakthrough through Mogilev, ferried the army across the Dnieper at Novy Bykhov and marched towards Smolensk in a forced march. Napoleon's plan to encircle the 2nd Army or impose a general engagement on it failed.
Battle of Ostrovno (1812). After the outbreak of hostilities, the 1st Army, according to the prepared disposition, began to withdraw to the Drissa camp. Reaching it on June 26, Barclay de Tolly gave his soldiers a six-day rest. In this situation, the Drissa position was unsuccessful. The defense in the Drissa camp pressed to the river could end with the encirclement and death of the 1st army. Moreover, the connection with the 2nd Army was cut off. Therefore, Barclay left this camp on July 2. Having allocated for the protection of the St. Petersburg direction a 20-thousandth corps under the command of General Peter Wittgenstein, Barclay with the main forces of the 1st Army moved east to Vitebsk, which he reached on the day of the battle of Bagration's troops near Saltanovka. Two days later, the vanguard French units under the command of Marshals Ney and Murat approached Vitebsk. On July 13, the 4th corps of General Osterman-Tolstoy blocked their way near the village of Ostrovno. Despite the advantage in artillery, the French, after several hours of continuous attacks, were unable to overcome the resistance of the Russians. When Osterman was informed that the losses in the corps were great, and asked what to do, he, phlegmatically sniffing tobacco, replied: "Stand and die!" These words of the Russian general went down in history. The corps held its ground until it was replaced by the fresh units of General Konovnitsyn, who heroically held back the attacks of the superior French forces for another day. Losses on both sides in this hot case amounted to 4 thousand people. Meanwhile, Barclay was waiting for the approach to him from the south (through Mogilev and Orsha) of the 2nd army of Bagration. Instead, on July 15, the main forces of Napoleon approached Vitebsk from the west, threatening to give a general battle. On the night of July 16, Barclay finally received news from Bagration that he could not get through to him through Mogilev and was going to Smolensk. On the same night, Barclay, leaving burning bonfires for the disorientation of the French, quietly removed the army from its positions and moved on a forced march to Smolensk. On July 22, both armies linked up at Smolensk. General Barclay de Tolly took over general command. Napoleon's plan to dissect and destroy one by one the Russian armies in Belarus failed.
Klyastitsy (1812). If in the central direction the Russian troops had to retreat almost non-stop, then on the flanks the enemy's advance was stopped. The most significant success was achieved by the corps of General Wittgenstein (17 thousand people), which on July 18-20 in the Klyastitsy region (a village in Belarus, north of Polotsk) defeated the French corps of Marshal Oudinot (29 thousand people). The battle began with a dashing attack by a hussar detachment led by General Kulnev, who threw the French vanguard back to Klyastitsy. The next day, the main forces entered the battle on both sides. After a fierce battle, the French retreated to Polotsk. On July 20, inspired by his success, the indomitable Kulnev began an independent pursuit of the retreating. His detachment broke away from his own and suffered heavy losses in a battle with the main forces of the French corps (Kulnev himself died in the skirmish). Despite this local failure, the battle of Klyastitsy as a whole stopped the French offensive towards St. Petersburg.In addition, Napoleon had to strengthen the defeated northern group of Oudinot by transferring the Saint-Cyr corps to it from the central Moscow direction.
Battle at Kobrin (1812). Another success was achieved on the left flank of the Russian forces. The 3rd Army of General Tormasov distinguished itself here. On July 10, Tormasov moved north from the Lutsk region against the Saxon corps of General Rainier, who threatened the southern flank of Bagration's army. Taking advantage of the scattered Saxon corps, Tormasov sent his mounted vanguard against General Klingel's brigade (4,000 men). On July 15, the Russians swiftly attacked this brigade and surrounded it. After the approach of the Russian infantry, the Saxons laid down their arms. Their losses amounted to 1.5 thousand killed, the rest surrendered. The Russians lost 259 people in this case. After the battle at Kobrin, Rainier stopped threatening Bagration's army and retreated to join the corps of General Schwarzenberg.
Battle of Gorodechny (1812). On July 31, near Gorodechny, units of the 3rd Russian army under the command of General Tormasov (18 thousand people) fought the Austrian corps of Schwarzenberg and the Saxon corps Rainier (40 thousand people in total). After the battle at Kobrin, Schwarzenberg's corps came to the rescue of the Saxons. Having united, both corps attacked parts of the 3rd Army at Gorodechna. Due to the successful regrouping of forces, Tormasov threw back Rainier's corps, which was trying to bypass the left flank of the Russians. Having held their positions until nightfall, the subdivisions of the 3rd Army in full battle formation retreated to the south, to Lutsk. The corps of Schwarzenberg and Rainier followed him there. After the battle at Gorodechna on the left flank of the Russian army, in Western Ukraine, there was a long lull. So, in the Belarusian-Lithuanian operation, the Russian troops, with a skillful maneuver, managed to avoid encirclement and a fatal general battle in Belarus. They retreated to Smolensk, where the forces of the 1st and 2nd armies were combined. On the flanks, the Russians stopped attempts to expand Napoleonic aggression: they repulsed the French offensive in the St. Petersburg direction and did not allow them to intensify actions on the left flank. Nevertheless, in the course of the Belarusian-Lithuanian operation, Napoleon managed to achieve major political success. In less than two months Lithuania, Belarus and Courland were in his hands.
Smolensk operation
After the 1st Army left Vitebsk, Napoleon stopped the offensive and began to put his forces in order. Having traveled more than half a thousand kilometers in a month, the French army stretched out on communications, discipline fell in it, looting spread, and supply interruptions arose. In the 20th of July, both French and Russian troops remained in place and came to their senses after a long and difficult transition. The first to undertake offensive actions from Smolensk on July 26 was Barclay de Tolly, who moved the forces of the combined armies (140,000 men) in the direction of Rudnya (northwest of V Smolensk). Lacking accurate information about the enemy, the Russian commander acted cautiously. After passing the 70-kilometer path to Rudnya, Barclay de Tolly stopped the troops and stood in place for five days, clarifying the situation. The offensive turned out to be directed into the void. Learning about the movement of the Russians, Napoleon changed his disposition and with the main forces (180 thousand people) crossed the Dnieper south of the location of the Russian army. He moved to Smolensk from the south-west, trying to occupy it and cut off Barclay's path to the east. The first to go to Smolensk was the equestrian vanguard of Marshal Murat (15 thousand people).
Battle of Red (1812). In the area through which Murat was breaking through, the Russians had only one 27th Infantry Division under the command of General Dmitry Neverovsky (7 thousand people). It consisted entirely of recruits. But it was they who stood on August 2 near the village of Krasnoye as an insurmountable wall on the way of the Murat cavalry. Neverovsky took up a position on the road, on the sides of which there was a birch forest, which prevented the cavalry from making a flanking detour. Murat was forced to attack the Russian infantry head-on. Having built the soldiers in one column, Neverovsky turned to them with the words: "Guys, remember what you were taught. No cavalry will defeat you, just take your time in shooting and shoot accurately. Nobody dare to start without my command!" Bristling with bayonets, the Russian infantry repulsed all the attacks of the French cavalry. In between the fights, Neverovsky encouraged his soldiers, conducted a debriefing and divisional exercise with them. The division did not allow the breakthrough of Murat's corps and in an organized manner retreated to Smolensk, covering itself with unfading glory. According to Napoleonic general Segur, "Neverovsky retreated like a lion." The damage of the Russians amounted to 1,000 people, the French (according to their data) - 500 people. Thanks to the staunchness of the 27th division, the 1st and 2nd armies managed to withdraw to Smolensk and take up defenses there.
Battle of Smolensk (1812). On August 3, the Russian army withdrew to Smolensk. Bagration considered it necessary to give a general battle here. But Barclay de Tolly insisted on continuing the retreat. He decided to give a rearguard battle in Smolensk, and withdraw the main forces behind the Dnieper. The first to enter the battle for Smolensk on August 4 was the corps of General Raevsky (15 thousand people), which repelled the attacks of the French corps of Marshal Ney (22 thousand people). In the evening of August 4, the main forces of Barclay (120 thousand people) were pulled up to Smolensk from near Rudnya. They are located north of the city. The weakened Raevsky corps was replaced by the Dokhturov corps, the divisions of Neverovsky and Konovnitsyn (a total of 20 thousand people). They were supposed to cover the retreat of the 1st and 2nd armies to the Moscow road. All day on August 5, the Russian rearguard heroically held back the brutal onslaught of the main forces of the French army (140 thousand people). On the night of the sixth the Russians left Smolensk. The fierceness of the soldiers was so great that they had to be taken to the rear by force, since they did not want to carry out the order to retreat. The last, leading rearguard battles on August 6, was the division of General Konovnitsyn who left the burning city. Departing, she blew up the powder depots and the bridge over the Dnieper. The Russians lost 10 thousand people in this battle, the French - 20 thousand people.
The battle at Valutina Gora (1812). After the Battle of Smolensk, on August 7, Napoleon once again tried to cut off the escape routes of the 1st Army, which had not yet managed to cross the Dnieper and retreat to Dorogobuzh. To capture the Dnieper crossing, Napoleon sent forward Ney's corps (40 thousand people). To deter the French, Barclay moved to the village of Valutina Gora (10 km east of Smolensk) a rearguard under the command of General Pavel Tuchkov (over 3 thousand people). Ney intended to crush the small Russian detachment that had taken positions near the village on the move, but Tuchkov's soldiers stood unshakably and valiantly repulsed the onslaught of the French. By the evening, at the expense of the reinforcements arrived in time, the number of Russian troops at Valutina Gora was brought to 22 thousand people. The fierce battle lasted here until late at night. During the last attack in the moonlight, Tuchkov, wounded by bayonets, was taken prisoner. By that time, the main forces of the 1st Army had already managed to cross the Dnieper. The losses of the Russians in this battle amounted to 5 thousand people, the French - over 8 thousand people. The Battle of Valutina Gora ended the two-week Smolensk operation, as a result of which the "key to Moscow" fell and the Russians retreated again without giving a general battle. Now the French army, having gathered in one fist, moved to Moscow.
Hike to Moscow
It is known that after the first walk through the destroyed Smolensk, Napoleon exclaimed: "The campaign of 1812 is over!" Indeed, the heavy losses of his army, fatigue from a difficult campaign, stubborn resistance of the Russians, who managed to maintain their main forces - all this forced the French emperor to think strongly about the advisability of further moving forward. Napoleon seemed to be leaning towards the original Polish plan. However, after 6 days of deliberation, the French emperor nevertheless set out on a campaign against Moscow. There were good reasons for this. Unable to inflict a decisive defeat on the Russian army in Belarus, Napoleon never achieved a radical change in the course of the campaign. Meanwhile, his army in Smolensk was almost a thousand kilometers cut off from the main supply bases on the Vistula. She was in a hostile country, whose population not only did not supply the invaders with food, but also began an armed struggle against them. In the event of supply interruptions, wintering in Smolensk became impossible. For the normal life support of the army during the cold season, Napoleon would have to retreat to his bases on the Vistula. This meant that the Russian army could recapture most of the territories occupied by the French in the winter. Therefore, for Napoleon it seemed extremely important to defeat the Russian armed forces before the onset of cold weather. Based on these considerations, he nevertheless decided to use the last summer month for a trip to Moscow. His calculation was based on the fact that the Russians would definitely give a general battle at the walls of their ancient capital, the success of which Napoleon did not doubt. It was precisely the convincing victory in the 1812 campaign that could save him from the difficult problems of the upcoming wintering and would greatly facilitate his victorious end to the war. Meanwhile, Barclay de Tolly continued to retreat, imposing a protracted war on Napoleon, in which space and time became Russia's allies. The retreat from Smolensk aroused open hostility in society towards the "German" Barclay. He was accused of cowardice and almost treason. Although the accusations were unfair, Alexander I nevertheless appointed a new commander-in-chief on the advice of those close to him. It was Mikhail Illarionovich Kutuzov. He arrived in the army on August 17, when Barclay was already preparing, under pressure from society and the military, to give a general battle at Tsarev Zaymishche. Kutuzov considered the chosen position unsuitable and ordered to continue the withdrawal. Kutuzov, like Barclay, understood that Napoleon needed the battle first of all, since each new step to the east removed the French army from the sources of life support and brought its death closer. The new commander was a decisive opponent of the general engagement. But, as under Austerlitz, Kutuzov had to give battle to please the opinion of the country's leadership and its society, excited by the failures. True, now Kutuzov himself made decisions on tactical issues. Therefore, not wanting to risk it, he chose a purely defensive version of the coming battle. The Russian strategist intended to achieve victory in this war not only on the battlefields.
Battle of Borodino (1812). The battle for Moscow between the French and the Russians took place near the village of Borodino on August 26, 1812, on the day of the Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God. Napoleon led only a third of the army that started the war (135 thousand people) to Borodino. The rest were absorbed like a sponge from the Neman to Smolensk. Some died, some remained to guard the extended communications, some settled in hospitals or simply deserted. On the other hand, the best ones have arrived. The French were opposed by the 132-thousand-strong Russian army, in which there were 21 thousand non-fired militias. Kutuzov placed his forces between the New and Old Smolensk roads. The right flank of his army was covered by the Koloch and Moscow rivers, which excluded the possibility of coverage. On the left flank, south of the Old Smolensk road, this was hampered by woodland. Thus, a frontal battle was imposed on Napoleon in a 3-kilometer space between the villages of Gorki and Utitsa. Here Kutuzov built a defense in depth (its total depth, together with reserves, was 3-4 km) and placed the main fortifications. In the center was a battery at Kurgannaya. It was defended by the 7th Corps of General Raevsky (that's why this place got the name "Rayevsky's battery"). On the left flank, near the village of Semenovskoye, field fortifications were erected - flashes. Initially, the combined grenadier division of General Mikhail Vorontsov and the fearless 27th Infantry Division of General Dmitry Neverovsky from the 2nd Army of Bagration were located here. Further south, in the forest near the village of Utitsa, Kutuzov placed the 3rd corps of General Nikolai Tuchkov. He was given the task of hitting the flank of the attacking flashes of the French units. Actually, in these three areas: at the Kurgan battery, Semenovskie flashes and Utitsa, the main events of the Battle of Borodino unfolded. Napoleon, eager for a general battle, was ready for any option. He accepted Kutuzov's call for a frontal collision. He even abandoned Davout's plan to bypass the Russians on the left, through Utitsa, because he feared that then they would not accept the battle and would retreat again. The French emperor planned to break through the Russian defenses with a frontal attack, push them to the Moscow River and destroy them. The battle was preceded by a battle on August 24 near the village of Shevardino (Shevardino redoubt), in which General Gorchakov's 8,000-strong detachment held back the attacks of the superior French forces (40,000 people) all day. This gave Kutuzov the opportunity to take the main positions. On August 25, the troops were preparing for battle, which began the next day at 5 o'clock in the morning. The first diversionary attacks were made by the French on the right flank of the Russians. They pushed the Russian units back across the Koloch River. But attempts by the French to cross the river were repelled. Then at 6 o'clock in the morning, Marshal Davout's strike group launched the first attack against the left flank of the Russians, where the Semyonovskie flashes were located. Almost at the same time, to reach the rear of the Semyonov flushes, the Polish corps of General Ponyatovsky tried to break through to the village of Utitsa, where it entered into a head-on battle with Tuchkov's soldiers. The decisive battle in the first half of the day broke out for the Semyonovskie flushes, where Napoleon planned to carry out the main breakthrough. Both commanders threw their main reserves here. “The picture of that part of the Borodino field near the village of Semenovskoye, where the battle was in full swing, was terrifying,” recalled officer F.I. Glinka, a participant in the battle. “Thick smoke and bloody steam eclipsed the half-day sun. A field of horror, over the field of death. In these twilight nothing could be seen, except for the formidable columns advancing and broken ... Dahl presents a kind of complete chaos: broken, broken French squadrons crumbling, worry and disappear in smoke ... We have no language to describe this dump, this collision, this crack, this last struggle of a thousand! Everyone grabbed the fatal scales to pull them over to their side ... ". At the cost of huge losses, after the eighth attack, the French managed to knock out the Russians with a flush by 12 o'clock. In this battle, General Bagration, who personally led the defense of the flashes (they received the second name: "Bagrationovskie"), was mortally wounded. At the same time, the French fiercely attacked the center of the Russian army - Kurgan Heights. At 11 o'clock, during the second attack of the Raevsky battery, General Bonami's brigade managed to break into the height. The situation was saved by General Yermolov, the chief of staff of the 1st Army, who was passing by. Assessing the situation, he led a counterattack of the nearby battalions of the Ufa infantry regiment and recaptured the height. General Bonami was captured and his soldiers fled. Inspired Ufa residents began to persecute the French. I had to send Cossacks to return the attackers. At this time, a heated battle was in full swing at Utitsa between the units of Poniatovsky and the 3rd corps, which was now headed (instead of the mortally wounded Tuchkov) General Alsufiev. The brutality of both sides during the battle was extraordinary. “Many of those who fought threw down their weapons, grappled with each other, tore each other's mouths, strangled each other and fell together dead. The artillery galloped over the corpses like on a log pavement, squeezing the corpses into the blood-soaked earth ... The cries of commanders and cries of despair in 10 different languages were drowned out by gunfire and drumbeats. The battlefield was then a terrible sight. A thick black cloud hung over the left wing of our army from smoke mixed with vapors of blood ... At the same time, day, evening and night were presented to the eyes, "recalled NS Pestrikov, a participant in that battle. After Bagration, command of the left flank was accepted by the senior general Konovnitsyn (then Kutuzov sent General Dokhturov to lead the left flank). He began to withdraw the defeated units for the Semyonovsky ravine, where he organized a new line of defense. The critical moment of the battle came. The positions of the defeated units at the Semyonovsky ravine were not fortified, and the reserves had not yet approached. In this situation, Kutuzov organized a counterattack on the left flank of the Napoleon army with the forces of the cavalry regiments of Uvarov and Platov. Their attack caused confusion in the ranks of the French. the delay gave Kutuzov time to pull up his reserves. hours to break into the heights. In the battle for it, almost the entire division of General Likhachev, abandoned from the reserve, was killed. But the attempts of the French cavalry to build on the success were stopped by the Russian cavalry regiments, which were led into battle by General Barclay de Tolly. The marshals demanded that Napoleon inflict a final blow on the Russians shot down from all fortifications, throwing the guard into battle. Then the emperor himself went to the line of fire to assess the situation. He looked at the new positions of the Russians, and "it was clear how they, without losing courage, closed their ranks, again entered the battle and went to die," recalled General Segur, who was with the emperor at that moment. Napoleon saw an army that did not run away, but was preparing to fight to the end. He no longer had the strength to crush it. "I cannot risk my last reserve three thousand leagues from Paris." Abandoning this historical phrase, Napoleon drove back. He soon withdrew the troops to their original positions. The battle of Borodino is over. The Russians lost 44 thousand people in it, the French - over 58 thousand. The battle of Borodino is sometimes called the "battle of generals". During it, 16 generals were killed on both sides. Europe has not known such losses in the general staff for 100 years, which testifies to the extreme fierceness of this battle. "Of all my battles," Bonaparte recalled, "the worst one I gave near Moscow. The French showed themselves worthy to win in it, and the Russians acquired the right to be invincible." For Borodino, Kutuzov received the rank of field marshal. The main result of the Battle of Borodino was that it did not give Napoleon the opportunity to defeat the Russians in a general battle. This was the collapse of his strategic plan, followed by defeat in the war. In general, two military leadership concepts clashed here. One presupposed an active onslaught and victory over the enemy, forces gathered in one fist in a general battle. The other gave preference to skillful maneuver and the imposition of a campaign option that was obviously unfavorable to the enemy. On the Russian field, the maneuverable doctrine of Kutuzov won.
Tarutino maneuver (1812). Upon learning of the losses, Kutuzov did not resume the battle the next day. Even with the success and advance of his army, the position of the Russians remained precarious. They did not have any reserves in the section from Moscow to Smolensk (all warehouses were made in Belarus, where it was initially supposed to wage a war). Napoleon, on the other hand, had large manpower reserves behind Smolensk. Therefore, Kutuzov believed that the time had not yet come to go on the offensive, and ordered to retreat. True, he hoped to receive reinforcements and did not rule out the possibility of a new battle already at the walls of Moscow. But hopes for reinforcements were not justified, and the position chosen for the battle near the city turned out to be unprofitable. Then Kutuzov took upon himself the responsibility to surrender Moscow. "With the loss of Moscow, Russia has not yet been lost ... But if the army is destroyed, both Moscow and Russia will perish," Kutuzov said at the military council in Fili to his generals. Indeed, Russia did not have another army capable of dealing with Napoleon. Thus, the Russians left their ancient capital, which for the first time in 200 years was in the hands of foreigners. Leaving Moscow, Kutuzov began to retreat in a southeastern direction, along the Ryazan road. After two crossings, Russian troops approached the Moscow River. Having crossed at the Borovsky ferry to the right bank, they turned to the west and moved on a forced march to the Old Kaluga road. At the same time, the Cossack detachment from the rearguard of General Raevsky continued to retreat to Ryazan. With this, the Cossacks misled the French vanguard of Marshal Murat, who followed on the heels of the retreating army. During the withdrawal, Kutuzov introduced tough measures against the desertion that began in his troops after the surrender of Moscow. Having reached the Old Kaluga road, the Russian army turned to Kaluga and camped in the village of Tarutino. Kutuzov brought 85 thousand people there. available composition (together with the militia). As a result of the Tarutino maneuver, the Russian army got out of the blow and took an advantageous position. While in Tarutino, Kutuzov covered the southern regions of Russia rich in human resources and food, the Tula military-industrial complex and at the same time could threaten the communications of the French on the Smolensk road. The French, on the other hand, could not advance from Moscow to Petersburg without hindrance, having the Russian army in the rear. Thus, Kutuzov actually imposed on Napoleon the further course of the campaign. In the Tarutino camp, the Russian army received reinforcements and increased its strength to 120 thousand people. In 1834, a monument was erected in Tarutino with the inscription: "At this place, the Russian army, led by Field Marshal Kutuzov, saved Russia and Europe." The capture of Moscow did not lead Napoleon to a victorious end to the campaign. He was greeted by a city abandoned by the inhabitants, in which fires soon began. At this tragic moment in Russian history, Alexander I announced that he would fight along with the people in Siberia, but would not conclude peace as long as at least one armed invader remained on Russian soil. The emperor's firmness was important, since many influential persons at the court (the king's mother, his brother, Grand Duke Constantine, General Arakcheev, etc.) did not believe in the success of the fight against Napoleon and advocated peace with him. Kutuzov, on the other hand, at a meeting with the French envoy Loriston, who had arrived for peace talks, philosophically said that the real war had just begun. "The enemy could destroy your walls, turn your property into ruins and ashes, impose heavy fetters on you, but he could not and cannot conquer and conquer your hearts. Such are the Russians!" World War II. The entire population of the country, regardless of class or nationality, rises to fight the invaders. National unity became the decisive force that crushed the Napoleonic army. In less than two months, the peoples of Russia sent 300,000 new militias to help their army and raised more than 100 million rubles for it. In the areas occupied by the enemy, a partisan war is unfolding, in which Denis Davydov, Vasilisa Kozhina, Gerasim Kurin, Alexander Figner and many other heroes became famous. The year 1812 fully demonstrated the talents of MI Kutuzov - a commander and a wise national strategist who managed to organically combine the actions of the army with the patriotic struggle of the nation.
Battle of Chernishny (1812). Having strengthened, Kutuzov took decisive action, on October 6, his detachments under the command of generals Miloradovich and Bennigsen attacked Murat's corps (20 thousand people) near Chernishny (a river north of Tarutino), which was monitoring the Tarutino camp. The strike was being prepared secretly. The plan to reach Murat's positions involved a night march through the forest of Bennigsen's main detachment. It was not possible to complete the maneuver successfully. In the darkness, the columns got confused, and by morning only the Cossack regiments, led by General Orlov-Denisov, had reached the designated place. In accordance with the letter of the plan, he decisively attacked the French, overthrew the cuirassier division and captured the carts. But the other columns, having wandered through the forest, came out to the battle site later and were unable to support the onslaught of their cavalry in time. This made it possible for Murat to recover from an unexpected attack and manage to organize a defense. The units of Bennigsen that finally emerged from the forest came under fire and suffered losses (in particular, the commander of the 2nd corps, General Baggovut, was killed). Nevertheless, under the onslaught of the Russians, Murat was forced to retreat to join the Napoleonic army. The inconsistency of the actions of the Russians allowed him to avoid encirclement. The French lost 2.5 thousand killed and 2 thousand prisoners. The losses of the Russians amounted to 1.2 thousand people. The defeat of Murat's corps hastened the advance of Napoleon's army from Moscow. It caused a moral upsurge in the army of Kutuzov, who won the first major victory after leaving Moscow.
Kaluga campaign
On the evening of October 6, Napoleon set out from Moscow to meet Kutuzov's army, leaving the 10-thousandth corps of Marshal Mortier in the city. But soon (apparently, under the impression of the sight of an army overloaded with looted goods, more reminiscent of a camp than a professional army), he abruptly changed his plan. Napoleon decided not to engage in battle with Kutuzov, but to turn onto the New Kaluga road and retreat to the west through the southern regions not ravaged by the war. Mortier was also ordered to march from Moscow. Before leaving, Napoleon ordered him to blow up the Kremlin. As a result, the most valuable historical and architectural ensemble was partially destroyed. The Kaluga campaign was, perhaps, the most inconsistent operation of Bonaparte, during which he changed his decisions several times during the week. Apparently, he did not have a clear plan of action at all. The French emperor looked like an over-the-top gambler who kept raising the stakes, not wanting to see himself beaten.
Battle of Maloyaroslavets (1812). Learning about Napoleon's movement along the New Kaluga road, Kutuzov sent the vanguard corps of General Dokhturov (15 thousand people) across the French army. He was supposed to block her path to Kaluga, where the Russians had huge reserves of weapons and food. On the morning of October 12, Dokhturov approached Maloyaroslavets and knocked out the French units that had occupied the city the night before. But the corps, which soon approached, under the command of Prince Eugene of Beauharnais, ousted the Russians from Maloyaroslavets. In the future, the battle unfolded as new forces approached from one side and the other, sequentially repelling the city from each other. During the day Maloyaroslavets changed hands 8 times. The point in the fierce battle was set by the 15th Italian division of General Pino, which arrived in the evening, thanks to which the city remained for the night for the French. They lost 5 thousand people that day, Russians - 3 thousand people. The battle for Maloyaroslavets was the last offensive success of Napoleon in the 1812 campaign. The French fought so hard for a reason. They occupied an important strategic point, from where the fork of two roads began - to Kaluga (to the south) and Medyn (to the west). At night, Kutuzov's army fortified itself south of Maloyaroslavets. After much hesitation, Napoleon nevertheless decided to attack it in the last hope of a victorious outcome of the campaign. But after an unsuccessful attempt on October 13 by General Poniatovsky's corps to break through to the west near Medyn, where he was repulsed by the cavalry detachment of General Ilovaisky, the emperor was frightened of the trap and did not dare to engage in a new battle with the Russian army. By the way, on this day, when leaving to inspect the positions, Napoleon almost was captured by the Cossacks. Only the French squadrons arrived in time to save the emperor and his retinue from the oncoming horsemen. Nevertheless, the appearance of Cossack detachments near Napoleon's headquarters was an ominous sign of the weakening of the French army. The roads to Medyn and Maloyaroslavets were closed to the public. On October 14, Napoleon gave the order to turn north and go out onto the Smolensk road. In turn, Kutuzov, deciding that Poniatovsky wanted to go to his rear through Medyn, also began a retreat and took his army to the village of Detchino, and then to the Polotnyanny plant. The Battle of Maloyaroslavets also had a deeper historical meaning. Here, in the words of Napoleonic general Segur, "the conquest of the world stopped" and "the great collapse of our happiness began."
Expulsion of Napoleonic troops from Russia
Now the roles have changed. Napoleon avoided battles in every possible way and quickly went west along the Smolensk road, ravaged by the war and attacked by partisans. With the complete absence of warehouses with provisions here, the rear supply system of the French finally collapsed, turning the withdrawal of the Napoleonic army into a disaster. Kutuzov did not seek to attack the enemy. He marched with his army to the south, preventing a possible breakthrough of the French into the southern regions. The Russian commander protected his soldiers, believing that now famine and winter will complete the defeat of the Great Army better than any battles. At that time, a plan had already been developed to encircle Napoleon beyond the Dnieper by the forces of the corps of General Peter Wittgenstein from the north and the 3rd and Danube armies that approached from the south, led by Admiral Pavel Chichagov.
Battle of Polotsk and Chashnikov (1812). Having received reinforcements, Wittgenstein's corps (50 thousand people) went on the offensive against the corps of Marshal Saint-Cyr, which was defending Polotsk (30 thousand people). In the battle of October 8-11, the Russians took Polotsk. Then, crossing the Western Dvina, they began to pursue the defeated French formations. The victory at Polotsk created a flank threat to Napoleon's army. This forced him to send Marshal Victor's corps, which arrived from Poland from Poland, to help Saint-Cyr, which was originally intended to reinforce Napoleon's troops on the Kaluga road. On October 19, Wittgenstein continued the offensive and attacked in the Chashnikov area, on the Ulla River, the Saint-Cyr corps. The Russians succeeded in pushing the French out. But upon learning of the approach of the new corps of Victor to Saint-Cyr, Wittgenstein stopped the onslaught. Saint-Cyr and Victor were also inactive. But soon they received an order from Napoleon to push the Russians across the Dvina. Thus, the French emperor sought to clear another, safer route for his army to retreat through Polotsk and Lepel. On November 2, the corps of Saint-Cyr and Victor (46 thousand people) attacked the Wittgenstein corps (45 thousand people). They managed to push the Russian avant-garde back to the Chashniki. But in a stubborn battle near the village of Smolnya, which more than once passed from hand to hand, the French were stopped. Having lost 3 thousand people, Saint-Cyr and Victor were forced to withdraw to join the main forces of the Napoleonic army. The victory over the Chashniks provided Wittgenstein with the opportunity to cut the communications of the Great Army retreating from Russia.
Battle at Vyazma (1812). The first major battle of the Russians with the retreating army of Napoleon was the battle at Vyazma on October 22. Here, detachments of the Russian army under the command of General Miloradovich and the Don Ataman Platov (25 thousand people) defeated 4 French corps (37 thousand people in total). Despite the general numerical superiority of the French, the Russians had a superiority in cavalry (almost twice). The fighting spirit of the Russian soldiers, who wanted to quickly expel the invaders from their native land, was also significantly higher. Having cut off the way to retreat from Vyazma to Davout's corps, Miloradovich and Platov tried to destroy him. The corps of Beauharnais and Poniatowski came to their aid, which allowed Davout to break through the encirclement. Then the French withdrew to the heights near the city, where Ney's corps was located, and tried to organize a defense. But in a battle with the Russian vanguard, they were defeated. In the evening, the burning Vyazma was taken by storm. Partisan detachments under the command of Captains Seslavin and Figner, who were among the first to break into the burning city, distinguished themselves here. The French lost 8.5 thousand people in the battle at Vyazma. (killed, wounded and captured). The damage of the Russians is about 2 thousand people. The defeat of the best French formations caused a moral breakdown of the Napoleonic troops and forced them to hasten their withdrawal from Russia.
Battle of the Red (1812). On October 27, Napoleon's main forces reached Smolensk, where they plundered the remaining warehouses. Due to the threat of encirclement and the complete disorganization of his army, the number of which was reduced to 60 thousand people, Napoleon decided on October 31 to leave Smolensk. Leaving the city, the French army stretched for almost 60 km. Its vanguard was approaching Krasnoye, and the rearguard was just leaving Smolensk. Kutuzov took advantage of this. On November 3, he sent General Miloradovich (16 thousand people) to the Red vanguard. He fired artillery fire on the French troops marching along the Smolensk road, then attacked them and, cutting off the rear columns, took prisoner up to 2 thousand people. The next day, Miloradovich fought the whole day with the Beauharnais corps, taking 1.5 thousand prisoners from him. In this battle, Miloradovich, pointing the grenadiers of the Pavlovsk regiment to the suitable French, uttered his famous phrase: "I give you these columns!" On November 5, the main forces of both armies entered the battle of Krasny. Kutuzov's plan was to gradually cut off French units on the road with blows from the south and destroy them in parts. For this, two shock groups were allocated under the command of Generals Tormasov and Golitsyn. In the course of a fierce battle, in which Miloradovich's detachment also took part, the Russians inflicted heavy damage on the Young Guard, the corps of Davout and Ney. Nevertheless, it was not possible to completely eliminate the French army. Part of it, led by Napoleon, managed to break through and continued to retreat to the Berezina. The French lost 32 thousand people in the battle at Krasnoye. (of which 26 thousand were prisoners), as well as almost all of their artillery. The losses of the Russians amounted to 2 thousand people. This battle was the largest success of the Russian army since the beginning of the campaign. For Krasny Kutuzov received the title of Prince of Smolensk.
Battle of the Berezina (1812). After Red, the ring around the Napoleonic troops began to shrink. From the north approached Wittgenstein's corps (50 thousand people), from the south - Chichagov's army (60 thousand people). At the Berezina they were preparing to close up and cut off Napoleon's escape routes from Russia. On November 9, Chichagov's units approached the Berezina and occupied the city of Borisov. But soon they were knocked out of there by the French corps of Marshal Oudinot. The Russians retreated to the right bank of the river and blew up the bridge. Thus, the crossing on the main road along which Napoleon's army retreated was destroyed. The Berezina was not yet frozen, and the French were trapped. On November 13, the main forces of Napoleon approached the Berezina, which, with the joined corps of Victor, Saint-Cyr and a number of other units, totaled up to 75 thousand people. In this critical situation, when every minute was precious, Napoleon acted quickly and decisively. There was another crossing to the south of Borisov. Napoleon sent Oudinot's corps there. The French emperor tried to make the Russian commander believe that he would be ferried there to retreat to Minsk. Meanwhile, Kutuzov's main army, which was marching towards Minsk, was moving to the area south of Borisov. Meeting with her could have ended in collapse for Napoleon. He tried to move north-west of Minsk, to Vilno. For this purpose, 15 km north of Borisov, near the village of Studenka, Polish lancers found a ford, where French sappers built temporary bridges. On them Napoleon began the crossing on November 14. The demonstration of Oudinot's corps was a success. Chichagov, leaving part of the troops at Borisov, went down the river with the main forces. Within two days, the French crossed, repelling the attacks of scattered detachments of Wittgenstein and Chichagov. On November 15, the vanguard units of the pursuit sent by Kutuzov broke into Borisov under the command of Ataman Platov and General Ermolov. Kutuzov himself was in no hurry to the Berezina, hoping that even without him there were enough forces to eliminate the French army. When Chichagov finally returned to Borisov, Napoleon's troops had already established themselves on the right bank of the river. On November 16, a fierce battle began on both sides of the Berezina. Chichagov tried to push back the French units covering the student crossing on the right bank. Wittgenstein attacked the corps of Marshal Victor, who staunchly covered the crossing on the left bank. The woodland hindered the maneuvering action of the cavalry. All day until 11 am there was a stubborn frontal rifle battle, which cost great losses for both sides and became the culmination of the battle. Due to the low carrying capacity of the built bridges, the huge congestion of people and carts, panic and the increased onslaught of the Russians, only one third of the troops (25 thousand people) managed to break through to the west, towards Vilna. The rest (about 50 thousand people) died in battles, froze to death, drowned or were captured. Fearing the capture of the crossing by the Russians, Napoleon ordered to destroy it, leaving a mass of his troops on the left bank. Contemporaries noted that in some places the river was filled to the brim with the corpses of people and horses. The Russians lost 4 thousand people in this battle. After the Berezina, the main forces of the Napoleonic army in Russia ceased to exist.
During the campaign of 1812, the cadre color of the French army disappeared, which France later could only dream of. In 1813-1814, the veterans of the Moscow campaign who survived on the Berezina made up less than 5% of Napoleon's army (a large part of them was blocked in the Danzig fortress, which surrendered in December 1813). After 1812 Napoleon had a completely different army. With her, he could only postpone his final downfall. Soon after the Berezina, Napoleon left the remnants of his army and went to France to collect new troops. At this time, severe frosts struck, accelerating the elimination of Napoleon's troops. Abandoned by the commander-in-chief, Marshal Murat transferred only the pitiful remnants of the Great Army across the frozen Neman in mid-December. Thus, Napoleon's attempt to defeat Russia ended ingloriously. History knows few examples of such military disasters. In his report M.I. This is how Kutuzov summed up the results of the campaign. "Napoleon entered with 480 thousand, and withdrew about 20 thousand, leaving at least 150,000 prisoners and 850 guns." The death toll in the Russian troops was 120 thousand people. Of these, 46 thousand people were killed and died from wounds. The rest died of disease, mainly during the period of Napoleon's persecution.
In Russian history, the Patriotic War became the most intense in terms of the number of battles. On average, there were 5 battles here every month. On December 25, the day of the Nativity of Christ, the tsar issued a Manifesto on the expulsion of the enemy and the victorious end of the Patriotic War of 1812. This day, like the date of the Battle of Poltava, also became an official religious holiday in memory of "the deliverance of the Church and the Russian State from the invasion of Gauls and with them double the tongue. "
"From Ancient Rus to the Russian Empire". Shishkin Sergey Petrovich, Ufa.
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