Medieval architecture Romanesque style. Features of Romanesque architecture of the Middle Ages. Examples of the main types of capitals, columns and supports

The term “Romanesque style” arose at the beginning of the 19th century. , when the connection between medieval architecture and Roman forms and designs was revealed. From lat. romanus - Roman. The main type of art of the Romanesque style is architecture, mainly church. The Romanesque style was the first style to spread throughout Catholic Europe.

Romanesque style The severity and power of Romanesque structures were generated by concerns about their strength. The builders limited themselves to simple and massive forms of stone, which impress with their power, internal strength, combined with external calm. Norman fortress, X-XI centuries. , northern France

Romanesque style of architecture Romanesque architecture can be harsh and formidable, pressing on a person with its stone weight, and at the same time – slender, full of air and light, gentle and cold. Its characteristic element is the arched shape of door and window openings. Folding, strong, firmly standing stone temples, created with simple volumes and shapes, rise calmly and confidently to the heavens. Marienkirche Laache. Mid-12th century Germany. Westwork.

1. Style features. Period – XII centuries. Strict forms, lack of decorations and ornaments. Semicircular arches. Thick walls, narrow windows. The main types of buildings are temple, monastery, castle.

Romanesque Basilica The beginning of the Romanesque era was marked by the rapid development of church architecture. The dominant type of church is an elongated basilica, symbolizing the main idea of ​​the Catholic Church - the idea of ​​the way of the cross, the path of suffering and atonement for sins.

The plan is based on the basilica. Increasing the ceiling height. The coffered ceiling gives way to a vaulted one. Box, cross, cylindrical vaults

Pre-Romanesque basilica - Romanesque temple A Romanesque basilica is a three-nave (less often five-nave) longitudinal room crossed by one and sometimes two transepts. Chapels and si Ap Central nave Transept West East

The portals of Romanesque churches had sculptural decorations that served an educational function. Scene of the Last Judgment on the tympanum

2. Architecture. Castle of Sully, X-XI centuries. , France The center of life in the early Middle Ages were the castles (secular and spiritual) of feudal lords, churches and monasteries. A fortified castle is the home of a feudal lord and at the same time a fortress. Typically located on the top of a mountain or rocky hill overlooking a river or the sea, a castle served as a defense during siege and as a center for preparations for raids. The castle with a drawbridge and a fortified portal was surrounded by a moat, monolithic stone walls topped with battlements, towers and loopholes. The core of the fortress was a massive round or quadrangular tower (donjon) consisting of several floors - the refuge of the feudal lord. Around it is a vast courtyard with residential and service buildings. Rising above the squalid huts and houses, the castle was perceived as the embodiment of unshakable power. The experience of building castles was subsequently transferred to monasteries.

East West Maria Laach Cathedral is part of the abbey on the shores of Lake Laach, Eifel Mountain. The abbey belongs to the Benedictine order. Germany, XI – XII centuries. The compositional center of the monastery in the city was usually the temple - the most significant creation of Romanesque architecture. It rose with pointed towers above the small buildings surrounding it. The external appearance of the Romanesque Cathedral is stern, simple and clear. It conveys the internal structure of the building very clearly. This is a single, powerful closed volume, having a pyramidal shape on the eastern side. The central nave rises above the side ones, and in the east is the main apse. The center of the composition is formed by a tower of the cross, topped with a spire. Sometimes the western facade, apse and transepts are closed with bell towers.

France is the center of medieval Romanesque architecture. Monastery of Cluny. 1088 – 1131. Former Benedictine abbey. Reported directly to the pope. On its territory the largest church of Peter and Paul in Europe was built: a five-nave basilica. (Destroyed at the end of the 18th century)

The Benedictines are the oldest Catholic monastic order, founded by Saint Benedict of Nursia in the 6th century. In the early Middle Ages, Benedictine monasteries were the main centers of culture in Western Europe. Almost all the outstanding scientists of that time came from abbey schools; ancient manuscripts were preserved and copied in libraries, chronicles were kept, and education was conducted. Fairs were organized at the monasteries, reviving trade; hospitals where the sick were treated. Benedictine monasteries had a strong influence on the development of architecture, the first examples of the Romanesque style appeared in the Abbey of Cluny, and the Gothic style in the Abbey of Saint-Denis.

Monastery on the island Mont Saint Michel, France. In 966 it was erected by Benedictine monks. It was completed and rebuilt many times.

The feudal lord's castle is an integral part of the medieval way of life. The focus of life in the early Middle Ages was the castles of powerful (secular and spiritual) feudal lords, churches and monasteries. In the cities that arose spontaneously, architecture was just in its infancy; residential buildings were made of clay or wood. The fortified castle - the home of the feudal lord and at the same time a fortress that protected his possessions - clearly expressed the nature of the formidable era of feudal wars. Castle Sully, X-XI centuries. , France

In the feudal lord's castle Wartburg Castle. Thuringia. 12th century Chateau Gaillard. Castle ruins. France. It is difficult to imagine the architectural appearance of the Middle Ages without the feudal castle, which was part of medieval life. The castle is not only the home of the feudal lord, but also the center of culture. Knightly tournaments were held here, competitions of singers and musicians were held, and traveling actors performed. Of the numerous castles in Western Europe, only a few have reached us. Time has turned many of them into ruins, but in them you can easily discern the features of harsh and reliable fortresses.

The castle consisted of a tower - a donjon, in the upper floors of which the feudal lord lived. The lower ones housed warehouses for provisions, water, stables, and livestock. If enemies penetrated through the moat filled with water, stone ramparts and fortified gates surrounding the castle, then the inhabitants were locked in a donjon, from which underground passages led outside the castle. Due to the thickness of the walls, the windows resembled embrasures used for military purposes.

The experience of building castles was subsequently transferred to monastic complexes, which were entire villages and fortified cities. The importance of the latter increased in the life of Europe in the 11th-13th centuries. Their layout, usually asymmetrical, strictly observed the requirements of defense, a sober consideration of the terrain, etc. Typical buildings of Carolingian architecture and Romanesque art are the heavy tower of the old donjon in Loches (10th century), the castle of Gaillard on the Seine (12th century) , the abbey of Mont Saint Michel d'Aiguil in France, the castle of Maurice de Sully (12th century, France), the fortified city of Carcassonne in Provence (12th-13th centuries) and others.

Castle Chateau-Gaillard on the Seine (XII century) Built by the English king Richard the Lionheart in 1196-1198.

Abbey of Mont Saint Michel d'Aiguil

Church of Saint-Nectaire, Auvergne, France, ca. 1080. The appearance of Romanesque churches was complemented by towers: the central one on the crossroads and the side ones - square and octagonal. A characteristic element is the arched shape of door and window openings.

Germany and Italy also became the largest centers of Romanesque architecture. The Pisa Cathedral (XI - XII centuries) is a five-nave basilica. The surface of the walls is lined with white and black marble.

Romanesque style in Italy Majestic ensemble in Pisa. It includes the five-nave Pisa Cathedral (1063 - 1118), the baptistery (baptistery, 1153 - 14th century), the inclined bell tower - campanile (Leaning Tower of Pisa, begun in 1174, completed in the 13th - 14th centuries) and the Camio cemetery . Santo.

The Baptistery of the Pisa Cathedral is a grandiose (height 55 m) round (diameter 33.5 m) structure dedicated to John the Baptist

Bell tower (campanile) The construction of the tower was completed in 1360. The tower has 294 steps. The height of the tower is 56.7 m on the highest side. The diameter of the base is 15.54 m. The thickness of the external walls decreases from the base to the top. Its mass is estimated at 14,453 tons. The current tilt is 3°.

The Leaning Tower of Pisa - 1173 - is the bell tower of the cathedral in Pisa. Its height is 55 m, the deviation from the vertical axis is currently 4.6 m.

Germany and Italy also became the largest centers of Romanesque architecture. Everyone knows the famous “leaning tower” in Pisa. The Pisa Cathedral (XI-XII centuries) is a five-nave basilica. The walls are lined with white and black marble. Six tiers of arcades cover the “leaning tower,” which received this name due to its strong slope (deviation from the vertical line by 4.5 m).

Church of St. Michael in Galdesheim. Germany. 11th century The outlines of temples are dominated by vertical and horizontal lines. The complex structure of the buildings looks clear and clear in appearance. Thick walls, creating the impression of massiveness and power, are cut through by narrow window and door openings. The main types of Romanesque buildings are temples and feudal castles.

Its development was associated with monumental construction that began in Western Europe during the formation and prosperity of feudal states, the revival of economic activity and the new growth of culture and art. The monumental architecture of Western Europe arose in the art of barbarian peoples. Such are, for example, the tomb of Theodoric in Ravenna (), church buildings of the Carolingian era - the court chapel of Charlemagne in Aachen (), the church in Gernrode. Its development was associated with monumental construction that began in Western Europe during the formation and prosperity of feudal states, the revival of economic activity and the new growth of culture and art. The monumental architecture of Western Europe arose in the art of barbarian peoples. Such are, for example, the tomb of Theodoric in Ravenna (), church buildings of the Carolingian era - the court chapel of Charlemagne in Aachen (), the church in Gernrode. Church of St. Cyriacus in Gernrode, 10th century tomb of Theodoric

Romanesque style The severity and power of Romanesque structures were generated by concerns about their strength. The builders limited themselves to simple and massive forms of stone, which impress with their power, internal strength, combined with external calm. The severity and power of Romanesque structures were generated by concerns about their strength. The builders limited themselves to simple and massive forms of stone, which impress with their power, internal strength, combined with external calm. Norman fortress, X-XI centuries, northern France

The feudal lord's castle is an integral part of the medieval way of life. The focus of life in the early Middle Ages was the castles of powerful (secular and spiritual) feudal lords, churches and monasteries. In the cities that arose spontaneously, architecture was just in its infancy; residential buildings were made of clay or wood. The fortified castle, the home of the feudal lord and at the same time a fortress that protected his possessions, clearly expressed the nature of the formidable era of feudal wars. Castle of Sully, X-XI centuries, France

Typically located on the top of a mountain or rocky hill overlooking a river or the sea, a castle served as a defense during siege and as a center for preparations for raids. The castle with a drawbridge and a fortified portal was surrounded by a moat, monolithic stone walls topped with battlements, towers and loopholes. The core of the fortress was a massive round or quadrangular tower (donjon) consisting of several floors, the refuge of the feudal lord. Around it there is a vast courtyard with residential and service buildings. Rising above the squalid huts and houses, the castle was perceived as the embodiment of unshakable power. Typically located on the top of a mountain or rocky hill overlooking a river or the sea, a castle served as a defense during siege and as a center for preparations for raids. The castle with a drawbridge and a fortified portal was surrounded by a moat, monolithic stone walls topped with battlements, towers and loopholes. The core of the fortress was a massive round or quadrangular tower (donjon) consisting of several floors, the refuge of the feudal lord. Around it there is a vast courtyard with residential and service buildings. Rising above the squalid huts and houses, the castle was perceived as the embodiment of unshakable power. Fortress of the Conquistadors, X-XI centuries, Germany

The experience of building castles was subsequently transferred to monastic complexes, which were entire villages and fortified cities. The importance of the latter increased in the life of Europe in 1113 centuries. Their layout, usually asymmetrical, strictly observed the requirements of defense, sober consideration of terrain features, etc. Typical buildings of Carolingian architecture and Romanesque art are the heavy tower of the old donjon in Loches (10th century), the Gaillard castle on the Seine (12th century), the abbey of Mont Saint Michel d'Aiguil in France, the castle of Maurice de Sully (12th century, France ), the fortified city of Carcassonne in Provence (12th-13th centuries) and others. The experience of building castles was subsequently transferred to monastic complexes, which were entire villages and fortified cities. The importance of the latter increased in the life of Europe in the 1113th centuries. In their layout, usually asymmetrical, the requirements of defense were strictly observed, a sober consideration of the terrain, etc. Typical buildings of Carolingian architecture and Romanesque art are the heavy tower of the old donjon in Loches (10th century), the Gaillard castle on the Seine (12th century), the abbey of Mont Saint Michel d'Aiguil in France, the castle of Maurice de Sully (12th century, France), the fortified city of Carcassonne in Provence (12th-13th centuries) and others. the tower of the old donjon in Losches, the castle of Gaillard on the Seine Abbey of Mont Saint Michel d'Aiguil, the castle of Maurice de Sully fortified city of Carcassonne tower of the old donjon in Loches castle of Gaillard on Seine Abbey Mont Saint Michel d'Aiguille castle of Maurice de Sully fortified city of Carcassonne

Castle Chateau-Gaillard on the Seine (XII century) Built by the English king Richard the Lionheart in the years.

Abbey of Mont Saint Michel d'Aiguil

Romanesque Basilica The beginning of the Romanesque era was marked by the rapid development of church architecture. The dominant type of church is an elongated basilica, symbolizing the main idea of ​​the Catholic Church - the idea of ​​the way of the cross, the path of suffering and atonement for sins. The beginning of the Romanesque era was marked by the rapid development of church architecture. The dominant type of church is an elongated basilica, symbolizing the main idea of ​​the Catholic Church - the idea of ​​the way of the cross, the path of suffering and atonement for sins.

Church of St. MaryChurch of St. Mary, Laach Germany Church of St. Mary

Church of Saint-Nectaire, Auvergne, France, ca The appearance of Romanesque churches was complemented by towers: the central one on the middle cross and the side ones - square and octagonal. The appearance of Romanesque churches was complemented by towers: the central one on the crossroads and the side ones - square and octagonal. A characteristic element is the arched shape of door and window openings. A characteristic element is the arched shape of door and window openings.

The portals of Romanesque churches had sculptural decoration that served an educational function. The portals of Romanesque churches had sculptural decoration that served an educational function. Scene of the Last Judgment on the tympanum Scene of the Last Judgment on the tympanum

Majestic ensemble in Pisa. It includes the five-nave Pisa Cathedral (), the baptistery (baptistery, 1153 14th century), the leaning campanile bell tower (Leaning Tower of Pisa, begun in 1174, completed in 1314 centuries) and the Camio Santo cemetery. Majestic ensemble in Pisa. It includes the five-nave Pisa Cathedral (), the baptistery (baptistery, 1153 14th century), the leaning campanile bell tower (Leaning Tower of Pisa, begun in 1174, completed in 1314 centuries) and the Camio Santo cemetery. Baptistery Campanile Baptistery Campanile Romanesque style in Italy

The Baptistery of the Pisa Cathedral, is a grandiose (height 55 m) round (diameter 33.5 m) structure dedicated to John the Baptist Baptistery of the Cathedral of Pisa, is a grandiose (height 55 m) round (diameter 33.5 m) structure dedicated to John the Baptist

Bell tower (campanile) Construction of the tower was completed in 1360. The tower has 294 steps. The height of the tower is 56.7 m on its highest side. The diameter of the base is 15.54 m. The thickness of the external walls decreases from the base to the top. Its mass is estimated at t. The current tilt is 3°. The construction of the tower was completed in 1360. The tower has 294 steps. The height of the tower is 56.7 m on its highest side. The diameter of the base is 15.54 m. The thickness of the external walls decreases from the base to the top. Its mass is estimated at t. The current tilt is 3°.

Romanesque style is an artistic style that dominated Western Europe, and also affected some countries of Eastern Europe, in the 11th-12th centuries (in a number of places - in the 13th century), one of the most important stages in the development of medieval European art.

The development of Romanesque architecture was associated with monumental construction that began in Western Europe during the formation and prosperity of feudal states, the revival of economic activity and the new growth of culture and art. The monumental architecture of Western Europe arose in the art of barbarian peoples. Such are, for example, the tomb of Theodoric in Ravenna (526-530), church buildings of the late Carolingian era - the court chapel of Charlemagne in Aachen (795-805), the church in Gernrode of the Ottonian period with its plastic integrity of large masses (second half of the 10th century) .

Tomb of Theodoric in Ravenna

Combining classical and barbaric elements, distinguished by austere grandeur, it prepared the formation of the Romanesque style, which subsequently developed purposefully over the course of two centuries. In each country, this style developed under the influence and strong influence of local traditions - ancient, Syrian, Byzantine, Arab.

The main role in the Romanesque style was given to harsh fortress architecture: monastery complexes, churches, castles. The main buildings during this period were the temple-fortress and the castle-fortress, located on elevated places, dominating the area.

Romanesque buildings are characterized by a combination of a clear architectural silhouette and laconic exterior decoration - the building always fit harmoniously into the surrounding nature, and therefore looked especially durable and solid. This was facilitated by massive walls with narrow window openings and stepped-recessed portals. Such walls had a defensive purpose.

The main buildings during this period were the temple-fortress and the castle-fortress. The main element of the composition of a monastery or castle is the tower - the donjon. Around it were the rest of the buildings, made up of simple geometric shapes - cubes, prisms, cylinders.

Features of the architecture of the Romanesque cathedral:

• The plan is based on an early Christian basilica, that is, a longitudinal organization of space
• Enlargement of the choir or eastern altar of the temple
• Increasing the height of the temple
• Replacement of coffered (cassette) ceilings with stone vaults in the largest cathedrals. The vaults were of several types: box, cross, often cylindrical, flat on beams (typical of Italian Romanesque architecture).
• Heavy vaults required powerful walls and columns
• The main motive of the interior is semicircular arches

Chapel of Penitents. Beaulieu-sur-Dordogne.

Germany.

Germany occupied a special place in the construction of large cathedrals in the 12th century. powerful imperial cities on the Rhine (Speier, Mainz, Worms). The cathedrals erected here are distinguished by the grandeur of their massive, clear cubic volumes, the abundance of heavy towers, and more dynamic silhouettes.

In Worms Cathedral (1171-1234, ill. 76), built of yellow-gray sandstone, the divisions of volumes are less developed than in French churches, which creates a feeling of solidity of forms. Such a technique as a gradual increase in volumes and smooth linear rhythms is also not used. The squat towers of the middle cross and four high round towers, as if cutting into the sky, with cone-shaped stone tents at the corners of the temple on the western and eastern sides give it the character of a stern fortress. Smooth surfaces of impenetrable walls with narrow windows dominate everywhere, only sparingly enlivened by a frieze in the form of arches along the cornice. Weakly protruding lysen (blades - vertical flat and narrow projections on the wall) connect the arched frieze, plinth and galleries in the upper part. In Worms Cathedral, the pressure of the vaults on the walls is relieved. The central nave is covered with a cross vault and is brought into line with the cross vaults of the side naves. For this purpose, the so-called “connected system” was used, in which for each bay of the central nave there are two side bays. The edges of the external forms clearly express the internal volumetric-spatial structure of the building.

Worms Cathedral of St. Peter

Abbey Maria Laach, Germany

Libmurg Cathedral, Germany

Bamberg Cathedral, east facade with two towers and polygonal choirs

France.

Most monuments of Romanesque art them in France, which in the 11th-12th centuries. was not only the center of philosophical and theological movements, but also the widespread dissemination of heretical teachings, which to a certain extent overcame the dogmatism of the official church. In the architecture of Central and Western France there is the greatest diversity in solving structural problems and a wealth of forms. It clearly expresses the features of a Romanesque style temple.

An example of this is the Church of Notre-Dame la Grande in Poitiers (11th-12th centuries). This is a hall, low, dimly lit church, with a simple plan, with a slightly protruding transept, with a poorly developed choir, framed by only three chapels. Almost equal in height, the three naves are covered with semi-cylindrical vaults and a common gable roof. The central nave is immersed in twilight - light penetrates into it through the sparsely located windows of the side naves. The heaviness of the forms is emphasized by a squat three-tiered tower above the middle cross. The lower tier of the western façade is divided by a portal and two semi-circular arches extending into the thickness of the steppe. The upward movement, expressed by small pointed towers and a stepped pediment, is stopped by horizontal friezes with sculptures of saints. Rich ornamental carvings, typical of the Poitou school, spread across the surface of the wall, softening the severity of the structure. In the grandiose churches of Burgundy, which took first place among other French schools, the first steps were taken to change the design of vaulted ceilings in the type of basilica church with a high and wide middle nave, with many altars, transverse and side ships, an extensive choir and a developed, radially located crown chapel The high, three-tiered central nave was covered with a box vault, not with a semi-circular arch, as in most Romanesque churches, but with light pointed outlines.

An example of this complex type is the grandiose main five-nave monastery church of the Abbey of Cluny (1088-1107), destroyed at the beginning of the 19th century. Serving as the center of activity for the powerful Cluny order in the 11th and 12th centuries, it became a model for many temple buildings in Europe.

She is close to the churches of Burgundy: in Parais le Manial (early 12th century), Vezede (first third of the 12th century) and Autun (first third of the 12th century). They are characterized by the presence of a wide hall located in front of the naves and the use of high towers. Burgundian churches are distinguished by the perfection of forms, clarity of dissected volumes, regularity of rhythm, completeness of parts, and their subordination to the whole.

Monastic Romanesque churches are usually small in size, with low vaults and small transepts. With a similar layout, the design of the facades was different. For the southern regions of France, near the Mediterranean Sea, the temples of Provence (in the past, an ancient Greek colony and a Roman province) are characterized by a connection with ancient late Roman order architecture, the monuments of which have been preserved here in abundance; hall temples, simple in form and proportions, prevailed, distinguished by the richness of sculptural decoration facades, sometimes reminiscent of Roman triumphal arches (the Church of Saint-Trophime in Arles, 12th century). Modified domed buildings penetrated into the southwestern regions.

Priory of Serrabona, France

Italy.

There was no stylistic unity in Italian architecture. This is largely due to the fragmentation of Italy and the attraction of its individual regions to the culture of Byzantium or Romanesque - those countries with which they were connected by long-term economic and cultural communication. Local late antique and early Christian traditions, the influence of the art of the medieval West and East determined the originality of the Romanesque architecture of the advanced schools of Central Italy - the cities of Tuscany and Lombardy, in the 11th-12th centuries. freed from feudal dependence and began extensive construction of city cathedrals. Lombard architecture played an important role in the development of the vaulted structure and skeleton of the building.

In the architecture of Tuscany, the ancient tradition was manifested in the completeness and harmonious clarity of forms, in the festive appearance of the majestic ensemble in Pisa. It includes the five-nave Pisa Cathedral (1063-1118), the baptistery (baptistery, 1153 - 14th centuries), the inclined bell tower - campanile (Leaning Tower of Pisa, begun in 1174, completed in the 13-14th centuries) and the Camio cemetery -Santo.

Each building protrudes freely, distinguished by the simple closed volumes of a cube and cylinder and the sparkling white of marble in a green grass-covered square near the shore of the Tyrrhenian Sea. Proportionality has been achieved in the breakdown of masses. Graceful white marble Romanesque arcades with Roman-Corinthian and composite capitals divide the façade and outer walls of all buildings into tiers, lightening their massiveness and emphasizing the structure. The large cathedral gives the impression of lightness, which is enhanced by the inlays of colored marble of dark red and dark green (a similar decor was characteristic of Florence, where the so-called “inlay style” became widespread). The elliptical dome above the middle cross completed its clear and harmonious image.

Pisa Cathedral, Italy

Romanesque style (lat. romanus - Roman) is an artistic style that dominated Western Europe in the 9th-12th centuries. It became one of the most important stages in the development of medieval European art.

Royal Alcazar Palace

Cathedral, XI century, Trier

Canterbury Cathedral, 12th century, England (the Gothic tower was added later)

The term "Romanesque style" appeared at the beginning of the 19th century, when it was established that the architecture of the 11th-12th centuries used elements of ancient Roman architecture, for example, semicircular arches and vaults. In general, the term is conditional and reflects only one, not the main, side of art. However, it has come into general use.

The Romanesque style developed in the countries of Central and Western Europe and spread everywhere. XI century is usually considered as the time of the “early”, and the 12th century. - “mature” Romanesque art. However, the chronological framework of the dominance of the Romanesque style in individual countries and regions does not always coincide. Thus, in the northeast of France, the last third of the 12th century. already dates back to the Gothic period, while in Germany and Italy the characteristic features of Romanesque art continued to dominate throughout much of the 13th century.

Monastery, XI-XII centuries. Ireland

Rialto Bridge, XI century, Venice, Italy

Most “classically” this style will spread in the art of Germany and France. The leading role in the art of this period belonged to architecture. Romanesque buildings are very diverse in type, design features and decor. This medieval architecture was created for the needs of the church and chivalry, and churches, monasteries, and castles became the leading types of buildings. Monasteries were the strongest feudal lords. Urban architecture, with rare exceptions, has not received as widespread development as monastic architecture. In most states, the main customers were monastic orders, in particular such powerful ones as the Benedictine, and the builders and workers were monks. Only at the end of the 11th century. artels of lay stonemasons appeared - both builders and sculptors, moving from place to place. However, the monasteries knew how to attract various craftsmen from outside, requiring them to work as a pious duty.

Norman fortress, X-XI centuries. France

The spirit of belligerence and the constant need for self-defense permeates Romanesque art. Castle-fortress or temple-fortress. "The castle is the fortress of a knight, the church is the fortress of God; God was thought of as the highest feudal lord, just, but merciless, bringing not peace, but a sword. A stone building rising on a hill with watchtowers, wary and threatening with large-headed, large-armed sculptures, as if rooted to the body of the temple and silently guarding it from enemies - this is a characteristic creation of Romanesque art. Great inner strength is felt in it, its artistic concept is simple and strict." The development of Romanesque art received a special impetus during the reign of the Frankish Merovingian dynasty (486-751).

Fortress of the Conquistadors, X-XI centuries.

The famous historian A. Toynbee noted that “the only possible integral state was the Roman Empire; the Frankish regime of the Merovingians was turned to the Roman past.”

In Europe, architectural monuments of the ancient Romans remain in abundance: roads, aqueducts, fortress walls, towers, temples. They were so durable that they continued to be used for their intended purpose for a long time. By combining watchtowers, military camps with Greek basilicas and Byzantine ornamentation, a new “Roman” Romanesque architectural style emerged: simple and expedient. Strict tectonicity and functionality almost completely eliminated the figurativeness, festivity and elegance that distinguished the architecture of Greek antiquity.

The material for Romanesque buildings was local stone, since its delivery from afar was almost impossible due to the lack of roads and the large number of internal borders that had to be crossed, paying high taxes each time. The stones were cut by different craftsmen - one of the reasons that in medieval art two identical parts, such as capitals, are rarely found. Each of them was carried out by a separate stone-cutter, who had some creative freedom within the limits of the task he received. The hewn stone was laid in place on the mortar.

Saint-Pierre Cathedral, Angouleme, France

Cathedral, Santiago, Italy

Capital in the parish church of Anzy le Duc

Master Gilbert. Eve. Cathedral of Saint Lazare in Autun

Tympanum of the Church of Saint-Madeleine in Vézelay. XII century

The ornamentation of Romanesque art was borrowed mainly from the East; it was based on extreme generalization, “geometrization and schematization of the pictorial image. Simplicity, power, strength, and clarity were felt in everything. Romanesque architecture is a characteristic example of rational artistic thinking.”

The principles of architecture of the Romanesque period received their most consistent and pure expression in religious complexes. The main monastery building was the church. Next to it was a courtyard surrounded by open colonnades. Around there was the house of the abbot of the monastery (abbot), a bedroom for monks (dormitory), a refectory, a kitchen, a winery, a brewery, a bakery, warehouses, stables, living quarters for workers, a doctor’s house, homes and a special kitchen for pilgrims, a school, a hospital, a cemetery .

Fontevrault. View of the monastery from above. Founded in 1110 France

Kitchen at Fontevraud Abbey

Kitchen at Fontevraud Abbey. Internal view

Temples typical of the Romanesque style most often develop the old basilica form. A Romanesque basilica is a three-nave (less often five-nave) longitudinal room crossed by one and sometimes two transepts. In a number of architectural schools, the eastern part of the church was further complicated and enriched: the choir, completed by the protrusion of the apse, surrounded by radiating chapels (the so-called wreath of chapels). In some countries, mainly France, a walk-through choir is being developed; the side naves seem to continue behind the transept and go around the altar apse. This layout made it possible to regulate the flow of pilgrims who worshiped the relics displayed in the apse.

Cross section of the pre-Romanesque basilica (left) and the Romanesque temple

St John's Chapel, Tower of London

3rd church in Cluny (France), XI-XII centuries. Plan

It should be emphasized that feudal fragmentation, poor development of exchange, relative isolation of cultural life and the stability of local building traditions determined the wide variety of Romanesque architectural schools.

In Romanesque churches, separate spatial zones are clearly distinguished: the narthex, i.e. the vestibule, the longitudinal body of the basilica with its rich and detailed design, transepts, eastern apse, chapels. This layout quite logically continued the idea already inherent in the layout of early Christian basilicas, starting with the Cathedral of St. Petra: if the pagan temple was considered the dwelling of the deity, then Christian churches became the house of believers, built for a collective of people. But this team was not united. The clergy were sharply opposed to the “sinful” laity and occupied the choir, that is, the more honorable part of the temple located behind the transept, closest to the altar. And in the part allocated to the laity, places were allocated for the feudal nobility. In this way, the unequal importance of different population groups in the face of the deity was emphasized.

Church of Saint-Etienne in Nevers (France). 1063-1097

Abbey Church of Saint-Philibert in Tournus

Church in Santiago de Compostela (Italy). OK. 1080 - 1211

When building churches, the most difficult problem was the lighting and covering of the main nave, since the latter was wider and higher than the side ones. Different schools of Romanesque architecture solved this problem in different ways. The easiest way was to preserve wooden ceilings on the model of early Christian basilicas. The roof on the rafters was relatively light, did not cause lateral expansion and did not require powerful walls; this made it possible to place a tier of windows under the roof. This was how they built it in many places in Italy, in Saxony, the Czech Republic, and in the early Norman school in France.

Vaults: cylindrical, cylindrical on formwork, cross, cross on ribs, closed. Scheme

Cathedral in Le Puy (France), XI-XII centuries. Vaulted ceiling of the central nave

However, the advantages of wooden floors did not stop architects from looking for other solutions. The Romanesque style is characterized by covering the main nave with a massive vault made of wedge stones. This innovation created new artistic possibilities.

The earliest appearance appears to have been a barrel vault, sometimes with supporting arches in the main nave. Its expansion was removed not only by massive walls, but also by creot vaults in the side naves. Since the architects of the early period did not have experience and confidence in their abilities, the middle nave was built narrow and relatively low; They also did not dare to weaken the walls with wide window openings. This is why early Romanesque churches are dark inside.

Over time, the middle naves began to be made higher, the vaults acquired slightly pointed outlines, and a tier of windows appeared under the vaults. This probably happened for the first time in the buildings of the Cluny school in Burgundy.

Cluny Abbey Church

With the disappearance of the rationalistic foundations of the ancient worldview, the order system loses its significance, although the name of the new style comes from the word “romus” - Roman, since the basis of the architectural design here is the Roman semicircular arched cell.

However, instead of the tectonics of the order in Romanesque architecture, the main one becomes the tectonics of a powerful wall - the most important constructive and artistic-expressive means. This architecture is based on the principle of connecting separate closed and independent volumes, subordinate, but also clearly demarcated, each of which is a small fortress itself. These are structures with heavy vaults, heavy towers, cut through by narrow loophole windows, and massive projections of hewn stone walls. They clearly capture the idea of ​​self-defense and unapproachable power, which is quite understandable during the period of feudal fragmentation of the principalities of Europe, the isolation of economic life, the lack of trade and economic-cultural ties, during times of continuous feudal strife and wars.

The interior of many Romanesque churches is characterized by a clear division of the wall of the middle nave into three tiers. The first tier is occupied by semicircular arches separating the main nave from the side ones. The surface of the wall stretches above the arches, providing sufficient space for painting or a decorative arcade on columns - the so-called trifornia. Finally, windows form the top tier. Since the windows usually had a semi-circular completion, the side wall of the middle nave consisted of three tiers of arcades (nave arches, triforium arches, window arches), given in a clear rhythmic alternation and precisely calculated scale relationships. The squat arches of the nave were replaced by a more slender arcade of the triforium, and that, in turn, by sparsely spaced arches of high windows.

Division of the wall of the middle nave in churches: St. Michaelskirche in Hildeisheim (Germany, 1010 - 1250), Notre Dame in Jumiège (France, 1018 - 1067), as well as the Cathedral in Worms (Germany, 1170-1240)

Cathedral in Mainz, Germany

Often the second tier is formed not by a triforium, but by arches of the so-called emporae, i.e. opening into the main nave of the gallery, located above the arches of the side naves. The light into the emporas came either from the central nave, or, more often, from the windows in the outer walls of the side nave, to which the emporas were adjacent.

The visual impression of the interior space of Romanesque churches was determined by simple and clear numerical relationships between the width of the main and side naves. In some cases, architects sought to evoke an exaggerated idea of ​​the scale of the interior by artificially reducing the perspective: they reduced the width of the arched spans as they moved away towards the eastern part of the church (for example, in the Church of Saint Trophime in Arles). Sometimes the arches were reduced in height.

The appearance of Romanesque churches is characterized by massiveness and geometric architectural forms (parallelepiped, cylinder, semi-cylinder, cone, pyramid). The walls strictly isolate the interior space from the environment. At the same time, one can always notice the efforts of the architects to express the internal structure of the church more truthfully in the external appearance; from the outside, not only the different heights of the main and side naves are usually clearly distinguished, but also the division of space into separate cells. Thus, the abutment pillars dividing the interior of the naves correspond to buttresses attached to the outer walls. The stern truthfulness and clarity of architectural forms, the pathos of their unshakable stability constitute the main artistic merit of Romanesque architecture.

Abbey Maria Laach, Germany

Romanesque buildings were mainly covered with tiles, known to the Romans and convenient in areas with rainy climates. The thickness and strength of the walls were the main criteria for the beauty of the building. The harsh masonry of hewn stones created a somewhat “gloomy” image, but was decorated with interspersed bricks or small stones of a different color. The windows were not glazed, but covered with carved stone bars; the window openings were small and rose high above the ground, so the rooms in the building were very dark. Stone carvings decorated the outer walls of cathedrals. It consisted of floral ornaments, images of fairy-tale monsters, exotic animals, beasts, birds - motifs also brought from the East. The inside walls of the cathedral were completely covered with paintings, which, however, have hardly survived to this day. Marble mosaic inlay was also used to decorate apses and altars, the technique of which has been preserved since antiquity.

V. Vlasov writes that Romanesque art “is characterized by the absence of any specific program in the placement of decorative motifs: geometric, “animal”, biblical - they are interspersed in the most bizarre way. Sphinxes, centaurs, griffins, lions and harpies live peacefully side by side Most experts believe that all this phantasmagoric fauna is devoid of the symbolic meaning that is often attributed to them, and is predominantly decorative in nature.

Church of San Isidoro. Tomb of the Kings. Around 1063 - 1100 Leon. Spain.

Framing the altar image

Image of Christ from the Church of St. Clement in Taul. Around 1123

So, in the XI-XII centuries. At the same time, monumental painting developed in architecture and in close connection with it, and monumental sculpture was revived after several centuries of almost complete oblivion. The fine arts of the Romanesque period were almost completely subordinated to a religious worldview. Hence its symbolic character, conventionality of techniques and stylization of forms. In the depiction of the human figure, proportions were often violated, the folds of clothes were interpreted arbitrarily, regardless of the actual plasticity of the body. However, both in painting and in sculpture, along with an emphatically flat decorative perception of the figure, images in which masters conveyed the material weight and volume of the human body became widespread, albeit in schematic and conventional forms. The figures of a typically Romanesque composition are in a space devoid of depth; there is no feeling of distance between them. Their different scales are striking, and the sizes depend on the hierarchical significance of who is depicted: for example, the figures of Christ are much taller than the figures of angels and apostles; those, in turn, are larger than the images of mere mortals. In addition, the interpretation of the figures is directly dependent on the divisions and forms of the architecture itself. The figures placed in the middle of the tympanum are larger than those in the corners; statues on friezes are usually squat, while statues located on pillars and columns have elongated proportions. This adaptation of body proportions, while promoting greater unity of architecture, sculpture and painting, at the same time limited the figurative possibilities of art. Therefore, in plots of a narrative nature, the story was limited to only the most essential. The relationship between the characters and the scene of action is not designed to create a real image, but to schematically designate individual episodes, the rapprochement and comparison of which are partly of a symbolic nature. In accordance with this, episodes from different times were placed side by side, often in the same composition, and the location of the action was given conditionally. Romanesque art is characterized by sometimes rough, but always sharp expressiveness. These characteristic features of Romanesque fine art often led to an exaggeration of gesture. But within the framework of the medieval conventions of art, correctly captured living details unexpectedly appeared - a peculiar turn of the figure, a characteristic type of face, sometimes an everyday motif. In the secondary parts of the composition, where the requirements of iconography did not constrain the artist’s initiative, there are quite a lot of such naive realistic details. However, these direct manifestations of realism are of a private nature. Basically, the art of the Romanesque period is dominated by a love for everything fantastic, often gloomy and monstrous. It is also manifested in the choice of subjects, for example, in the prevalence of scenes borrowed from the cycle of tragic visions of the Apocalypse.

Monastery church in Fontevraud. Sculptural tombstone of Richard the Lionheart and Aleanor of Aquitaine

Lion hugging a lamb

Monkey

In the field of monumental painting, fresco prevailed everywhere, with the exception of Italy, where the traditions of mosaic art were preserved. Book miniatures, distinguished by their high decorative qualities, were widespread. Sculpture, especially relief, occupied an important place. The main material for sculpture was stone; in Central Europe, mainly local sandstone; in Italy and some other southern regions, marble. Bronze casting and wood sculpture were also used, but not everywhere. Works made of wood and stone, not excluding monumental sculpture on church facades, were usually painted. It is quite difficult to judge the nature of the coloring due to the scarcity of sources and the almost complete disappearance of the original coloring of the surviving monuments.

Church of St. Apostles of San Miniato al Monte in Florence. Altar. 1013 - 1063

During the Romanesque period, ornamental art with an extraordinary wealth of motifs played an exceptional role. Its sources are very diverse: the heritage of the “barbarians,” antiquity, Byzantium, Iran and even the Far East. Imported items of applied art and miniatures served as vehicles for the borrowed forms. Images of all kinds of fantastic creatures were especially loved. In the anxiety of the style and the dynamism of the forms of this art, the remnants of folk ideas of the era of “barbarism” with its primitive worldview are clearly felt. However, during the Romanesque period, these motifs seemed to dissolve in the greatest solemnity of the architectural whole.

Sculptural details

The art of sculpture and painting was associated with art book miniature, which flourished in the Romanesque era.

Scene from the life of Jesus, 12th century. Italy

Baptism of Christ. Miniature of Benedicional Æthelwold. 973-980

V. Vlasov believes that it is incorrect to consider Romanesque art as a “purely Western style.” Connoisseurs such as E. Viollet-le-Duc saw strong Asian, Byzantine and Persian influences in Romanesque art. The very formulation of the question “West or East” in relation to the Romanesque era is incorrect. In the preparation of pan-European medieval art, the beginning of which was early Christian, continuation - Romanesque and highest rise - Gothic art, the main role was played by Greco-Celtic origins, Romanesque, Byzantine, Greek, Persian and Slavic elements. "The development of Romanesque art received new impulses during the reign of Charlemagne (768-814) and in connection with the founding of the Holy Roman Empire in 962 by Otto I (936-973).

Architects, painters, and sculptors revived the traditions of the ancient Romans, receiving education in monasteries, where the traditions of ancient culture were carefully preserved for centuries.

Artistic skills developed intensively in cities and monasteries. Vessels, lamps, stained glass windows were made from glass - colored and colorless, the geometric pattern of which was created by lead lintels, but the flowering of stained glass art would occur later, in the era of the Gothic style.

Baptism

Stained glass "St. George"

Ivory carving was popular; caskets, caskets, and covers for handwritten books were made using this technique. The technique of champlevé enamel on copper and gold developed.

Ivory. Around 1180

Wood carving

Jewelry from the Romanesque period.

Romanesque art is characterized by the widespread use of iron and bronze, from which grilles, fences, locks, figured hinges, etc. were made. Doors with reliefs were cast and minted from bronze. The furniture, extremely simple in design, was decorated with carvings of geometric shapes: round rosettes, semicircular arches, and the furniture was painted with bright colors. The semicircular arch motif is typical of Romanesque art; in the Gothic era it will be replaced by a pointed, pointed form.

From the 11th century The production of woven carpets - trellises - begins. The ornamentation of the fabrics is associated with eastern influences from the era of the Crusades.

Carpet from Bayeux Cathedral. Battle. Around 1080

Monasteries and churches remained the cultural centers of this era. The Christian religious idea was embodied in religious architecture. The temple, which had the shape of a cross in its plan, symbolized the way of the cross of Christ - the path of suffering and redemption. Each part of the building was assigned a special meaning, for example, the pillars and columns supporting the vault symbolized the apostles and prophets - the support of Christian teaching.

Gradually the service became more and more magnificent and solemn. Over time, architects changed the design of the temple: they began to enlarge the eastern part of the temple, in which the altar was located. In the apse - the altar ledge - there was usually an image of Christ or the Mother of God, below were images of angels, apostles, and saints. On the western wall there were scenes of the Last Judgment. The lower part of the wall was usually decorated with ornaments.

Romanesque art was most consistently formed in France - in Burgundy, Auvergne, Provence and Normandy.

The Church of St. Peter and St. Paul in the monastery of Cluny (1088-1131) is a typical example of French Romanesque architecture. Small fragments of this building have survived. This monastery was called the “second Rome”. It was the largest church in Europe. The length of the temple was one hundred twenty-seven meters, the height of the central nave was over thirty meters. Five towers crowned the temple. To maintain such a majestic shape and size of the building, special supports are introduced at the outer walls - buttresses.

Church of St. Peter and St. Paul in the monastery of Cluny (1088-1131)

Norman churches are also devoid of decoration, but, unlike the Burgundian ones, they have a single-nave transept. They have well-lit naves and high towers, and their general appearance is more reminiscent of fortresses than churches.

In the architecture of Germany at that time, a special type of church emerged - majestic and massive. This is the cathedral in Speyer (1030 - between 1092 and 1106), one of the largest in Western Europe, a vivid symbol of the Ottonian Empire.

Cathedral of Speyer (1030 - between 1092 and 1106)

Fragment of the decor of the Cathedral in Speyer

Plan of the Cathedral in Speyer

Feudalism developed in Germany later than in France; its development was longer and deeper. The same can be said about German art. The first Romanesque cathedrals, like fortresses, with smooth walls and narrow windows, with squat conical towers at the corners of the western facade and apses on both the eastern and western sides, they had a stern, forbidding appearance. Only arcature belts under the cornices decorated the smooth facades and towers (Worms Cathedral, 1181-1234). Worms Cathedral is a powerful dominant feature of the longitudinal body, likening the temple to a ship. The side naves are below the central one, the transept crosses the longitudinal body, there is a massive tower above the middle cross, and a semicircle of the apse closes the temple from the east. There is nothing superfluous, destructive, veiling the architectonic logic.

The architectural decor is very restrained - just arcatures emphasizing the main lines.

But, “entering the Romanesque temple, we discover a world of strange, exciting images; before us are as if the sheets of a stone book, capturing the soul of the Middle Ages.”

Cathedral of Worms

Romanesque art is often called the "animal style". “The Roman God is not the Almighty hovering over the world, but a judge and protector. He is active; he judges his vassals harshly, but also protects them, he tramples monsters under his feet and establishes the law of justice in a world of lawlessness and arbitrariness. All this in an era of fragmentation, continuous bloody civil strife.

Romanesque art seems rough and wild when compared with the sophistication of the Byzantines, but it is a style of great nobility." The statues of Chartres Cathedral are mature, beautiful images, already bordering on the Gothic.

Chartres Cathedral

Chartres Cathedral. Apse and chapels

Chartres Cathedral statues

Chartres Cathedral. View of the altar

Romanesque churches are similar to churches of the Ottonian period, i.e. early Romanesque, but have a structural difference - cross vaults.

During the Romanesque period in Germany, sculpture was placed inside temples. It is found on facades only at the end of the 12th century. These are mainly wooden painted crucifixes, decorations of lamps, fonts, and tombstones. The images seem detached from earthly existence; they are conventional and generalized.

During the Romanesque period, book miniatures developed rapidly. Favorite images in manuscripts of the 10th - 11th centuries were images of a ruler on a throne surrounded by symbols of power ("Gospel of Otto III", circa 1000, Munich Library).

Gospel of Emperor Otto III. Emperor on the throne

Romanesque art in Italy developed differently. There is always a sense of connection with Ancient Rome that is “unbreakable” even in the Middle Ages.

Since the main force of historical development in Italy was cities, and not churches, secular tendencies are stronger in its culture than in other peoples. The connection with antiquity was expressed not only in the copying of ancient forms, it was in a strong internal relationship with the images of ancient art. Hence “the sense of proportion and proportionality to man in Italian architecture, naturalness and vitality combined with the nobility and grandeur of beauty in Italian sculpture and painting.”

Among the outstanding works of architecture of Central Italy is the famous complex in Pisa: the cathedral, the tower, the baptistery. It was created over a long period of time (in the 11th century it was built by the architect Buschetto, in the 12th century. - architect Rainaldo). The most famous part of the complex is the famous Leaning Tower of Pisa. Some researchers suggest that the tower tilted as a result of subsidence of the foundation at the very beginning of work, and then it was decided to leave it inclined.

Cathedral and tower, Pisa

Pisa. Baptistery

Cathedral, Pisa

The Cathedral of Santa Maria Nuova (1174-1189) shows a strong influence not only of Byzantium and the East, but also of Western architecture.

Cathedral of Santa Maria Nuova, Montreal

Interior of the Cathedral of Santa Maria Nuova, Montreal

English architecture of the Romanesque period has much in common with French architecture: large sizes, high central naves, and an abundance of towers. The conquest of England by the Normans in 1066 strengthened its ties with the continent, which influenced the formation of the Romanesque style in the country. Examples of this are the cathedrals in St. Albans (1077-1090), Peterborough (12th century) and others.

St Albans Cathedral

St Albans Cathedral

Fresco from St Albans Cathedral

Peterborough Cathedral

Sculptures from Peterborough Cathedral

Stained glass windows of Peterborough Cathedral

From the 12th century In English churches, ribbed vaults appear, which, however, still have a purely decorative meaning. The large number of clergy involved in English worship also brings to life specific English features: the increase in the length of the interior of the temple and the shift of the transept to the middle, which led to the accentuation of the tower of the central crossroads, always larger than the towers of the western facade. Most Romanesque English churches were rebuilt during the Gothic period, and therefore it is extremely difficult to judge their early appearance.

Romanesque art in Spain developed under the influence of Arab and French culture. XI-XII centuries for Spain it was the time of the Reconquista - a time of civil strife and fierce religious battles. The harsh fortress character of Spanish architecture was formed in the conditions of incessant wars with the Arabs, the Reconquista - the war for the liberation of the territory of the country captured in 711 -718. The war left a strong imprint on all the art of Spain at that time, first of all this was reflected in architecture.

Like no other country in Western Europe, the construction of castle-fortresses began in Spain. One of the earliest castles of the Romanesque period is the royal palace of the Alcazar (9th century, Segovia). It has survived to this day. The palace stands on a high cliff, surrounded by thick walls with many towers. At that time, cities were built in a similar way.

Royal Alcazar Palace. Spain

Royal Alcazar Palace. Girls' courtyard

Frieze with kings in the Royal Hall of the Alcazar

Inner courtyard of the Royal Alcazar Castle

In the religious buildings of Spain of the Romanesque period there are almost no sculptural decorations. Temples look like impregnable fortresses. Monumental painting - frescoes - played a major role: paintings were done in bright colors with a clear contour pattern. The images were very expressive. Sculpture appeared in Spain in the 11th century. These were decorations of capitals, columns, doors.

The 12th century is the “golden” age of Romanesque art, which spread throughout Europe. But many artistic solutions of the new, Gothic era were already emerging in it. Northern France was the first to take this path.

European culture X-XIV centuries. still amazes researchers with its achievements in the field of art. The Gothic and Romanesque styles had a tremendous influence not only on medieval architecture. Their features can be traced in painting, literature, sculpture, music and even fashion of that distant era.

The Romanesque style, which became the first significant cultural phenomenon of the feudal era, lasted from the end of the 10th to the 12th centuries. It was formed in a difficult time, when Europe fell apart into small feudal states that were at war with each other. Almost all types of art, some to a greater extent, others to a lesser extent, were influenced by the Romanesque style, which became a natural stage in the evolution of medieval European culture.

Between Antiquity and Modern Times

From the moment that in 476 Odoacer, the leader of one of the Germanic tribes, overthrew the last Western Roman emperor Romulus Augustulus, historians traditionally begin counting the next era - the Middle Ages. It is generally accepted that this period ended at the end of the 15th century, when Europeans began to discover and actively explore new continents.

The name “Middle Ages” was coined by Italian humanists in the 15th century. They believed that the time was coming for the revival of ancient culture, knowledge, traditions and values ​​that had been forgotten for a thousand years. Humanists were confident that nothing worthwhile had happened since the fall of Rome, that it was a dark period of decadence and barbarism. Therefore, with a fair amount of condescension, they called the past millennium the Middle Ages - the interval between Antiquity and the emerging Modern Age.

The humanists were partly right: once prosperous cities and good roads fell into disrepair, and ancient culture was practically forgotten. Religious fanatics deliberately destroyed her legacy. But on the other hand, the Middle Ages had a significant influence on the development of human culture. It was during this period that modern European languages ​​were formed, universities were opened, works were written that still excite us, many cities and majestic cathedrals were built, and a new style in art was born - Romanesque.

Spiritual activity also increased: pilgrimage became widespread. Along the roads of Europe, thousands of people went to monasteries to venerate relics and relics.

origin of name

It is no coincidence that the new direction in culture was called the Romanesque style, since it was based on techniques developed in Ancient Rome. Of course, it had no direct relation to pagan culture; on the contrary, the new style was completely formed on the basis of Christian doctrine. Nevertheless, much of it was reminiscent of Antiquity: monumental buildings were built, the same aesthetic standards that the architects of Rome adhered to were observed. For example, there were no small details, excessive decoration, and the emphasis in the buildings was on strong masonry. The Romanesque style became pan-European in the Middle Ages; its canons were adhered to in all countries of the continent, including Ancient Rus'.

Main features

The new direction in art completely rejected the stock of decorative and ornamental means characteristic of ancient architecture and the proportional forms inherent in it. What little was preserved was coarsened and changed.

Art critics include the following features of the Romanesque style:

• its emotional beginning, psychologism;
• the unity of various types of arts, among which architecture occupied a leading place;
• theocentrism (God at the center of everything);
• religious nature of art;
• impersonality (it was believed that the hand of the master was guided by God, so we almost do not know the names of medieval creators).

The stylistic features of romance are:

• huge buildings built entirely of stone;
• semicircular vaulted arch;
• massive and thick walls;
• reliefs;
• planar, non-volumetric images;
• sculpture and painting were subordinated to architecture and were used in temples and monasteries.

The main architectural structures of the Romanesque style:

1. Feudal castle. Usually it was located on a hill, convenient for observation and defense. A quadrangular or round tower, the donjon, formed the core of the fortress.
2. Temple. It was built in the tradition of a basilica. It was a longitudinal room with three (less often five) naves.
3. A monastery complex characterized by narrow windows and thick walls.

And the medieval cities themselves, with a market square in the center where the cathedral was built, looked more like fortresses surrounded by massive walls.

Romanesque style in the architecture of the Middle Ages

XI-XIII centuries - this is the time of brilliant flowering of European art. Knight's castles and royal palaces, bridges and city halls were erected. The development of architecture in the Middle Ages, as well as other areas of social life of this period, was greatly influenced by Christianity. After the fall of the Roman Empire, state borders and rulers changed, only the powerful Christian Church remained steadfast. To strengthen her influence, she resorted to special methods. One of them was the construction of majestic temples in the central squares of cities. It was sometimes the only tall stone building that was noticeable from afar.

As already mentioned, the architectural style that dominated Europe in the 11th-12th centuries (and in some countries in the 13th) was called Romanesque from the Latin word Roma (Rome), since the masters of that time used some ancient Roman construction techniques. In the West, the basilica has been preserved, unlike Byzantium, where it eventually gave way to a cross-domed church. True, its forms have become more complex and improved. Thus, the size of the eastern part of the church increased, and under its floor there was a crypt - a secret room. Holy relics were kept here and church ministers were buried here.

All Romanesque buildings, whether basilicas or castles, had similar features:

• monumentality;
• poorly articulated forms;
• the harsh serf-like nature of the architecture;
• the predominance of straight lines (the only exceptions were semicircular arches).

At busy road intersections

Of course, in the 11th-12th centuries the leading role belonged to church architecture. By that time, the pontificate had concentrated incredible wealth in its hands, part of which was used for the construction of churches and monasteries. During the same period, the number of pilgrims increased unusually, so the old Romanesque basilicas, located on the most crowded routes, could no longer accommodate all the pilgrims. For this reason, the construction of temples is beginning to experience a real boom. After about the year 1000, dozens of basilicas were built in a short time, especially in Italy and France. European peoples competed with each other, trying to surpass the decoration and size of their temples.

However, the first Romanesque churches were not distinguished by grace; they were relatively low and massive. The windows were small and the walls were thick, since the temple was primarily considered as a place of refuge, both spiritual and physical (during sieges). The masonry of the walls reached 3, and sometimes up to 5 meters in thickness.

Decoration was rarely used in the design of the church facade; the external decoration was very modest, with a few sculptural elements. All attention was focused on the interior decor. The interior was decorated in large quantities with frescoes (paintings on wet plaster), reliefs and sculptures inherited from the ancient world. This tradition actively developed in the Middle Ages, becoming one of the characteristic features of the Romanesque style.

What were basilicas?

These were three- or five-nave rectangular structures. Initially, the central nave had a wooden ceiling, but over time they learned to cover it with stone vaults. However, their pressure could only be withstood by the extremely powerful walls and pillars that separated the naves. Narrow, loophole-like windows gave the walls additional security. Therefore, externally, Romanesque churches often resembled fortresses, but inside them there was twilight.

Powerful towers, which rose both at the intersection of the transept and the main nave, and at the eastern wall and at the corners of the western facade, only strengthened the resemblance of the basilica to a fortress. In addition, this gave severity, majesty and even severity to the external appearance of the temple. During wars, Romanesque basilicas served as a safe haven, along with fortresses.

The abundance of semicircular arches is another remarkable feature of the Romanesque style. They were used not only in doors and windows, but also in the design of facades and interiors.

The western part of the Romanesque basilica was decorated extremely lavishly. This served two purposes: to attract believers and to intimidate those who lead unrighteous lives. Therefore, the subjects for the church tympanums (a recessed niche above the entrance, framed by an arch) were chosen accordingly.

The Abbey Church of Cluny is a wonderful example of Romanesque temple architecture. Moreover, the techniques used for its construction had a significant influence on medieval craftsmen.

Features of the Romanesque style in ancient Russian architecture

Vladimir-Suzdal Rus' was famous for its white stone architecture. The construction of Orthodox churches reached its peak under Andrei Bogolyubsky. The prince invited German masters, who enriched Russian architecture with techniques of Western European Romanesque architecture. Since those times, the Golden Gate in Vladimir, which was once part of the city wall, has been preserved to this day. Another example of the Romanesque style is the Assumption Church. Next door to it in Vladimir, the Dmitrievsky Cathedral was later erected, distinguished by the wealth of white stone carvings and beautiful frescoes.

Knight's castles

The Romanesque style in the Middle Ages was reflected in the construction of fortresses. Period XI-XII centuries. - this is the time of development and formation of feudal relations. Until the second half of the 10th century, castles were built of wood on natural hills or mounds. Later, such fortresses began to be built in accordance with Romanesque traditions and according to special rules. They had special watchtowers, the main one of which was the donjon. The only entrance was from inside the castle complex. The furniture matched the premises: massive, functional, minimally decorated, in a word, fully consistent with the prevailing Romanesque style.

The fortifications had their own small church, a prison and many storage facilities that made it possible to withstand long sieges.

A good example of a castle in the Romanesque style is the Conwy Fortress (Wales, UK). It is one of the largest surviving medieval fortresses. The castle was erected by order of Edward the First at the end of the 13th century. Conwy is surrounded by 8 cylindrical towers, into which the sun almost never peeks, and massive defensive walls. Their stonework has remained virtually intact for 800 years, although the fortress was repeatedly sieged. The king spent a fabulous sum on its construction - 15 thousand pounds sterling, which at modern exchange rates is 193 million euros. Conwy Castle, whose grounds are divided into an outer and inner courtyard, was built on a hill and was considered impregnable. To protect the fortress walls from possible undermining, they were erected on solid rocky rock.

art

Until the 10th century, there were practically no images of humans in European painting. It was replete with plant, animal and geometric patterns. But with the emergence of the Romanesque style, ornamental art was replaced by the image of a person: saints and biblical characters. Of course, this was still a conditional reproduction, but it undoubtedly marked a big step forward.

In the decoration of Romanesque churches, a large place was given to frescoes and stained glass windows. The walls, vaults, columns and capitals of the basilicas were painted with multi-colored bright frescoes. Such churches were “inhabited” by a large number of fantastic creatures carved in stone. Medieval sculptors borrowed them from the pagan past of the Germanic and Celtic tribes.

Unfortunately, only a small part of monumental painting in the Romanesque style has survived to this day. Such examples are the frescoes of the monastery churches of Santa Maria de Igacel (Spain) and Saint-Savin-sur-Gartampes (France).

In the latter case, we are talking about a large cycle of paintings that occupy the entire space of the vault, on which various biblical scenes are succinctly depicted. Figures outlined with a bright outline clearly appear against a light background.

Secular decorative and applied art can be judged by the embroidered tapestry from Bayeux. Episodes of the conquest of England by the Norman knights in 1066 are woven on a long strip of carpet.

In addition to frescoes, book miniatures, distinguished by their splendor and colorfulness, became widespread in the Romanesque era. The monasteries had special workshops - scriptoria, where manuscripts were copied and decorated. Book miniatures of that period sought to be narrative. The image, like the text, was divided into paragraphs - visual units of the story. However, there were illustrations that were independent in nature and reflected the essence of the story. Or the artists wrote the text into the strict geometric shapes of the drawing. The miniatures used to illustrate historical chronicles were very diverse.

Heroic epic

The Romanesque style in art also manifested itself in literature. Several new genres emerged, each of which corresponded to the lifestyle, requirements and level of education of a particular class. Christian literature, of course, was most widely distributed. In addition to the Bible, religious treatises and the teachings of the Church Fathers, which were read mainly by theologians, biographies of canonized laymen and clergy were popular.

In addition to church literature, secular literature also developed. It is noteworthy that her best works continue to be read even in our age of high technology. The Romanesque era is the heyday of the heroic epic. It arose on the basis of folk songs and tales about the exploits of fearless heroes who fought dragons, sorcerers, and villains. were not intended to be read, but to be performed aloud, often to the accompaniment of musical instruments (viol or harp). For this reason, most of them are written in poetic form. The most famous epic works of that era include:

• "The Elder Edda", a collection of ancient Icelandic sagas in which mythology and Christianity are intricately intertwined.
• "The Song of the Nibelungs", telling about the fate of the German knight Siegfried.
• Beowulf, an ancient Anglo-Saxon epic, tells the story of a brave dragon fighter.

Over time, the heroes of the epics became not mythical, but real personalities, and the works themselves began to tell about events that took place in reality. Such historical epic poems include the Spanish “Song of Cid” and the French “Song of Roland”. The latter tells the story of Charlemagne's campaign in the Basque country and the death of Count Roland, who, together with his detachment, covered the retreat of the royal army through the Pyrenees.

Linear mill

For the musical art of the 11th-12th centuries, its division into secular and church music was of great importance. In this era, for all Western European countries, the organ became a recognized temple instrument, and the Latin language became a unified form of liturgical singing. Christian music, the creators of which were mainly French and Italian monks, played a huge role in creating the foundations of the professional musical culture of Europe.

The main milestone in the history of this art was the innovation made by Guido from Arezzo. This Italian monk, who taught singing to boys, developed the principles of musical notation that are still used today. Before him, sounds were recorded using neumas, square notes. However, using them, it was not possible to clearly depict the pitch of the sound. Guido of Arezzo placed the tunes on a 4-note linear stave, thereby solving the problem.

The Romanesque style that was dominant in Europe also influenced choreography. Bassdans is a medieval dance performed to the singing of dancers or to the accompaniment of musical instruments. It resembled more a solemn procession than a dance. Bassdans, ponderous and majestic like castles and temples, was a reflection of the Romanesque period in European art.

Chisel and stone

Better examples of the Romanesque architectural style represented a unity of architecture, sculpture and painting. Already from a distance, going to worship, believers saw the external sculptural design of the facade of the temple. They went inside through the main portal - an entrance richly decorated with stone carvings, located on the western side of the building. Its massive bronze gates were often decorated with reliefs depicting biblical scenes.

Inside the temple, the believer walked to the altar past vaults, columns, capitals, walls, also decorated with stone carvings and frescoes. The images were based on scenes from the Holy Scriptures, but the main figure always remained the figure of God Almighty, merciless towards unrepentant sinners and triumphant over enemies. This is exactly how the people of the Middle Ages imagined the Creator. It is no coincidence that churches built in the Romanesque style were called the “Bible in stone.”

In sculpture of that period, as in painting, the role of the human figure in the decorative and ornamental composition was strengthened. However, monumental sculpture, inherited from Antiquity, was completely subordinated to architectural forms. Therefore, a huge role in decorating basilicas was given to stone sculpture, usually created against the background of reliefs. As a rule, they decorated not only the interior, but also the outer walls of basilicas. In friezes - decorative compositions, figures of squat proportions predominated, and on pillars and columns - elongated ones.

Features of sculpting

In addition, sculptural reliefs were located above the main portal. Most often it was an image of the Last Judgment. Probably the most famous is the scene decorating the entrance of the Cathedral of Saint-Lazare in the city of Autun (Burgundy). This is a rare case when the name of the master who created the relief has come down to us - Gislebert.

In the center of the image is the figure of Christ administering judgment. On his right hand stand the jubilant righteous, on his left - trembling sinners. The most remarkable thing about this relief is the variety of human feelings. Fear or hope are reflected in movements, poses and faces. The main thing for the master was not to create believable figures, but to depict the whole gamut of experienced feelings.

In each country, sculpture had its own national characteristics. For example, in Germany, unlike France, the facades and external walls of churches were almost not decorated. German Romanesque sculpture is strict and ascetic, severe and quite abstract. An example of this is the Laach Abbey Church of St. Mary.

The sculptural decoration of Romanesque churches revealed not only a love for the spiritual, but also for the extraordinary and fantastic. Here you can see stone ornaments of rare beauty and complexity: centaurs, winged dragons, monkeys playing chess, etc. Figures of fairy-tale creatures, borrowed from the traditions of Germanic tribes, often decorated the facades and capitals of columns of Romanesque basilicas.

"French style"

The Romanesque style and the Gothic style, which replaced it in the 13th century, left a huge imprint on the development of European culture in the Middle Ages. If Romanesque was a combination of severity and monumentality (no fantasies, only clear geometry and a prayerful mood), then Gothic was distinguished by lightness and sublimity.

It originated in the 12th century. in northern France, and then spread across almost the entire continent: from Portugal to Lithuania. At that time it was called the “French style”, and later the new direction was called “Gothic”. In many ways, the architecture of the Gothic cathedral preserved the traditions of the Romanesque style. Almost all of its elements remained, but in a changed form: instead of thick pillars, thin bunches of graceful columns appeared, semicircular arches stretched upward, small windows became huge, filling the temple with light.

Afterword

The first personal achievement of the European peoples, different from ancient art, was, of course, the Romanesque style. Photos of medieval temples, sculptures, and book miniatures serve as indisputable proof that this period marked a significant cultural step forward.