The Constitution of 1936, according to the intention of the authors, was to reflect an important stage in the history of the Soviet state - the construction of socialism. (The main author of the text of the constitution was N. I. Bukharin). In the autumn of 1935, the Central Executive Committee of the USSR created a Constitutional Commission chaired by I.V. Stalin and 12 subcommittees.

For the first time, a nationwide discussion of the Constitution was organized. On June 12, 1936, the draft Constitution was published and discussed for six months at all levels - from meetings of workers at enterprises to republican congresses of Soviets. Reading to employees of the "Export" Stalin's report on the Constitution. Kimry, 1936.

75 million people took part in the discussion. - more than half of the adult population; 2.5 million proposals, additions, amendments were made. The editorial committee adopted 47 amendments and additions to more than 30 articles. Discussion of the draft Stalinist Constitution on the collective farm "Velikaya Krucha". Ukrainian SSR, Chukotka, discussion of the draft Stalinist Constitution by the population of one of the villages.

On December 5, 1936, the VIII Extraordinary Congress of Soviets adopted the Constitution. Students of the Leningrad Institute of Physical Culture discussing the Stalinist constitution

The constitution proclaimed that socialism in the USSR had won and had basically been built. This meant that the dictatorship of the proletariat had been established, private property and the exploiting classes had been abolished, and socialist relations of production had won. The planned socialist system of economy, based on socialist property in its two forms, state and collective-farm-cooperative, was proclaimed to be the economic basis. A group of students listens to a radio broadcast of Stalin's report on the Constitution. Tambov, December 1, 1936

Chapter X, dedicated to human rights and freedoms, has been introduced. In connection with the liquidation of the exploiting classes, universal, equal, direct suffrage by secret ballot has been introduced. The Constitution for the first time enshrined the principle of equality of citizens. The right to work and rest, material security in old age and illness, freedom of conscience, speech, press, meetings and rallies were declared. The inviolability of the person, the secrecy of correspondence were proclaimed. Powerful guarantees of the rights of citizens were announced.

Can the right to work be guaranteed by "the socialist organization of the national economy, the steady growth of the productive forces of Soviet society, the elimination of the possibility of economic crises and the elimination of unemployment" (Article 118)? Can freedom of speech be ensured by “providing the workers and their organizations with printing houses and supplies of paper” (Article 125)? What equality of rights is mentioned in the Constitution? (Art. 122, 123). Does the principle of equality apply to different social strata of society? Does the principle of equality apply to foreigners?

How do you feel about fixing the following duties in the Constitution: “obey the laws” “military service in the ranks of the Armed Forces of the USSR” “observe labor discipline” “preserve and strengthen public property” “honestly treat public duty” “respect the rules of socialist community life”

Read the memoirs of contemporaries and answer the question: “Were the rights and freedoms listed in the Constitution of 1936 respected?” The lesson was developed by: Andrey Borisovich Suslov, Director of the Center for Civic Education and Human Rights, Professor, Head. Department of Modern and Contemporary History of Russia, Perm State Pedagogical University, Doctor of History; Strinkevich Dmitry Sergeevich, methodologist at the Center for Civic Education and Human Rights.

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Sculptural masterpieces by Lorenzo Bernini

"The Ecstasy of Saint Teresa"

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The altar composition "The Ecstasy of St. Teresa" for the Roman Cathedral of Site Maria della Vittoria became a true masterpiece of Bernini's sculptural creativity. The composition reveals one of the episodes of the notes of the Spanish nun Teresa, who lived in the 16th century. and later canonized by the church. In her notes, she told how one day an angel appeared to her in a dream and pierced her heart with a golden arrow: “In the hand of an angel, I saw a long golden arrow with a fiery point; it seemed to me that he plunged it several times into my heart ... The pain was so strong that I could not help screaming, but at the same time I experienced such endless sweetness that ... let this pain last forever.

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Bernini was faced with the difficult task of depicting a supernatural phenomenon, so the sculptural group was conceived as a vision in a dream. The author managed to masterfully convey in marble the highest tension of the feelings of the heroine. The master hides the fulcrum of the figures from the viewer, he manages to imagine them floating in the clouds.

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The unreality of what is happening is emphasized by beams of rays in the background and swirling clouds, on which St. Teresa is reclining, powerlessly throwing her head back. Her eyelids are half-closed, as if she does not see the gentle and smiling angel that appeared before her. Suffering and pleasure are intertwined in her morbidly ecstatic appearance. The emotions of the heroine are brought to the extreme limit, to the point of frenzy, but at the same time, the viewer does not get the impression that her feelings are unnatural. The sculptor reinforced the effect of mystical vision with the light falling in the daytime through the yellow glass of the cathedral window.

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Yes, Bernini defeated marble, he really made it "flexible like wax." The fountains with which he decorated Rome belong to the best creations of Bernini. The most famous of them are the Triton Fountain (1637) and the Four Rivers Fountain (1648-1651) - a brilliant combination of expressive baroque plastic with bubbling and foaming water.

Lorenzo Bernini. Fountain of the Four Rivers. Fragment. 1648-1651 Rome

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baroque painting

The visual art of the Baroque is most vividly and expressively represented by decorative monumental painting, which captivated and dazzled contemporaries with its festive brilliance, intensity of passions, indomitable energy and dynamics. Lush compositions adorned the walls and ceilings (plafonds) of palaces and temples, country residences of the nobility and park pavilions.

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Hyacinth Rigaud. Portrait of Louis 14. 1701 Louvre. Paris.

The characteristic features of the Baroque were reflected in the genre of the ceremonial portrait. Artists saw their main task in conveying conflicting feelings and experiences, the subtlest psychological shades of the human soul.

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Not a single court painter of the late 17th - early 18th centuries. could not pass by the genre of ceremonial portrait. “They all created huge portraits depicted generational or full-length, where the viewer entered the realm of lush curtains and solemn columns, iridescent silk, heavy velvet, embroidered gold brocade, heaping folds, immense mantles, giant wigs and whipped like foam, lace, the brilliance of decorative armor, order chains, stars, ribbons, the radiance of precious stones, self-confident faces and poses, pointing fingers, wands, scepters, attributes of power, rank, title, heaped up in such abundance that one begins to feel dizzy from them ... It was a luxurious theater of power, which has reached complete self-intoxication and has completely forgotten how to distinguish the visible from the real, the ostentatious from the real, or rather, believing only one desired, flattering appearance ”(V. N. Prokofiev)

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How much pomposity and narcissism in the portrait of Louis XIV, made by the French artist Hyacinthe Rigaud (1659-1743)! The theatricality and pretentiousness of the pose, the arrogant and condescending look of the "sun king", the excessive luxury of attire, the wealth of solemn draperies and attributes of royal power are striking. The painting, originally intended as a gift for the nephew of the Spanish king, was so liked by the customer that he wished to keep the original. A copy was sent to Spain.

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Rubens - the king of painting

Rubens, or rather Rubens (Rubens) Peter Powell (1577-1640), Flemish painter. Since 1589 he lived in Antwerp, where he received a comprehensive liberal arts education. Having early devoted himself to painting, he studied (since 1591) with T. Verhacht, A. van Noort, O. Venius (van Ven). In 1600-1608, Rubens visited Italy, where he studied the works of Michelangelo, the painters of the Venetian school, the Carracci brothers, Caravaggio. Returning to Antwerp, Rubens took the place of the chief court painter of the ruler of Flanders, Infanta Isabella of Austria. Already in his first paintings after his return, the desire to rework Italian impressions in the spirit of national artistic traditions was manifested.

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Peter Powell Rubens (1577-1640) is one of the world's foremost artists. One of the biographers wrote about the significance of his work: "The history of art does not know a single example of such a universal talent, such a powerful influence, such an indisputable, absolute authority, such a creative triumph."

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Peter Powell Rubens, Self-portrait with Isabella Brapt. 1609-1610 Alte Pinakothek, Munich

Look at his portrait and you will understand how talented this aspiring artist was. The handsome face of Rubens is calm and full of self-esteem. A fashionable, dapper suit with a wide lace collar, a hat with a high crown and a metal brooch, leather shoes with elegant garters emphasize his aristocracy and fine artistic taste. He sits with his young wife in an arbor, entwined with greenery and blooming honeysuckle. With an air of affectionate patronage, he leaned slightly towards his wife, his hand resting on his sword. Expressive eyes are turned directly to the viewer, their infinitely kind look is full of quiet and serene happiness. Two figures inclined towards each other, an eloquent gesture of joined hands symbolize inner harmony and love.

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Peter Paul Rubens. Battle of the Amazons with the Greeks. 1615-1619 Old Pina Koteka, Munich

Yes, it was a period of peace, work and quiet happiness in the artist's life. In 1609, Rubens was appointed court painter, and this, in turn, raised his prestige in society and opened the way to free creativity. There was no shortage of orders, the number of admirers of his talent was constantly growing. His customers were the French Queen Maria Medici, Princess Isabella of the Netherlands, Genoese merchants...

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Rubens had a colossal capacity for work. At six o'clock after morning mass, he would go to the workshop to his work table or easel, making dozens of sketches and drawings on paper or cardboard. Then he walked around the students who specialized in some elements of the picture, prescribed ready-made compositions, barely touching individual parts of the canvas with a brush. He created about one and a half thousand independent works and the same number in collaboration with students - an incredible figure for a person who lived only 63 years! A convincing commentary on Delacroix's words: "Rubens is God!"

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Peter Powell Rubens, Union of Earth and Water. 1618 State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg

In the allegorical painting “The Union of Earth and Water”, he glorifies the union of two natural elements, without which human life is impossible. The earth is personified by the mother of the gods Cybella, the water is the god of the seas Neptune. On the border of their possessions, they enter into an alliance, which is consecrated by the winged goddess Victoria, who places a golden crown on the head of Cybella. A newt trumpeting a greeting emerges from under the rock towards the viewer. Charming putti have fun and play in the streams of flowing water.

WORLD ART CULTURE: The concept, content and morphology of a multimedia complex for a comprehensive school. - St. Petersburg: Asterion, 2004. - 279 p.

5.2. Baroque era

5.2.1. general characteristics

The “Baroque era” is one of the most polemical historical and typological definitions of artistic culture. The various meanings invested in the concept of the Baroque era explain the various range of phenomena of artistic culture that falls within its framework, various chronological boundaries.

1. The style concept of the Baroque era. For her, the basic concept is style as a historically established stable community of figurative system, means and techniques of artistic expression, due to the unity of the ideological content (worldview). At the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. the concept of the Baroque era was formed as a complex of worldview foundations that nourished baroque style - one of the two great styles of modern art (G.Welfflin, B.R. Vipper, I.N. Golenishchev-Kutuzov, N. Brunov). The sociocultural background of the Baroque style was associated with the processes of the Counter-Reformation, with the ideology of secular and ecclesiastical power. In this case, simultaneously with the Baroque era there is an era of Classicism, the socio-cultural foundations of which are considered to be the authority of the ancient tradition, the formation of the philosophical systems of the New Age. In the artistic culture of the New Age, next to the baroque and classicism, there were other forms of artistic language called realism and extra-leftist phenomena with their own ideological foundations - the ideology of Protestantism and civil society, an apology for experience and scientific experiment.

From the standpoint of the stylistic concept of artistic space, it is incorrect to call the 17th century the Baroque era. In this case, it would be more correct to speak of era of great styles(as well as the equally great bring in leftist currents). Chronologically the era of great styles goes beyond the 17th century. Its historical time is the XVII-XVIII centuries. Researchers consider the second half of the 16th century to be the earliest boundary, linking the works of Michelangelo, Shakespeare, Cervantes, Monteverdi with the Baroque style. The upper limit of the era of great styles can be considered the first third of the 19th century. and style empire, the personification of which was the work of K. Rossi, J.-L. David.

Polystylistic artistic space is an important stage in the formation of a personal-creative type of culture, it is fundamentally different from the monostyle image of traditional culture and the transitional Renaissance. The very presence of several styles and artistic trends testifies to the multiplicity of ways of artistic expression and the awareness of the right of a creative person to choose a system of artistic means, the growing role of the author of a work of art in shaping the artistic picture of the world.

In the art of the Baroque style, ideas are expressed about the infinity of the world and the variability of matter, about the dramatic complexity, conflict of the universe. In baroque art a spiritual impulse and an earthly, sensual principle, the irrationality of a mystical impulse and a vivid sense of nature, the beauty of reality are combined. Baroque art is associated with active innovation in the field of artistic language and form. The Baroque style was born and flourished in Italy, spread in countries where the dominant social forces were the nobility and the Catholic Church (Spain, Flanders). By the 18th century, the Baroque stylistics covered the countries of Central and Eastern Europe, Latin America, where "ultra-baroque". Leading exponents of the Baroque style L. Bernini, F. Borromini, G. Guarini, P. da Cortona, P. Rubens, A. Van Dyck, F. Hals, Tiepolo are considered in the architectonic arts; in literature - J. Marino, E. Tesauro, B. Gracien, L. Gongora, T. de Molina, P. Calderon, J. La Fontaine; in music - A. Corelli, J. Frescobaldi, J. S. Bach, G. Handel, A. Vivaldi. baroque style important for characterizing the artistic culture of Russia since the end of the 17th century. until the 1760s Researchers distinguish historical and regional varieties of the Baroque style: "Naryshkin" Baroque, Peter the Great Baroque, Elizabethan Baroque, Metropolitan and Provincial Baroque, Ukrainian Baroque, Siberian Baroque. S. Polotsky, K. Rastrelli, F.-B. Rastrelli, S. I. Chevakinsky, D. Ukhtomsky, V. K. Trediakovsky, M. Lomonosov, D. Bortnyansky are considered to be exponents of the baroque style in Russian culture.

style system classicism associated with the desire to oppose the imperfect and contradictory reality of the ideal of a reasonable world order. Classicism interpreted as an artistic and aesthetic analogy of the rationalistic philosophy of R. Descartes, B. Spinoza, G. Leibniz. The art of classicism is associated with the cult of order, norms, systems of rules and authorities. France is considered the birthplace of classicism, the leading representatives in the architectonic arts are N. Poussin, C. Lorrain, C. Perrot, J.-F. Blondel, in literature F. d ​​"Aubignac, P. Corneille, N. Boileau, in music - J .-B. Lully. Researchers note that in the artistic culture of Western Europe in the 17th century, baroque and classicism were in a complex interweaving, which is why the largest monuments of artistic culture received stylistically ambiguous definitions. The palace and park complex in Versailles is defined as a monument of "baroque classicism", the dramaturgy of Racine and Moliere, the musical compositions of D. Frescobaldi and G. Purcell are equally attributed to the baroque and classicism.

Representatives of classicism in the artistic culture of Russia in the 18th - the first third of the 19th century: J.-B. F. Tolstoy, M. Kozlovsky, F. Gordeev. Stylistically ambiguous definitions were given to the works of M. Lomonosov, V. Trediakovsky, A. Sumarokov.

Realism in the artistic space of the 17th–18th centuries it is represented by the work of Dutch artists, later called the “Little Dutch” (G. Terboch, V. Klas, P. de Hooch, Jan Steen). The same direction includes the work of the Italian artist Caravaggio, the French engraver A. Boss, the Lenin brothers, the writer F. Sorrel, the playwrights J.-B. Moliere, Scarron. The main criterion of realism is the content of their works, addressed to modern life in the form of everyday life.

Out-of-style the line of development is associated with individual creative concepts and features of the artistic language, which, according to researchers, were more pronounced in regions free from the absolutist power of the monarch and the domination of the Catholic Church. The most striking phenomena of the left line of the artistic process were the works of Rembrandt and Vermeer. At the same time, a bright artistic individuality, irreducible to baroque or classic style, is the work of Velasquez, who worked at the Spanish royal court. The designation of the line of development as extra-left implies the presence of the main line of the artistic process and its periphery and contains a certain paradox. The paradox lies in the fact that almost the brightest artistic personalities of the 17th century turned out to be outside the general line. Out-of-line the line is interpreted as the most “avant-garde”, directed to the future, in which there will be as many individual creative manners as creative personalities.

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Baroque (Italian barocco, literally - bizarre, strange), one of the dominant styles in the architecture and art of Europe and Latin America in the late 16th - mid-18th centuries. Baroque was associated with the nobility and church culture of the heyday of absolutism. It was called upon to glorify the power of the church and the secular aristocracy, gravitated towards ceremonial solemnity and pomp.

Baroque became widespread in Flanders (famous representatives of the Baroque in Flanders - P.P. Rubens, F. Snyders, J. Jordaens, A. van Dyck), in Spain, Portugal, in southern Germany, in Austria, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Croatia, in the west of Ukraine, in Lithuania. In France, baroque merged with classicism into a single opulent style.

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Coronation of the Virgin Mary, 1595-1598

At the origins of the tradition of Baroque art in painting are two great Italian artists - Caravaggio and Annibale Carracci, who created the most significant works in the last decade of the 16th century - the first decade of the 17th century. Italian painting of the late 16th century is characterized by unnaturalness and stylistic uncertainty. Caravaggio and Carracci, with their art, restored her integrity and expressiveness.

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One of the dominant styles in European architecture and art of the late 16th and mid-18th centuries, the baroque was established in an era of intensive formation of nations and nation-states (mainly absolute monarchies). The Baroque embodied new ideas about the unity, infinity and diversity of the world, about its dramatic complexity and eternal variability, interest in the real environment, in the natural elements surrounding a person, the Baroque replaced the humanistic artistic culture.

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Caravaggio Michelangelo (1573-1610), Italian painter. Studied in Milan (1584-1588); worked in Rome (until 1606), Naples (1607 and 1609-1610), on the islands of Malta and Sicily (1608-1609). Caravaggio, who did not belong to a particular art school, already in his early works contrasted the individual expressiveness of the model, simple everyday motives (“Little Sick Bacchus”, “Young Man with a Basket of Fruit” - both in the Borghese Gallery, Rome) the idealization of images and the allegorical interpretation of the plot, characteristic of the art of mannerism and academism.

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Reni Guido (November 4, 1575, Bologna - August 18, 1642, ibid.), Italian painter, master of the Baroque. Reni was a graduate of the Bologna Academy of Arts, a guide and heir to its pictorial tradition and pedagogical system. He directly studied with Annibale Carracci, was, like him, a fan of antiquity and Raphael.

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Baroque embodied new ideas about the unity, infinity and diversity of the world, about its dramatic complexity and eternal variability; his aesthetics was built on the collision of man and the world, ideal and sensual principles, reason and irrationalism.

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Baroque art is characterized by grandiosity, pomp and dynamics, pathetic elation, intensity of feelings, addiction to spectacular entertainment, the combination of illusory and real, strong contrasts of scales and rhythms, materials and textures, light and shadow.

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Baroque art is characterized by: an abundance of external effects and elements. The figures of the drawing and their groups are depicted solemnly, facial expressions are sensual. In the 17th century, painting occupied an exceptional place in art. The Baroque era expanded the range of depicted objects, enriched this area of ​​art with new genres. The artists loved warm tones and gentle color transitions, they were attracted by the play of light and shadow, the contrasts of light and dark, and paid great attention to the materialistic image.

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The most characteristic features of the Baroque - catchy flamboyance and dynamism - corresponded to the self-confidence and aplomb of the newly regained strength of the Roman Catholic Church. Outside of Italy, the Baroque style had its deepest roots in Catholic countries, and in Britain, for example, its influence was negligible.

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Baroque art developed and flourished in Italy, where the largest architect and sculptor L. Bernini, the painter, the head of democratic realism Caravaggio, the followers of academicism, the Carracci brothers, and others worked.

"Susanna and the Elders" 1647

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The visual arts of this period were dominated by plots based on a dramatic conflict - religious, mythological or allegorical in nature.

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A person in baroque art appears as a multifaceted personality, with a complex inner world, involved in the cycle and conflicts of the environment.

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Ceremonial portraits are created to decorate interiors.

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"The Blinding of Samson" 1636

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"Night watch" 1642 Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam

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"Danae" 1636 Hermitage, St. Petersburg

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"The Triumph of Belshazzar" 1635

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Maria Magdalena ca. 1600

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St. Jerome and the Angel 1635

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The Abduction of Europe 1630-1640

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Baroque architecture

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Carlo Maderna Church of Saint Susanna, Rome

Baroque architecture (L. Bernini, F. Borromini in Italy, B. F. Rastrelli in Russia) is characterized by spatial scope, unity, fluidity of complex, usually curvilinear forms. Large-scale colonnades are often found, an abundance of sculptures on facades and in interiors, volutes, a large number of rake-outs, arched facades with a rake-out in the middle, rusticated columns and pilasters. The domes acquire complex forms, often they are multi-tiered, as in St. Peter's Cathedral in Rome. Characteristic details of the Baroque - telamon (atlas), caryatid, mascaron.

The quintessence of the Baroque, an impressive fusion of painting, sculpture and architecture, is the Coranaro Chapel in the church of Santa Maria della Vittoria (1645-1652).

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In Russia, the development of baroque art, which reflected the growth and strengthening of the absolute monarchy of the nobility, falls on the first half of the 18th century.

The Baroque style in Russia was free from exaltation and mysticism (characteristic of the art of Catholic countries) and had a number of national features.

Russian baroque architecture, which reached majestic proportions in the city and manor ensembles of St. . Rastrelli, D. V. Ukhtomsky); the fine arts turned to secular, social topics, the portrait was developed (sculptures by B. K. Rastrelli, etc.)

The Baroque era is marked everywhere by the rise of monumental art and arts and crafts, closely interconnected with architecture.

In the 1st floor. 18th century baroque evolves to the graceful lightness of the rococo style, coexists and intertwines with it, and from the 1770s. everywhere superseded by classicism.

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The city ensemble, the street, the square, the park, the manor - began to be understood as an organized artistic whole, developing in space, unfolding in a variety of ways before the viewer.

Baroque palaces and churches, thanks to the luxurious, bizarre plasticity of facades, the restless play of light and shade, complex curvilinear plans and outlines, acquired picturesqueness and dynamism and, as it were, poured into the surrounding space.

The ceremonial interiors of Baroque buildings were decorated with multicolored sculpture, molding, and carving; mirrors and murals illusoryly expanded the space, and ceiling paintings created the illusion of yawning vaults.

Architect: Vist A. F. Built: 1764-1768 Style: Baroque

Cathedral of St. Andrew the First-Called

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Architect: Quarenghi D. Built: 1761-1769, 1783 Style: Baroque

Cathedral of the Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God with a bell tower

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Architects: Chevakinsky S. I. Year of construction: 1753-1755 Style: Baroque

Palace of I. I. Shuvalov

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Cathedral of St. Equal-to-the-Apostles Prince Vladimir - Prince Vladimir Cathedral

• Architects: Zemtsov M. G. Rinaldi A. Starov I. E.
• Year built: 1789
• Style: Baroque