Methods and techniques in teaching. Modern teaching methods

Teaching methods(from ancient Greek μέθοδος - path) - the process of interaction between the teacher and students, as a result of which the transfer and assimilation of knowledge, skills and abilities provided for by the content of training occurs. Teaching technique (teaching technique)- short-term interaction between the teacher and students, aimed at the transfer and assimilation of specific knowledge, skills, abilities.

According to the established tradition in domestic pedagogy, METHODS of teaching are divided into three groups:

- Methods of organization and implementation of educational and cognitive activities:

1. Verbal, visual, practical (According to the source of presentation of educational material).

2. Reproductive, explanatory and illustrative, search, research, problem, etc. (according to the nature of educational and cognitive activity).

3. Inductive and deductive (according to the logic of presentation and perception of educational material);

- Control methods for the effectiveness of educational and cognitive activities: Oral, written checking and self-testing the effectiveness of mastering knowledge, skills and abilities;

- Stimulation methods educational and cognitive activity: Certain incentives in the formation of motivation, a sense of responsibility, obligation, interests in mastering knowledge, skills and abilities.

In teaching practice, there are other approaches to determining teaching methods that are based on the degree of awareness of the perception of educational material: passive, active, interactive, heuristic and others. These definitions require further clarification, because the learning process cannot be passive and is not always a discovery (eureka) for students.

Passive method

Passive learning method

Passive method(Diagram 1) is a form of interaction between students and teachers, in which the teacher is the main actor and manager of the lesson, and students act as passive listeners, subject to the teacher’s directives. Communication between the teacher and students in passive lessons is carried out through surveys, independent work, tests, tests, etc. From the point of view of modern pedagogical technologies and the effectiveness of students’ assimilation of educational material, the passive method is considered the most ineffective, but despite this, it also has some pros. This is a relatively easy preparation for the lesson on the part of the teacher and an opportunity to present a relatively larger amount of educational material in the limited time frame of the lesson. Given these advantages, many teachers prefer the passive method to other methods. It must be said that in some cases this approach works successfully in the hands of an experienced teacher, especially if students have clear goals aimed at thoroughly studying the subject. Lecture is the most common type of passive lesson. This type of lesson is widespread in universities, where adults, fully formed people, who have clear goals to deeply study the subject, study.

Active method

Active learning method

Active method(Diagram 2) is a form of interaction between students and teachers, in which the teacher and students interact with each other during the lesson and students here are not passive listeners, but active participants in the lesson. If in a passive lesson the main character and manager of the lesson was the teacher, then here the teacher and students are on equal terms. If passive methods presupposed an authoritarian style of interaction, then active ones presuppose a more democratic style. Many equate active and interactive methods; however, despite their commonality, they have differences. Interactive methods can be considered as the most modern form of active methods.

Interactive method

Interactive teaching method

Interactive method(Scheme 3). Interactive (“Inter” is mutual, “act” is to act) - means to interact, to be in the mode of conversation, dialogue with someone. In other words, unlike active methods, interactive ones are focused on broader interaction of students not only with the teacher, but also with each other and on the dominance of student activity in the learning process. The teacher's place in interactive lessons comes down to directing the students' activities to achieve the lesson's goals. The teacher also develops a lesson plan (usually, these are interactive exercises and assignments during which the student learns the material).
Therefore, the main components of interactive lessons are interactive exercises and tasks that students complete. An important difference between interactive exercises and assignments and ordinary ones is that by completing them, students not only and not so much consolidate the material they have already learned, but rather learn new ones.

Literature

1. Alekhin A.N. General teaching methods at school. - K.: Radyanskaya school, 1983. - 244 p.
2. Davydov V.V. Theory of developmental training. - M.: INTOR, 1996. - 544 p.
3. Zagvyazinsky V.I. Theory of learning: Modern interpretation: Textbook for universities. 3rd ed., rev. - M.: Academy, 2006. - 192 p.
4. Kraevsky V.V., Khutorskoy A.V. Fundamentals of teaching: Didactics and methodology. Textbook aid for students higher textbook establishments. - M.: Publishing Center "Academy", 2007. - 352 p.
5. Lyaudis V. Ya. Methods of teaching psychology: Textbook. 3rd ed., rev. and additional - M.: Publishing house URAO, 2000. - 128 p.
6. Mikhailichenko O.V. Methods of teaching social disciplines in higher education: a textbook. – Sumy: SumDPU, 2009. – 122 p.
7. Pedagogy: Textbook. manual for pedagogical students. Institute / Ed. Yu.K. Babansky. - 2nd ed., add. and processed - M.: Education, 1988. - P.385-409.

• Educational technologies
• Heuristic learning
• Interactive approaches
• Multimedia training
• Schechter method
• Flask model
• van Hiele model of geometry learning
• Flask model in class
• Active learning
• Teacher
• Business game
• Contour map
• Lerner, Isaac Yakovlevich

Links

Teaching methods and their classification

An essential component of pedagogical technologies are teaching methods - ways of orderly interconnected activities of the teacher and students. In the pedagogical literature there is no consensus regarding the role and definition of the concept of “teaching method”. So, Yu.K. Babansky believes that “a teaching method is a method of orderly interconnected activity of a teacher and students, aimed at solving educational problems.” T.A. Ilyina understands teaching method as “a way of organizing students’ cognitive activity.” In the history of didactics, various classifications of teaching methods have developed, the most common of which are:

by external signs of the activity of the teacher and students:

• briefing;

  demonstration;

  exercises;

  problem solving;

  working with a book;

by source of knowledge:

• verbal;

  visual:

  • demonstration of posters, diagrams, tables, diagrams, models;

    use of technical means;

    watching films and television programs;

practical:

• practical tasks;

  trainings;

  business games;

  analysis and resolution of conflict situations, etc.;

according to the degree of activity of students’ cognitive activity:

• explanatory;

  illustrative;

  problem;

  partial search;

  research;

according to the logic of the approach:

• inductive;

  deductive;

  analytical;

  synthetic.

Close to this classification is the classification of teaching methods, compiled according to the criterion of the degree of independence and creativity in the activities of students. Since the success of training depends to a decisive extent on the orientation and internal activity of the students, on the nature of their activity, it is the nature of the activity, the degree of independence and creativity that should serve as an important criterion for choosing a method. In this classification, it is proposed to distinguish five teaching methods:

explanatory and illustrative method;

reproductive method;

problem presentation method;

partial search, or heuristic, method;

research method.

In each of the subsequent methods, the degree of activity and independence in the activities of students increases. Explanatory and illustrative teaching method - a method in which students gain knowledge at a lecture, from educational or methodological literature, through an on-screen manual in a “ready” form. Perceiving and comprehending facts, assessments, conclusions, students remain within the framework of reproductive (reproducing) thinking. At universities, this method is widely used for transmitting a large amount of information. Reproductive teaching method - a method where the application of what has been learned is carried out on the basis of a sample or rule. Here, the activities of the students are algorithmic in nature, i.e. is carried out according to instructions, regulations, rules in situations similar to those shown in the example. Method of problem presentation in teaching - a method in which, using a variety of sources and means, the teacher, before presenting the material, poses a problem, formulates a cognitive task, and then, revealing a system of evidence, comparing points of view, different approaches, shows a way to solve the problem. Students become witnesses and participants in scientific research. This approach has been widely used both in the past and in the present. Partial search , or heuristic, teaching method consists in organizing an active search for solutions to cognitive tasks put forward in training (or independently formulated) either under the guidance of a teacher or on the basis of heuristic programs and instructions. The thinking process becomes productive, but at the same time it is gradually directed and controlled by the teacher or the students themselves based on work on programs (including computer ones) and textbooks. - a method in which, after analyzing the material, setting problems and tasks, and brief oral or written instructions, students independently study literature, sources, make observations and measurements, and perform other search activities. Initiative, independence, and creative search are most fully manifested in research activities. Methods of educational work directly develop into methods of scientific research. Techniques and teaching aids

In the learning process, the method acts as an orderly way of interconnected activities of the teacher and students to achieve certain educational goals, as a way of organizing the educational and cognitive activities of students. The application of each teaching method is usually accompanied by techniques and tools. Wherein reception of training acts only as an element, an integral part of the teaching method, and teaching aids (pedagogical aids) are all those materials with the help of which the teacher carries out the teaching impact (educational process).

Pedagogical tools did not immediately become an obligatory component of the pedagogical process. For a long time, traditional teaching methods were based on the word, but “the era of chalk and conversation is over,” due to the growth of information and the technologization of society, there is a need to use other means of teaching, for example technical ones. Pedagogical means include:

educational and laboratory equipment;

training and production equipment;

didactic technology;

educational visual aids;

technical training aids and automated training systems;

computer classes;

organizational and pedagogical means (curricula, exam papers, task cards, teaching aids, etc.).

In world and domestic practice, many efforts have been made to classify teaching methods. Since the category method is universal, “multidimensional formation”, has many characteristics, they act as the basis for classifications. Different authors use different bases for classifying teaching methods. Many classifications have been proposed, based on one or more characteristics. Each of the authors provides arguments to justify their classification model. Let's look at some of them. 1. Classification of methods according to the source of transmission and the nature of information perception (E.Ya. Golant, E.I. Perovsky). The following features and methods are distinguished: a) passive perception - listen and watch (story, lecture, explanation; demonstration); b) active perception - working with a book, visual sources; laboratory method. 2. Classification of methods based on didactic tasks (M.A. Danilov, B.P. Esipov.). The classification is based on the sequence of knowledge acquisition at a specific stage (lesson): a) knowledge acquisition; b) formation of skills and abilities; c) application of acquired knowledge; d) creative activity; e) fastening; f) testing knowledge, skills and abilities. 3. Classification of methods according to sources of information transfer and knowledge acquisition (N.M. Verzilin, D.O. Lordkinanidze, I.T. Ogorodnikov, etc.). The methods of this classification are: a) verbal - the living word of the teacher, working with a book; b) practical - studying the surrounding reality (observation, experiment, exercises). 4. Classification of methods according to the type (nature) of cognitive activity (M.N. Skatkin, I.Ya. Lerner). The nature of cognitive activity reflects the level of independent activity of students. This classification is characterized by the following methods: a) explanatory and illustrative (information and reproductive); b) reproductive (boundaries of skill and creativity); c) problematic presentation of knowledge; d) partially search (heuristic); e) research. 5. Classification of methods, combining teaching methods and corresponding teaching methods or binary ones (M.I. Makhmutov). This classification is represented by the following methods: a) teaching methods: informational - informative, explanatory, instructive-practical, explanatory-stimulating, stimulating; b) teaching methods: executive, reproductive, productive-practical, partially exploratory, search. 6. Classification of methods for organizing and implementing educational and cognitive activities; methods of its stimulation and motivation; methods of control and self-control (Yu. K. Babansky). This classification is represented by three groups of methods: a) methods of organizing and implementing educational and cognitive activities: verbal (story, lecture, seminar, conversation), visual (illustration, demonstration, etc.), practical (exercises, laboratory experiments, work activities, etc.) .r.), reproductive and problem-search (from particular to general, from general to particular), methods of independent work and work under the guidance of a teacher; b) methods of stimulating and motivating educational and cognitive activity: methods of stimulating and motivating interest in learning (the entire arsenal of methods for organizing and carrying out educational activities is used for the purpose of psychological adjustment, motivation to learn), methods of stimulating and motivating duty and responsibility in learning; c) methods of control and self-control over the effectiveness of educational and cognitive activities: methods of oral control and self-control, methods of written control and self-control, methods of laboratory and practical control and self-control. 7. Classification of teaching methods, which combines sources of knowledge, the level of cognitive activity and independence of students, as well as the logical path of educational modeling (V.F. Palamarchuk and V.I. Palamarchuk). 8. The classification of methods in combination with forms of cooperation in teaching was proposed by the German didactician L. Klingberg. a) Monologue methods: - lecture; - story; - demonstration. b) Forms of cooperation: - individual; - group; - frontal; - collective. c) Dialogical methods: – conversations. 9. Classification of methods by K. Sosnicki (Poland) assumes the existence of two teaching methods: a) artificial (school); b) natural (occasional). These methods correspond to two teaching methods: a) presenting; b) search. 10. The classification (typology) of teaching methods, set out in “Introduction to General Didactics” by V. Okon (Poland), is represented by four groups: a) methods of acquiring knowledge, based mainly on cognitive activity of a reproductive nature (conversation, discussion, lecture, work with a book); b) methods of independent acquisition of knowledge, called problem-based, based on creative cognitive activity in the process of solving problems: - the classic problem-based method (according to Dewey), modified for the Polish education system, it contains four important points: the creation of a problem situation; formation of problems and hypotheses for their solution; organizing and applying the results obtained in new problems of a theoretical and practical nature; - the chance method (England and the USA) is relatively simple and is based on the consideration by a small group of students of a description of a case: students formulate questions to explain this case, search for an answer, a number of possible solutions, compare solutions, detect errors in reasoning, etc. ; - the situational method is based on introducing students into a difficult situation, the task is to understand and make the right decision, anticipate the consequences of this decision, and find other possible solutions; - a bank of ideas is a brainstorming method; based on the group formation of ideas for solving a problem, testing, evaluation and selection of the right ideas; - micro-teaching - a method of creative teaching of complex practical activities, used mainly in pedagogical universities; For example, a fragment of a school lesson is recorded on a video recorder, and then a group analysis and evaluation of this fragment is carried out; - didactic games - the use of game moments in the educational process serves the process of cognition, teaches respect for accepted norms, promotes cooperation, accustoms both winning and losing. These include: staged fun, i.e. games, simulation games, business games (they are not widely used in Polish schools); c) evaluative methods, also called exhibiting methods with the dominance of emotional and artistic activity: - impressive methods; - expressive methods; - practical methods; - teaching methods; d) practical methods (methods for implementing creative tasks), characterized by the predominance of practical and technical activities that change the world around us and create new forms: they are associated with the performance of various types of work (for example, woodworking, glass, growing plants and animals, making fabrics and etc.), development of work models (drawings), formation of approaches to solutions and selection of the best options, construction of a model and testing of its functioning, design of specified parameters, individual and group assessment of task completion. The basis for this typology of methods is V. Okon’s idea of ​​​​the constant development of the creative foundations of the individual through the structuring of the taught knowledge and teaching methods. “The information that a person needs is always intended for some purpose, namely to understand the structure of reality, the way of the natural world around us, society, and culture. Structural thinking is the kind of thinking that combines the elements of this world known to us. If, thanks to a successful teaching method, these structures fit into the consciousness of a young person, then each of the elements in these structures has its own place and is connected with other structures. Thus, a kind of hierarchy is formed in the student’s mind - from the simplest structures of the most general nature to complex ones. Understanding the basic structures that take place in living and inanimate nature, in society, in technology and art, can contribute to creative activity based on the knowledge of new structures, the selection of elements and the establishment of connections between them.” 11. Based on the fact that the holistic pedagogical process is ensured by a unified classification of methods, which in a generalized form includes all other classification characteristics of B.T. Likhachev calls a number of classifications as if constituting a classification as a classification. He takes the following as its basis: - Classification according to the correspondence of teaching methods to the logic of socio-historical development. - Classification according to the correspondence of teaching methods to the specifics of the material being studied and forms of thinking. - Classification of teaching methods according to their role and significance in the development of essential forces, mental processes, spiritual and creative activity. - Classification of teaching methods according to their compliance with the age characteristics of children. - Classification of teaching methods according to methods of transmitting and receiving information. - Classification of teaching methods according to the degree of effectiveness of their ideological and educational impact, “influence on the formation of children’s consciousness, internal motives” and behavioral incentives. - Classification of teaching methods according to the main stages of the educational-cognitive process (methods of the perception stage - primary assimilation; methods of the assimilation-reproduction stage; methods of the stage of educational and creative expression). In the classifications identified by B.T. Likhachev, preference is given to the latter as scientific and practical, synthesizing in a generalized form the characteristics of teaching methods of all other classifications. To the number of named classifications of teaching methods one could add two or three more. All of them are not without shortcomings, and at the same time have many positive aspects. There are no universal classifications and there cannot be. The learning process is a dynamic construct, this should be understood. In the living pedagogical process, methods develop and take on new properties. Uniting them into groups according to a rigid scheme is not justified, since this hinders the improvement of the educational process. Apparently, one should follow the path of their universal combination and application in order to achieve a high degree of adequacy to the educational tasks being solved. At each stage of the educational process, some methods occupy a dominant position, while others occupy a subordinate position. Some methods provide solutions to educational problems to a greater extent, others to a lesser extent. We also note that failure to include at least one of the methods, even in its subordinate position, in solving the problems of the lesson significantly reduces its effectiveness. Perhaps this is comparable to the absence of at least one of the components, even in a very small dose, in the composition of the drug (this reduces or completely changes its medicinal properties). The methods used in the educational process also perform their functions. These include: teaching, developing, nurturing, stimulating (motivational), control and correction functions. Knowledge of the functionality of certain methods allows you to consciously apply them.

Concepts of method, technique and teaching aid. Classification of teaching methods. Selection of teaching methods

The success of the educational process largely depends on the teaching methods used.

Teaching methods These are ways of joint activity between the teacher and students, aimed at achieving their educational goals. There are other definitions of teaching methods.

Teaching methods are ways of working for teachers and students, with the help of which the latter acquires knowledge, skills and abilities, as well as the formation of their worldview and the development of cognitive powers (M. A. Danilov, B. P. Esipov).

Teaching methods are ways of interrelated activities of teachers and students to implement the tasks of education, upbringing and development ( Yu. K. Babansky).

Teaching methods are ways of teaching the teacher and organizing educational and cognitive activities of students to solve various didactic tasks aimed at mastering the material being studied ( I. F. Kharlamov).

Teaching methods are a system of consistent, interconnected actions of the teacher and students, ensuring the assimilation of the content of education, the development of mental strength and abilities of students, and their mastery of the means of self-education and self-study (G. M. Kodzhaspirova).

Despite the various definitions given to this concept by didactics, the common thing is that most authors tend to consider the teaching method as a way of collaboration between the teacher and students in organizing educational activities. If we are talking only about the activities of the teacher, then it is appropriate to talk about teaching methods, if only about the activities of students, then about teaching methods.

Reflecting the dual nature of the learning process, methods are one of the mechanisms, ways of implementing pedagogically appropriate interaction between the teacher and students. The essence of teaching methods is considered as an integral system of methods that collectively provide a pedagogically appropriate organization of educational and cognitive activity of students.

Thus, the concept of a teaching method reflects in the interrelation the methods and specifics of the teaching work of the teacher and the educational activities of students to achieve learning goals.

Widely used concepts in didactics are also the concepts of “learning method” and “learning rule”.

Reception training This component or separate aspect of a teaching method, i.e. a particular concept in relation to the general concept of “method”. The boundaries between the concepts of “method” and “technique” are very fluid and changeable. Each teaching method consists of individual elements (parts, techniques). With the help of a technique, a pedagogical or educational task is not completely solved, but only its stage, some part of it.

Teaching methods and methodological techniques can change places and replace each other in specific pedagogical situations. The same methodological techniques can be used in different methods. Conversely, the same method for different teachers may include different techniques.

In some situations, the method acts as an independent way to solve a pedagogical problem, in others as a technique that has a particular purpose. For example, if a teacher conveys new knowledge using a verbal method (explanation, story, conversation), during which he sometimes demonstrates visual aids, then their demonstration acts as a technique. If a visual aid is the object of study, students receive basic knowledge based on its consideration, then verbal explanations act as a technique, and demonstration as a teaching method.

Thus, the method includes a number of techniques, but it itself is not their simple sum. Techniques determine the uniqueness of the methods of work of the teacher and students and give an individual character to their activities.

Learning Rule This normative prescription or indication of how one should optimally act in order to carry out an activity corresponding to the method. In other words, learning rule (didactic rule) this is a specific instruction on how to act in a typical pedagogical situation of the learning process.

A rule acts as a descriptive, normative model of a technique, and a system of rules for solving a specific problem is already a normative-descriptive model of a method.

The teaching method is a historical category. The level of development of the productive forces and the nature of production relations influence the goals, content, and means of the pedagogical process. As they change, so do teaching methods.

In the early stages of social development, the transfer of social experience to younger generations was carried out spontaneously in the process of joint activities of children and adults. By observing and repeating certain actions, mainly labor ones, with adults, children mastered them through direct participation in the life of the social group of which they were members.

Teaching methods based on imitation prevailed. Imitating adults, children mastered the methods and techniques of obtaining food, making fire, making clothes, etc. It was based on reproductive method training (“do as I do”). This is the most ancient teaching method , from which all others developed.

As the volume of accumulated knowledge expanded and the actions mastered by man became more complex, simple imitation could not provide a sufficient level of assimilation of cultural experience. Since the organization of schools there have appeared verbal methods training. The teacher, using words, conveyed ready-made information to the children, who assimilated it. With the advent of writing and then printing, it became possible to express, accumulate and transmit knowledge in symbolic form. The word becomes the main carrier of information, and learning from books becomes a massive way of interaction between teacher and student.

Books were used in different ways. In medieval school, students mechanically memorized texts, mainly of religious content. This is how it arose dogmatic, or catechism, method training. Its more advanced form is associated with posing questions and presenting ready-made answers.

In the era of great discoveries and inventions, verbal methods are gradually losing their importance as the only way to transfer knowledge to students. Society needed people who not only knew the laws of nature, but also knew how to use them in their activities. The learning process organically included methods such as observation, experiment, independent work, exercise aimed at developing independence, activity, consciousness, and initiative of the child. Development is received visual methods training, as well as methods that help to apply the acquired knowledge in practice.

At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. began to occupy an important place heuristic method as a verbal option, which more fully took into account the needs and interests of the child, the development of his independence. “Book” methods of study were contrasted with “natural” methods, that is, learning through direct contact with reality. The concept of “learning through activity” using practical methods training. The main place in the learning process was given to manual labor, various kinds of practical exercises, as well as students’ work with literature, during which children developed the skills of independent work and the use of their own experience. Approved partially search, research methods.

Over time, they are becoming more widespread methods problem-based learning, based on posing a problem and on students’ independent movement towards knowledge. Gradually, society is increasingly beginning to realize that a child needs not only education, the acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities, but also the development of his abilities and individual characteristics. Getting distribution methods developmental education. The widespread introduction of technology into the educational process, computerization of teaching leads to the emergence of new methods.

American educator K. Kerr identifies four “revolutions in the field of teaching methods.” In the early stages of human society, parents were the main teachers of children. The first revolution occurred when they were replaced by professional teachers. The second revolution is associated with the replacement of the spoken word with the written word. The third revolution led to the introduction of the printed word into learning, and the fourth is aimed at partial automation and computerization of learning.

The search for methods to improve the learning process remains constant. However, regardless of the role assigned to one or another teaching method at different periods in the development of education, none of them, when used exclusively on its own, provides the desired results. No teaching method is universal. A variety of teaching methods should be used in the educational process.

1. Characteristics of teaching methods, their pedagogical capabilities. Conditions for using teaching methods and tools. Methods and means of developmental education.

In modern pedagogical practice, a large number of teaching methods are used. When selecting them, the teacher faces significant difficulties. In this regard, there is a need for a classification that helps to identify the general and the special, the essential and the accidental in teaching methods, and thereby contributes to their expedient and more effective use.

Unified classification teaching methods does not exist. This is due to the fact that different authors base the division of teaching methods into groups and subgroups on different characteristics and individual aspects of the learning process.

Let's look at the most common classification of teaching methods.

Classification of teaching methods by student activity level (Golant E. Ya.). This is one of the earliest classifications of teaching methods. According to this classification, teaching methods are divided into passive and active, depending on the degree of student involvement in learning activities. TO passive include methods in which students only listen and watch ( story, lecture, explanation, excursion, demonstration, observation), To active methods that organize independent work of students ( laboratory method, practical method, working with a book).

Classification of teaching methods by source of knowledge (Verzilin N. M., Perovsky E. I., Lordkipanidze D. O.)

There are three sources of knowledge: word, visualization, practice. Accordingly, they allocate verbal methods(the source of knowledge is the spoken or printed word); visual methods(sources of knowledge are observed objects, phenomena, visual aids); practical methods(knowledge and skills are formed in the process of performing practical actions).

Verbal methods occupy a central place in the system of teaching methods. These include story, explanation, conversation, discussion, lecture, working with a book.

The second group according to this classification consists of visual teaching methods, in which the assimilation of educational material is significantly dependent on the visual aids, diagrams, tables, drawings, models, devices, and technical means used. Visual methods are conventionally divided into two groups: demonstration method and illustration method.

Practical teaching methods are based on the practical activities of students. The main purpose of this group of methods is the formation of practical skills. Practical methods include exercises, practical And laboratory works.

This classification has become quite widespread, which is obviously due to its simplicity.

Classification of teaching methods for didactic purposes (Danilov M. A., Esipov B. P.).

This classification identifies the following teaching methods:

- methods of acquiring new knowledge;

- methods of developing skills and abilities;

- methods of applying knowledge;

- methods of consolidating and testing knowledge, abilities, skills.

The criterion for dividing methods into groups according to this classification are learning objectives. This criterion better reflects the teacher’s activities to achieve the teaching goal. For example, if the goal is to introduce students to something, then to achieve it, the teacher will obviously use the verbal, visual and other methods available to him, and to consolidate, he will ask students to complete oral or written tasks.

With this classification of methods, the gap between their individual groups is eliminated to a certain extent; The teacher’s activities are aimed at solving didactic problems.

Classification of teaching methods by the nature of students’ cognitive activity (Lerner I. Ya., Skatkin M. N.).

According to this classification, teaching methods are divided depending on the nature of the cognitive activity of students when mastering the material being studied. The nature of cognitive activity is the level of mental activity of students.

The following methods are distinguished:

- explanatory and illustrative (information-receptive);

- reproductive;

- problematic presentation;

- partially search engines (heuristic);

- research.

Essence explanatory-illustrative method consists in the fact that the teacher communicates ready-made information using various means, and students perceive it, understand it and record it in memory. The teacher conveys information using the spoken word (story, conversation, explanation, lecture), the printed word (textbook, additional manuals), visual aids (tables, diagrams, pictures, films and filmstrips), practical demonstration of methods of activity (showing experience, work on a machine, a method for solving a problem, etc.).

The cognitive activity of students comes down to memorizing (which may be unconscious) ready-made knowledge. There is a fairly low level of mental activity here.

Reproductive method assumes that the teacher communicates and explains knowledge in a ready-made form, and students assimilate it and can reproduce and repeat the method of activity on the instructions of the teacher. The criterion for assimilation is the correct reproduction (reproduction) of knowledge.

The main advantage of this method, as well as the explanatory and illustrative method discussed above, is cost-effectiveness. This method provides the opportunity to transfer a significant amount of knowledge and skills in a minimally short time and with little effort. The durability of knowledge due to the possibility of its repeated repetition can be significant.

Both of these methods are characterized by the fact that they enrich knowledge and skills, form special mental operations, but do not guarantee the development of students’ creative abilities. This goal is achieved by other methods, in particular the method of problem presentation.

Method of problem presentation is a transition from performing to creative activity. The essence of the problem presentation method is that the teacher poses a problem and solves it himself, thereby showing the train of thought in the process of cognition. At the same time, students follow the logic of presentation, mastering the stages of solving holistic problems.

At the same time, they not only perceive, realize and remember ready-made knowledge and conclusions, but also follow the logic of evidence, the movement of thought of the teacher or a substitute medium (cinema, television, books, etc.). And although students with this method of teaching are not participants, but merely observers of the process of thinking, they learn to resolve cognitive difficulties.

A higher level of cognitive activity carries with it partially search engine (heuristic) method.

The method was called partially search because students independently solve a complex educational problem not from beginning to end, but only partially. The teacher involves students in performing individual search steps. Some of the knowledge is imparted by the teacher, and some of the knowledge is acquired by students on their own, answering questions or solving problematic tasks. Educational activities develops according to the scheme: teacher - students - teacher - students, etc.

Thus, the essence of the partially search method of teaching comes down to the fact that:

Not all knowledge is offered to students in a ready-made form; some of it needs to be acquired on their own;

The teacher’s activity consists of operational management of the process of solving problematic problems.

One of the modifications of this method is heuristic conversation.

Research method of teaching provides for creative learning by students.

Its essence is as follows:

The teacher, together with the students, formulates the problem;

Students resolve it independently;

The teacher provides assistance only when difficulties arise in solving the problem.

Thus, the research method is used not only to generalize knowledge, but mainly so that the student learns to acquire knowledge, investigate an object or phenomenon, draw conclusions and apply the acquired knowledge and skills in life. Its essence comes down to organizing the search and creative activities of students to solve problems that are new to them.

The main disadvantage of this teaching method is that it requires a significant amount of time and a high level of pedagogical qualifications of the teacher.

Classification of teaching methods based on a holistic approach to the learning process (Babansky Yu. K.).

According to this classification, teaching methods are divided into three groups:

1) methods of organizing and implementing educational and cognitive activities;

2) methods of stimulation and motivation of educational and cognitive activity;

3) methods of monitoring and self-monitoring of the effectiveness of educational and cognitive activities.

First group includes the following methods:

Perceptual (transmission and perception of educational information through the senses);

Verbal (lecture, story, conversation, etc.);

Visual (demonstration, illustration);

Practical (experiments, exercises, completing assignments);

Logical, i.e. organization and implementation of logical operations (inductive, deductive, analogies, etc.);

Gnostic (research, problem-search, reproductive);

Self-management of educational activities (independent work with a book, equipment, etc.).

To the second group methods include:

Methods of developing interest in learning (cognitive games, educational discussions, creating problem situations, etc.);

Methods of forming duty and responsibility in teaching (encouragement, approval, censure, etc.).

To the third group various methods of oral, written and machine testing of knowledge, skills and abilities, as well as methods of self-monitoring of the effectiveness of one’s own educational and cognitive activity are included.

Binary classification of teaching methods based on on combination of methods of activity of the teacher and students (Makhmutov M. I.).

The basis binary And polynar Classifications of teaching methods are based on two or more general characteristics.

The binary classification of teaching methods by M. I. Makhmutov includes two groups of methods:

1) teaching methods (information-reporting; explanatory; instructive-practical; explanatory-motivating; stimulating);

2) teaching methods (executive; reproductive; productive-practical; partially exploratory; search).

Classification, based on four signs (logical-substantive, source, procedural and organizational-managerial), suggested by S. G. Shapovalenko.

There are other classifications of teaching methods.

As we can see, at present there is no single view on the problem of classifying teaching methods, and any of the classifications considered has both advantages and disadvantages that must be taken into account at the selection stage and in the process of implementing specific teaching methods. The presence of different points of view on the problem of classifying teaching methods reflects the objective, real versatility of teaching methods, the natural process of differentiation and integration of knowledge about them.

Let us dwell in more detail on individual teaching methods included in various classifications.

Story. This is a monologue, sequential presentation of material in a descriptive or narrative form. The story is used to convey factual information that requires imagery and consistency of presentation. The story is used at all stages of learning, only the objectives of the presentation, style and volume of the story change.

The greatest developmental effect comes from storytelling when teaching younger schoolchildren who are prone to imaginative thinking. The developing meaning of the story is that it brings mental processes into a state of activity: imagination, thinking, memory, emotional experiences. By influencing a person’s feelings, the story helps to understand and assimilate the meaning of the moral assessments and norms of behavior contained in it.

The goals are distinguished:

- story-introduction, the purpose of which is to prepare students to learn new material;

- story-narration used to present intended content;

- story-conclusion summarizes the material studied.

There are certain requirements for the story as a teaching method: the story must ensure the achievement of didactic goals; contain reliable facts; have clear logic; the presentation must be evidential, figurative, emotional, taking into account the age characteristics of the students.

In its pure form, the story is used relatively rarely. More often it is used in combination with other teaching methods illustration, discussion, conversation.

If with the help of a story it is not possible to provide a clear and precise understanding of certain provisions, then the method of explanation is used.

Explanation this is the interpretation of patterns, essential properties of the object being studied, individual concepts, phenomena. The explanation is characterized by an evidential form of presentation, based on the use of logically related inferences that establish the basis for the truth of a given judgment. Explanation is most often resorted to when studying the theoretical material of various sciences. As a teaching method, explanation is widely used in working with people of different age groups.

There are certain requirements for explanation: precise and clear formulation of the essence of the problem; consistent disclosure of cause-and-effect relationships, reasoning, and evidence; use of comparison, analogy, juxtaposition; impeccable logic of presentation.

In many cases, the explanation is combined with observations, with questions asked by both the trainer and the learner, and can develop into a conversation.

Conversation a dialogical teaching method in which the teacher, by asking a system of questions, leads students to understand new material or checks their understanding of what has already been learned. Conversation as a teaching method can be used to solve any didactic problem. Distinguish individual conversations(questions addressed to one student) , group conversations(questions are addressed to a specific group) and frontal(questions are addressed to everyone).

Depending on the tasks set by the teacher in the learning process, the content of the educational material, the level of creative cognitive activity of students, and the place of conversation in the didactic process, different types of conversations are distinguished:

- introductory or introductory conversations. Conducted before learning new material for updating previously acquired knowledge and determining the degree of readiness of students for knowledge and inclusion in upcoming educational and cognitive activities;

- conversations communication of new knowledge. There are catechetical(reproduction of answers in the wording given in the textbook or by the teacher); Socratic(involving reflection) and heuristic(involving students in the process of actively searching for new knowledge and formulating conclusions);

- synthesizing, or consolidating conversations. Serve to generalize and systematize students’ existing knowledge and ways of applying it in non-standard situations;

- control and correction conversations. They are used for diagnostic purposes, as well as to clarify and supplement students’ existing knowledge with new information.

One type of conversation is interview, which can be carried out with an individual or a group of people.

When conducting a conversation, it is important to formulate and ask questions correctly. They should be short, clear, meaningful; have a logical connection with each other; reveal in aggregate the essence of the issue being studied; promote the assimilation of knowledge in the system.

In terms of content and form, questions must correspond to the level of development of students (questions that are too easy and very difficult do not stimulate active cognitive activity or a serious attitude towards knowledge). You should not ask double, suggestive questions containing ready-made answers; formulate alternative questions that allow “yes” or “no” answers.

Conversation as a teaching method has undoubted dignity:

Activates the educational and cognitive activity of students;

Develops them speech, memory, thinking;

Has great educational power;

It is a good diagnostic tool and helps to monitor students' knowledge.

At the same time, this method also has flaws:

Requires a lot of time;

If students do not have a certain stock of ideas and concepts, then the conversation turns out to be ineffective.

In addition, the conversation does not provide practical skills; contains an element of risk (the student may give an incorrect answer, which is perceived by others and recorded in their memory).

Lecture This is a monologue way of presenting voluminous material. It differs from other verbal methods of presenting material in its more strict structure; abundance of information provided; logic of presentation of the material; the systematic nature of knowledge coverage.

Distinguish popular science And academic lectures. Popular science lectures are used to popularize knowledge. Academic lectures are used in senior secondary schools, secondary specialized and higher educational institutions. Lectures are devoted to large and fundamentally important sections of the curriculum. They differ in their structure and methods of presenting the material. The lecture can be used to summarize and repeat the material covered.

The logical center of the lecture is some theoretical generalization related to the sphere of scientific knowledge. Specific facts forming the basis conversations or story, here serve only as an illustration or as a starting point.

The relevance of using lectures in modern conditions is increasing due to the use of block study of new material on topics or large sections.

Educational discussion as a teaching method is based on the exchange of views on a particular issue. Moreover, these views either reflect the participants’ own opinions or are based on the opinions of others. The main function of educational discussion is to stimulate cognitive interest. With the help of discussion, its participants acquire new knowledge, strengthen their own opinions, learn to defend their position, and take into account the views of others.

This method is advisable to use if students have the necessary knowledge on the topic of the upcoming discussion, have a significant degree of maturity and independence of thinking, and are able to argue, prove and substantiate their point of view. Therefore, it is necessary to prepare students for the discussion in advance, both in content and in formal terms.

Working with a textbook and book one of the most important teaching methods. The main advantage of this method is the ability for the student to repeatedly access educational information at a pace that is accessible to him and at a convenient time. When using programmed educational books, which, in addition to educational information, also contain control information, issues of control, correction, and diagnostics of knowledge and skills are effectively resolved.

Work with the book can be organized under the direct supervision of the teacher (teacher) and in the form of independent work by the student with the text. This method accomplishes two tasks: students learn educational material and accumulate experience working with texts, and master various techniques for working with printed sources.

Let's look at some techniques for working independently with texts.

Note taking a short note, a summary of the content of what was read. There are continuous, selective, complete, and short notes. You can take notes on the material in the first (yourself) or third person. It is preferable to take notes in the first person, since in this case independence develops better thinking.

Testing a summary of the main ideas in a specific sequence.

Abstracting review of a number of sources on the topic with your own assessment of their content and form.

Drawing up a text plan After reading the text, you need to break it into parts and title each of them. The plan can be simple or complex.

Citation verbatim excerpt from the text.

When quoting, the following conditions must be met:

a) the quotation should be correct, without distorting the meaning;

b) an accurate record of the output data is required (author, title of work, place of publication, publisher, year of publication, page).

Annotation a brief, condensed summary of the content of what was read without losing the essential meaning.

Review writing a review, i.e. a short review expressing your attitude about what you read.

Drawing up a certificate. Help information about something obtained after searching. Certificates can be biographical, statistical, geographical, terminological, etc.

Drawing up a formal logical model verbal-schematic representation of what was read.

Compiling a thematic thesaurus an ordered set of basic concepts on a topic, section, or entire discipline.

Drawing up a matrix of ideas (grid of ideas, repertoire grid) compilation in the form of a table of comparative characteristics of similar objects and phenomena in the works of different authors.

Pictographic recording wordless image.

These are the basic techniques for working independently with printed sources. It has been established that mastery of a variety of techniques for working with texts increases the productivity of cognitive work and allows you to save time on mastering the content of the material. The transition from one method of working with text to another changes the mode of operation of the brain, which prevents its rapid fatigue.

Demonstration as a teaching method, it involves the display of experiments, technical installations, television programs, videos, filmstrips, code positives, computer programs, etc. The demonstration method serves primarily to reveal the dynamics of the phenomena being studied, but is also used to familiarize oneself with the appearance of an object and its internal structure. This method is most effective when students themselves study objects, processes and phenomena, carry out the necessary measurements, establish dependencies, due to which an active cognitive process is carried out, their horizons broaden, and a sensory-empirical basis for knowledge is created.

The demonstration of real objects, phenomena or processes occurring in natural conditions has didactic value. But such a demonstration is not always possible. In this case, they use either a demonstration of natural objects in an artificial environment (animals in a zoo), or a demonstration of artificially created objects in a natural environment (small copies of mechanisms).

Three-dimensional models play an important role in the study of all subjects, as they allow one to become familiar with the design and principles of operation of mechanisms (the operation of an internal combustion engine, a blast furnace). Many modern models make it possible to carry out direct measurements and determine technical or technological characteristics. At the same time, it is important to correctly select objects for demonstration and skillfully direct students’ attention to the essential aspects of the phenomena being demonstrated.

Closely related to method demonstrations method illustrations . Sometimes these methods are identified and not distinguished as independent.

The illustration method involves showing objects, processes and phenomena in their symbolic representation using posters, maps, portraits, photographs, drawings, diagrams, reproductions, flat models, etc. Recently, the practice of visualization has been enriched with a number of new means (multicolor maps with plastic covering, albums, atlases, etc.).

The methods of demonstration and illustration are closely interrelated. Demonstration, as a rule, is used when students must perceive a process or phenomenon as a whole. When it is necessary to understand the essence of a phenomenon, the relationships between its components, they resort to illustrations.

When using these methods, certain requirements must be met:

Use clarity in moderation;

Coordinate the demonstrated clarity with the content of the material;

The visualization used must be appropriate for the age of the students;

The item on display must be clearly visible to all students;

It is necessary to clearly highlight the main, essential in the demonstrated object.

A special group consists of teaching methods, the main purpose of which is the formation of practical skills. This group of methods includes exercises, practical And laboratory methods.

Exercise repeated (repeated) performance of educational actions (mental or practical) in order to master them or improve their quality.

Distinguish oral, written, graphic And educational and labor exercises.

Oral exercises contribute to the development of speech culture, logical thinking, memory, attention, and cognitive abilities of students.

Main purpose writing exercises consists of consolidating knowledge, developing the necessary skills and abilities to apply them.

Closely related to written graphic exercises. Their use helps to better perceive, comprehend and remember educational material; promotes the development of spatial imagination. Graphic exercises include work on drawing up graphs, drawings, diagrams, technological maps, sketches, etc.

A special group consists of training exercises, the purpose of which is to apply theoretical knowledge in work. They promote mastery of skills in handling tools, laboratory equipment (instruments, measuring equipment), and develop design and technical skills.

Any exercises, depending on the degree of independence of students, can be worn reproductive, training or creative in nature.

To activate the educational process and consciously complete educational tasks, they are used commented exercises. Their essence lies in the fact that students comment on the actions being performed, as a result of which they are better understood and assimilated.

For exercises to be effective, they must meet a number of requirements. These include students' conscious approach to performing exercises; knowledge of the rules for performing actions; compliance with the didactic sequence in performing the exercises; taking into account the results achieved; distribution of repetitions over time.

Laboratory method is based on independent conduct by students experiments, experiments using instruments, tools, i.e. using special equipment. Work can be done individually or in groups. Students are required to be more active and independent than during a demonstration, where they act as passive observers rather than participants and performers of research.

The laboratory method not only ensures that students acquire knowledge, but also contributes to the formation of practical skills, which, of course, is its advantage. But the laboratory method requires special, often expensive equipment; its use is associated with significant energy and time expenditures.

Practical methods These are teaching methods aimed at applying acquired knowledge to solving practical problems. They perform the functions of deepening knowledge, skills, control and correction, stimulate cognitive activity, contribute to the formation of such qualities as thrift, economy, organizational skills, etc.

Some authors include in a special group active And intensive teaching methods . Scientists and practitioners began to pay close attention to these teaching methods in the 60s. twentieth century, and this was connected with the search for ways to activate students in the learning process. The cognitive activity of students is expressed in a stable interest in knowledge and in a variety of independent learning activities. Traditional teaching technology, aimed at ensuring that the student listens, remembers, and reproduces what the teacher says, poorly develops the student’s cognitive activity.

Active learning methods These are teaching methods in which the student’s activity is productive, creative, and exploratory in nature. Active learning methods include didactic games, analysis of specific situations, problem solving, learning using an algorithm, brainstorming, out-of-context operations with concepts and etc.

Intensive teaching methods are used to organize training in a short time with long one-time sessions (“immersion method”). These methods are used in teaching business, marketing, foreign languages, practical psychology and pedagogy.

Let's look at some of these methods.

Method of didactic games. Didactic (educational) games as a teaching method became very popular in the second half of the twentieth century. Some scientists classify them as practical teaching methods, while others place them in a special group. There are reasons for classifying didactic games into a separate group: firstly, they, absorbing elements of visual, verbal, and practical methods, go beyond them; secondly, they have peculiarities unique to them.

Didactic game This is a collective, purposeful educational activity when each participant and the team as a whole are united in solving the main problem and focus their behavior on winning.

The purpose of didactic games is training, development and education of students. A didactic game is an active educational activity involving simulation of the phenomena, processes, and systems being studied. The game reproduces and simulates reality and the operations of participants in a simplified form, simulating real actions.

Didactic games as a teaching method contain great potential for activation learning process.

Brain attack (brainstorming) a teaching method aimed at activating thought processes through a joint search for a solution to a difficult problem. This method was proposed by the American psychologist A. Osborne. Its essence is that participants put forward their ideas and proposals on the problem. All ideas, even the most unexpected ones, are accepted and undergo group examination and discussion. This method teaches a culture of joint discussion of ideas, overcoming stereotypes and patterns in thinking; reveals a person's creative potential.

Algorithm training as a teaching method used in programmed learning technology. An algorithm in pedagogy is understood as instructions for performing strictly sequential actions with educational material, which guarantees the solution of educational problems at a high level. (For more details, see the lecture “Teaching Technologies”.)

Currently, directions in pedagogy are being actively developed that use the hidden capabilities of students: suggestopedia And cyberneticosuggestopedia (G. Lazanov, V.V. Petrusinsky) teaching by means of suggestion; hypnopaedia sleep learning; pharmacopedia training with pharmaceuticals. Certain results have been achieved in their application in the process of studying foreign languages ​​and some special disciplines.

Teaching methods are used in conjunction with specific teaching aids.

Means of education ( didactic aids) These are sources of acquiring knowledge and developing skills.

The concept of “learning tools” is used in wide And in the narrow sense. When using this concept in in the narrow sense Teaching aids are understood as educational and visual aids, demonstration devices, technical means, etc. Broad meaning assumes that by means of teaching we understand everything that contributes to the achievement of the goals of education, i.e. the entire set of methods, forms, content, as well as special teaching aids.

Teaching aids are designed to facilitate direct and indirect knowledge of the world. They, like methods, perform teaching, educational and developmental functions, and also serve to motivate, manage and control the educational and cognitive activity of students.

In science there is no strict classification of teaching aids. Some scientists divide teaching aids into means used by the teacher to effectively achieve educational goals (visual aids, technical aids) and individual means of students (school textbooks, notebooks, writing materials, etc.). The number of didactic means also includes those with which both the activities of the teacher and the students are connected (sports equipment, classrooms, computers, etc.).

Sensory modality is often used as a basis for classifying didactic means.

In this case, didactic tools are divided into:

- visual (visual), which include tables, maps, natural objects, etc.;

- auditory (auditory) radios, tape recorders, musical instruments, etc.;

- audiovisual (visual-auditory) sound film, television, etc.

Polish didactic V. Okon proposed a classification in which teaching aids are arranged in order of increasing ability to replace the actions of the teacher and automate the actions of the student. He identified simple and complex means.

Simple remedies:

Verbal (textbooks and other texts);

Visual (real objects, models, paintings, etc.).

Complex means:

Mechanical visual instruments (diascope, microscope, overhead projector, etc.);

Auditory aids (player, tape recorder, radio);

Audiovisual (sound film, television, video);

Tools that automate the learning process (language labs, computers, information systems, telecommunication networks).

Didactic tools become a valuable element of the learning process if they are used in close connection with the other components of this process.

The choice of educational methods and teaching aids depends on many objective and subjective reasons, namely:

Patterns and principles of learning arising from them;

General goals of training, education and human development;

Specific educational tasks;

Level of learning motivation;

Features of the teaching methodology of a specific academic discipline;

The time allocated for studying this or that material;

Quantity and complexity of educational material;

Level of preparedness of students;

Age and individual characteristics of students;

Students' educational skills are developed;

Type and structure of the lesson;

Number of students;

Student interest;

The relationship between the teacher and students that developed in the process of educational work (cooperation or authoritarianism);

Logistics, availability of equipment, visual aids, technical means;

Peculiarities of the teacher's personality and qualifications.

Taking into account the complex of these circumstances and conditions, the teacher makes a decision on choosing a specific teaching method or their combination for conducting a lesson.

Control questions:

1. Define methods, techniques and teaching aids

2. List the main classifications of teaching methods

3. Expand the classification of teaching methods according to the nature of students’ cognitive activity (Lerner I. Ya., Skatkin M. N.)

4. What are the conditions for using teaching methods and tools?

3. Pedagogical methods

Like any science, pedagogy is characterized not only by its own subject, but also by a specific set of methods. It is necessary to distinguish, firstly, methods of training and education , with the help of which the pedagogical process is managed, pedagogical goals are realized, and secondly, actual research methods, those. methods of obtaining pedagogical knowledge itself, which allows us to develop these goals and means of achieving them.

Methods of scientific and pedagogical research – these are ways of obtaining information in order to establish patterns, relationships, dependencies and build scientific theories.

Empirical research methods aimed at accumulating pedagogical facts, their selection, analysis, synthesis, quantitative processing: these are observation, survey methods, studying the products and processes of the activities of students and teachers, documentation and archival materials; compilation of monographic characteristics.

Theoretical level methods: selection and classification of material, study, analysis and synthesis of scientific literature on the topic of research, modeling, content analysis, etc.

Observation – this is a purposeful, relatively long-term, organized according to a special program perception of the pedagogical process, its individual types, aspects in natural conditions.

Observation can be continuous or selective. Selectivity can be determined in relation to the subjects of the activity (when observation in a lesson is not carried out for all students in the class, but only, for example, for “excellent students”) or in relation to the content of the activity and the forms of its organization (for example, explaining new material or exercising control) .

Based on observations, an expert assessment can be given. Their results are necessarily recorded. They are recorded in special protocols or observation diaries, where the names of the observed (observed), date, time and purpose are noted. The obtained data is subjected to quantitative and qualitative processing.

The main specific feature of observation is that it does not influence the object of study, does not cause phenomena of interest to it, but waits for their natural expression. This, on the one hand, is an advantage of the observation method (since it allows one to record natural human behavior), and on the other hand, it creates certain difficulties for the researcher (since he is forced to wait until he can observe the phenomenon of interest to him, and therefore must remain indefinitely In standby"). Another disadvantage of this method is that its results are influenced by the personal characteristics (attitudes, interests, mental states) of the researcher.

Observation requires a special, pre-planned plan, which includes the following steps:

determining the purpose and objectives of observation (why observe);

choice of object, subject and situation (what to observe);

choosing an observation method (how to observe);

choosing registration methods (how to keep records);

processing and interpretation of the information received (what is the result).

Types of observation: direct And indirect.

Direct observation characterized by direct observation of the process and, in turn, is divided into two types (included and non-included).

During participant observation, the researcher acts as the direct organizer of educational or educational work, activities and communication of students, which allows him to penetrate deeper into the essence of the phenomena being studied.

In non-participant observation, the researcher is outside the object being studied. With the help of non-participant observation, facts of overt behavior are recorded.

At indirect observation the researcher learns about the characteristics of the subject being studied through other persons.

To obtain the most objective data, observation must be carried out in compliance with certain rules: have a goal, a program, be carried out systematically and over a long period of time. Recording the process and results of observation must be continuous, thorough and detailed.

Survey methods : interviewing and questioning.

An interview is a method of oral conversation according to a program compiled by the researcher.

Types of interviews:

1) non-standardized (informal), in which the researcher, thinking through the questions in advance, can change them and clarify them during the conversation, depending on the circumstances;

2) a standardized interview, when the researcher asks the subject to precisely formulate answers in a certain sequence. The results of such an interview are quite accurate and easier to record. However, this type of interview does not sufficiently take into account the diversity of life situations;

3) a semi-standardized interview includes precisely formulated questions that can be changed.

Questionnaire – a method that is widely used in pedagogy.

A questionnaire is a written survey that is a set of precisely selected questions.

The method has age restrictions, as it cannot be applied to those who do not have reading and writing skills. Therefore, questioning in the practice of the educational process is used starting from the middle level of secondary schools.

One of its main advantages is the massive nature of information collection. An open questionnaire contains questions without accompanying ready-made answers. The closed-type questionnaire is structured in such a way that for each question the respondent is asked to choose one of the answer options (often the choice is “yes” or “no”). A mixed questionnaire contains elements of both types.

In pedagogical practice, up to 30-40 minutes are allotted for questioning. The order of questions is most often determined by the random number method. The obtained data is subjected to quantitative and qualitative processing. However, when processing closed questionnaires, qualitative analysis is practically impossible, since while the choices (“yes” or “no”) are similar among different people, the reasons for such choices remain unclear and cannot be compared.

The main requirements that a survey must meet are representativeness and homogeneity of the sample.

Representativeness of the sample – this property of a sample population to represent the main characteristics of the general population totality.

General population – it is the entire population or that part of it that the sociologist intends to study.

Sample population (sample) is a part of the population being studied or a set of people whom a sociologist interviews.

The survey method assumes the possibility of using the principle of anonymity, which can influence the degree of frankness in answers (for example, a questionnaire revealing students’ attitudes towards academic subjects and teachers).

The questionnaire can also be designed to obtain material concerning other individuals (for example, a survey of teachers or parents about the characteristics of children’s learning).

Sociometry – a method of scientific research that allows, based on surveys or recording behavior, to identify the structure of relationships; used to study the structure of groups and teams, organizational and communicative properties of the individual.

Based on the sociometric diagnostic procedure, the founder of which is J. Moreno, in educational practice it is possible to determine the informal leader of a group, class, teaching staff, status hierarchy in the group, group cohesion, etc.

Each individual in the group has his own sociometric status, which can be determined by analyzing the sum of preferences and rejections received from other members.

The totality of all statuses specifies status hierarchy in Group:

Sociometric stars - the highest status members of the group, having the maximum number of positive choices with a small number of negative choices. These are the people to whom the sympathies of the majority, or at least many, members of the group are directed.

High status, average status and low status members of a group defined by the number of positive choices and not having a large number of negative choices. There are groups in which there are no sociometric stars, but only high-, medium-, and low-status members.

Isolated – subjects who lack any choices, both positive and negative. The position of an isolated person in a group is one of the most unfavorable, since it indicates that other group members are completely indifferent to this individual.

Les Misérables – those group members who have a large number of negative choices and a small number of preferences.

Neglected or outcasts – members of a group who do not have a single positive choice while having negative ones.

An example of a sociometric technique . Each group member is given a group list and a questionnaire with instructions and two criteria for emotional content such as:

Who from the group do you communicate with or would like to communicate with in your free time?

Which member of the group do you communicate with least often or would least like to communicate with in your free time?

Processing the results:

Based on the questionnaire data, a sociometric matrix is ​​filled out according to the criterion of emotional gravity.

The number of positive (“+”) choices for each group member is counted. It is equal to the number of “+” choices in each column of the matrix.

The number of positive (“+”) points for each participant is calculated. For the first choice the subject is assigned 2 points, for the second - 1 point, for all subsequent choices - 0.5 points.

The number of rejections (“-” choices) for each participant is counted.

The number of points for rejections (“-” points) is calculated for each participant (points are assigned in the same way as points for positive choices only with a “-” sign).

If the application of the five listed criteria for an unambiguous determination of status is not enough, then the participant’s serial number in the alphabetical list is used as an additional one. So, for example, if two or more participants have the same values, then the higher place is taken by the participant who has a lower place in the group list.

A sociogram is being constructed. It is a graphic representation of the (usually) emotional connections between group members. In the diagram, the group members are symbolically designated (by codes), their choices and the direction of these choices are indicated (by arrows).

the value of the indicator of emotional cohesion of the group is determined: C = N B /(N(N – 1)), where C is the emotional cohesion of the group; N B – number of mutual elections in the group; N – number of group members; N(N – 1) – the total possible number of mutual elections in the group.

Pedagogical experiment – scientifically conducted experience in the field of educational or educational work with the aim of identifying the interdependence between the phenomena under study.

The main difference between an experiment and an observation is that the experimenter influences the object under study in accordance with the research hypothesis.

The study of pedagogical phenomena is carried out in specially created controlled conditions. A pedagogical experiment offers active intervention in the educational process.

Types of experiment:

1) laboratory, which is carried out in specially created conditions and allows you to accurately record the nature of the impact on the subjects and their responses;

2) a natural experiment conducted under normal educational conditions, when the subjects do not know that they are taking part in an experiment.

The introduction of an experiment makes it possible to test the effectiveness of curricula, programs for educational work, forms and methods of education and training, etc.

The following stages are usually distinguished in an experiment:

1) theoretical– formulation of the problem, definition of the goal, object, subject, tasks and hypothesis, which can be tested experimentally;

2) methodical– development of research methodology for the plan, program, methods of processing the received data;

3) the experiment itself– creation of experimental situations, observation, management and correction of experimental effects;

4) analytical– quantitative and qualitative analysis, interpretation of the data obtained, formulation of conclusions and practical recommendations.

To establish general patterns of development, the experiment is carried out on large samples. And then it becomes extremely important to comply with the general, identical conditions for its implementation (wording of instructions, appearance and placement of stimulus material, time to complete buildings, etc.).

The results of the experiment, as well as during observation, are recorded in special protocols, where, in addition to information about each subject (last name, first name, age, etc.), his reactions (emotional and behavioral), verbatim speech statements, and time for completing tasks are recorded.

A properly designed experiment allows you to test hypotheses about cause-and-effect relationships and relationships, without limiting yourself to stating correlations between variables.

There are traditional and factorial types of experimental designs. The traditional one assumes changes in only one independent variable, while the factorial one assumes changes in several. In the second option, it becomes possible to assess the interaction of factors - changes in the nature of the influence of one of the variables depending on the value of the other. In this case, analysis of variance is used to statistically process the experimental results.

If the area under study is relatively unknown and there is no system of hypotheses, then a pilot experiment is used, the results of which can help clarify the direction of further analysis.

When planning and conducting an experiment, it is necessary to take into account the socio-psychological effects that influence its course and results. The most noticeable effects include:

Audience effect . It is determined by the fact that the presence of an audience, even a passive one, in itself affects the rate of learning of the subject or his performance of the proposed task. Typically, the presence of spectators at the initial stages of training rather confuses the subject, and at the stage of performing an already mastered action (or an action that requires physical effort), on the contrary, it facilitates its implementation. This effect must be taken into account in psychological and pedagogical research and in pedagogical practice, since training, as a rule, takes place in a group form.

Boomerang effect. It consists in the fact that with some influences of a source of information on individuals or a group, a result opposite to the expected one is obtained. As a rule, this is observed if:

1. trust in the source of information has been undermined;

   the transmitted information for a long time has a monotonous character that does not correspond to the changed conditions;

   the subject transmitting information causes hostility among those who perceive it.

In pedagogical practice, this effect can be observed in the “teacher-student” relationship and negatively affect students’ assimilation of educational material.

3. First impression effect . It is expressed in the fact that often when perceiving a person, his appearance and character, the greatest importance is attached to the first impression and subsequent information about this person, if it contradicts it, can be ignored, and observed manifestations that do not fit into the created image are considered random and uncharacteristic. The first impression effect is very close in content to the halo effect.

4. Halo effect . Acts as a dissemination of the general evaluative impression of a person on the perception of his actions and personal qualities. It is observed, as a rule, in conditions of a lack of information about a person. In other words, the first impression of a person determines his subsequent perception and assessment, allowing into the consciousness of the perceiver only that which corresponds to the first impression, and filtering out what is contradictory. When forming a first impression, the halo effect can act as:

"positive halo"- positive evaluative bias, i.e. if the first impression of a person is generally favorable, then all his behavior is overestimated in a positive direction, positive aspects are exaggerated, and negative ones are underestimated or ignored;

"negative halo"- negative evaluative bias, i.e. if the first impression of a person is unfavorable, then even his positive qualities and actions are later not noticed or underestimated against the background of hypertrophied attention to shortcomings.

The effect of the first impression and the halo effect must be taken into account by the organizers of experimental studies and especially by teachers, since, due to the specifics of their professional activities, they must constantly assess the level of learning of students; a rigid assessment can be a psychologically traumatic factor. Overcoming these effects (as, indeed, many others) requires a certain amount of work from the teacher, primarily a constant reflexive analysis of his activities.

5. Hawthorne effect . It says that If subjects know the hypothesis accepted by the experimenter, then it is likely that they will involuntarily or intentionally behave in accordance with the experimenter's expectations. In general, just participating in an experiment has such an impact on the subjects that they often perform as the experimenters expect them to. To reduce the Hawthorne effect, it is enough to keep subjects unaware of the accepted hypotheses and give them instructions in as emotionally neutral a tone as possible.

6. Pygmalion effect (Rosenthal effect). Associated with the experimenter's expectations. When he is deeply convinced that the reactions of the subjects will change, then, even with his desire to maintain objectivity, there is a high probability of involuntary transmission of these expectations to the subjects, and this can affect their behavior. American psychologist Rosenthal so called the phenomenon that an experimenter, firmly convinced of the validity of his assumptions, involuntarily acts in such a way that he receives confirmation of them.

Simulation method , which is based on the creation of models of the object of study.

A special role in the development of science is played by mathematical models, the importance of which in research is increasingly expanding. In pedagogical research, objective models of objects and subjects of scientific research are distinguished: models of the process of teaching and upbringing, school lessons, university forms and methods of teaching and upbringing, control and assessment of knowledge, skills, models of a student of a certain level of performance, etc.

Studying school documentation (personal files of students, medical records, class registers, student diaries, minutes of meetings) equips the researcher with some objective data characterizing the actual practice of organizing the educational process.

Theoretical methods are related to studying literature : works of classics on issues of human science in general and pedagogy in particular; general and special works on pedagogy; historical and pedagogical works and documents from periodical pedagogical press; fiction about school, education, teachers; reference pedagogical literature, textbooks and teaching aids on pedagogy and related sciences.

Studying the literature makes it possible to find out which aspects of the problem have already been sufficiently well studied, which scientific discussions are ongoing, what is outdated, and which issues have not yet been resolved.

Working with literature involves the use of methods such as:

compiling a bibliography - a list of sources selected for work in connection with the problem under study;

abstracting – a concise presentation of the main content of one or more works on a general topic;

note-taking – keeping more detailed records, the basis of which is highlighting the main ideas and provisions of the work;

annotation – a brief record of the general content of a book or article;

citation – a verbatim recording of expressions, factual and numerical data contained in a literary source.

Mathematical and statistical methods in pedagogy they are used to process the data obtained by survey and experiment methods, as well as to establish quantitative dependencies between the phenomena being studied. They help evaluate the results of an experiment, increase the reliability of conclusions, and provide grounds for theoretical generalizations.

Examples of such statistical methods are:

factor analysis;

cluster analysis;

analysis of variance;

regression analysis;

latent structural analysis;

multidimensional scaling, etc.

Factor analysis is to identify and interpret factors. A factor is a generalized variable that allows you to collapse part of the information, i.e. present it in a convenient form. For example, the factor theory of personality identifies a number of generalized characteristics of behavior, which in this case are called personality traits.

Cluster analysis allows you to identify the leading feature and the hierarchy of feature relationships.

Analysis of variance – a static method used to study one or more simultaneously acting and independent variables for the variability of an observed characteristic. Its peculiarity is that the observed feature can only be quantitative, while at the same time the explanatory features can be both quantitative and qualitative.

Regression analysis allows you to identify the quantitative (numerical) dependence of the average value of changes in the resulting characteristic (explained) on changes in one or more characteristics (explanatory variables). As a rule, this type of analysis is used when it is necessary to find out how much the average value of one characteristic changes when another characteristic changes by one unit.

Latent structure analysis is a set of analytical and statistical procedures for identifying hidden variables (signs), as well as the internal structure of connections between them. It makes it possible to explore the manifestations of complex relationships between directly unobservable characteristics of psychological and pedagogical phenomena. Latent analysis can become the basis for modeling these relationships.

Multidimensional scaling provides a visual assessment of the similarities or differences between certain objects described by a large number of different variables. These differences are represented as distances between the objects being assessed in multidimensional space.

The most common in pedagogy are also: grouping, ranking, scaling, etc.

Grouping – combining, according to essential characteristics, units of the object under study into homogeneous populations. The grouping procedure is preceded by a thorough analysis of the problem being studied. During this analysis, the basis of the grouping is determined, i.e. main features, semantic units, etc., according to which the studied population is divided into homogeneous groups. The selected groups can be easily compared, compared, which means it is possible to analyze more deeply this or that psychological and pedagogical statement.

The scientific validity of the grouping also depends on compliance with the basic principles of the grouping in the process of its implementation: the division of heterogeneous phenomena into homogeneous ones; finding common and similar phenomena; determining the characteristics by which types should be distinguished; determining the transition interval from one type to another.

In pedagogical research, the following types of grouping are used:

1) grouping using simple summation

homogeneous characteristics , due to which the absolute numbers of their manifestations in the studied population are determined;

2) ranging, i.e. groupings of the studied units of the population depending on the increase or decrease of the characteristic being studied;

3)scaling – grouping based on logically identified features using a pre-developed ordinal or interval scale. Scaling makes it possible to organize, quantify, and determine the lowest and highest levels of the phenomenon under study;

tabulation – construction of statistical tables.

The results of statistical work, in addition to tables, are often presented graphically in the form of diagrams, figures, etc. The main methods of graphically representing statistical quantities are: the method of points, the method of straight lines and the method of rectangles. They are simple and accessible to every researcher. The technique of using them is drawing coordinate axes, establishing a scale and writing out the designations of segments (points) on the horizontal and vertical axes.

Using statistical methods, the average values ​​of the obtained indicators are determined: arithmetic mean; median - indicator of the middle of the series; degree of dispersion - dispersion, or standard deviation, coefficient of variation, etc. To carry out these calculations, there are corresponding formulas and reference tables are used. The results processed using these methods make it possible to show a quantitative relationship in the form of graphs, diagrams, and tables.

3. The relationship between the concepts of “pedagogical technology” and “methods of teaching and education”

When defining the concept of “pedagogical technology”, we used the terms: method, technique, method, means. The same terms are used when defining the methodology of teaching a certain subject or the methodology of educational work. However, these concepts are different.

Under methodology usually understood a set of methods and means of carrying out pedagogical activities in the process of teaching and upbringing. At the same time, methodology is a pedagogical science that studies 1) the patterns, content, methods and means of teaching a specific academic subject (private methodology); 2) features of the organization of the educational process in various educational institutions (methodology of educational work). However m methodology studies a variety of methods (techniques) and means of the pedagogical process, without arranging them in a certain logic, according to a certain algorithm.

Technology differs from the methodology precisely in its algorithmic and targeting a specific diagnosable result. In passing, we note that pedagogical technology is not reduced to an algorithm as an exact reproduction of actions, since it takes into account and allows for within certain limits creativity of teachers and students.

There are other approaches to distinguishing the concepts under consideration. The technique reveals to a greater extent teacher activity system in a lesson or in extracurricular educational work (what to present and in what sequence, what means to use, how to organize the various stages of the lesson, etc.). Technology, along with the activities of the teacher, describes the activities of the students themselves. In addition, the methods have a soft, recommendatory nature, while technologies more strictly prescribe a certain sequence of actions for students and the teacher, deviation from which may hinder the achievement of planned results. Technologies provide the opportunity to reproduce them, but methods are much more difficult to reproduce. They are largely based on intuition, tradition, and personal qualities of the teacher. The technology is always scientifically substantiated, based on certain philosophical, psychological or pedagogical theories that do not depend on the personality of the teacher.

The question of which of these concepts is broader - pedagogical technology or methodology - is debatable. We should agree with N.I. Zaprudsky is that this question cannot be answered unambiguously. Within the framework of technology, a teacher can use local proprietary methods and, conversely, within the framework of the author’s methodology, he can use elements of well-known technologies.

4. Classification of pedagogical technologies

Exist different reasons for classification of educational technologies. Thus, it is possible to group technologies according to the level of application, according to the philosophical basis, according to the leading factor of mental development, according to the concept of assimilation, according to organizational forms, according to the approach to the child, according to the predominant method, according to the category of students, according to the nature of the content and structure, according to the direction of modernization of the existing traditional systems (G.K. Selevko, G.D. Levites, etc.), by the degree of generalization, by the level of subjectivity of the performer (S.S. Kashlev), by the type of organization and management of cognitive activity (V.P. Bespalko). Let us name some of the most important classifications from the point of view of a practicing teacher.

By level of application There are general pedagogical, specific methodological and local technologies. General pedagogical technology characterize the holistic pedagogical process (pedagogical system) in a given region or educational institution. Private methodological(subject or educational) technology characterizes the totality of goals, content, methods and means of activity of the teacher and students within the framework of one subject or area of ​​education. Local (narrow subject, modular) technology characterizes individual parts of the educational process, the process of solving individual didactic or educational problems.

By degree of generality distinguish macro-technologies, which determine the philosophy and strategy of the pedagogical process, and micro-technologies - the tactics of pedagogical interaction, its specific techniques. Examples of macro-technologies are the technology of collective creative activity, a system of developmental education, information technology, etc., micro-technologies - technology of discussion, travel game, etc.

By the nature of the content and structure technologies are: teaching and educational, secular and religious, general education and professionally oriented, humanitarian and technocratic, as well as monotechnologies, polytechnologies (complex) and penetrating technologies. For example, in monotechnologies the entire educational process is built on any one dominant, priority idea or concept. IN complex technologies use elements of various monotechnologies. Technologies whose elements are most often included in other technologies and at the same time play the role of catalysts are called penetrating.

According to the level of subjectivity of the performer Pedagogical technologies can be classified into production (reproductive), social (problematic) and humanitarian (creative). At the same time, under production or reproductive technology is understood as an algorithmic technology that can be fully reproduced, regardless of the user’s identity. These include, for example, technologies of programmed training, modular training, and university education. Social(problematic technology) involves taking into account the user’s identity. Social technologies are: project-based learning technology, cooperative learning technology, Dalton technology, etc. Humanitarian or creative technologies are the teacher’s own technologies created in the process of professional activity.

The basis of the classification by type of organization and management of cognitive activity the nature of the interaction between teacher and student is determined. This interaction, according to V.P. Fingerless, maybe open(uncontrolled and uncorrected activity of students); cyclical(with control, self-control and mutual control); absent-minded(front) or directed ( individual); manual(verbal) or automated(using educational tools). The combination of these features determines different types of technologies (learning systems):

1) classical lecture learning (open-ended, scattered, manual);

2) training with the help of audiovisual technical means (open-ended, scattered, automated);

3) “consultant” system (open-loop, directed, automated);

4) learning with the help of a textbook (open-ended, directed, automated);

5) system of “small groups” (cyclical, scattered, manual);

6) computer training (cyclical, scattered, automated);

7) “tutor” system (cyclical, directed, manual);

8) “programmed training” (cyclical, directed, automated).

In practice, various combinations of these monotechnologies are usually found: modern traditional training, programmed training, group and differentiated teaching methods, etc.

In the direction of modernizing the existing traditional system The following groups of technologies are distinguished:

A ) technologies based on humanization and democratization of pedagogical relations characterized by the priority of personal relationships, an individual approach, the democratic nature of management, the humanistic orientation of the content, and procedural orientation. These include: pedagogy (technology) of cooperation, humane-personal technology Sh.A. Amonashvili and others.

b) technologies based on the activation and intensification of student activities. These are, for example, gaming technologies, problem-based learning technology, learning technology based on circuit and symbolic models (reference signals) V.F. Shatalov, technology of project-based learning, etc.

V) technologies based on the effectiveness of organizing and managing the learning process. Examples are: technology of programmed learning, technology of differentiated learning, technology of individualization of learning, technology of advanced learning (S.N. Lysenkova), technology based on collective learning methods, information and computer technologies.

G) pedagogical technologies based on methodological improvement and didactic reconstruction of educational material: technology for enlarging didactic units (P.M. Erdniev), technology “Dialogue of Cultures” (V.S. Bibler, S.Yu. Kurganov), pedagogical system “Ecology and Dialectics” (L.V. Tarasov), etc.;

d) p nature-conforming, using folk pedagogy methods based on the natural processes of child development: training system L.N. Tolstoy, the pedagogical system of M. Montessori, etc.

e) alternativetechnologies: Waldorf pedagogy, technology of free labor S. Frenet and others.

With all the variety of pedagogical technologies in each of them, the following classification characteristics can be distinguished:

Level of application;

Philosophical basis;

Targets and orientations;

The main factor in personality development

Scientific concept of knowledge acquisition;

The child’s position in the pedagogical process;

Features of the content of education (focus on personal structures, volume and character, etc.);

The predominant method of teaching or upbringing;

Forms of the pedagogical process;

Management of the pedagogical process (diagnosis, planning, etc.);

When analyzing pedagogical technology, you should pay attention to its software and methodological support: curricula and programs, teaching aids, didactic materials, visual aids and technical teaching aids; diagnostic tools.

The path from student to professional lies through overcoming difficulties. The choice of teaching method affects the efficiency and speed of knowledge acquisition, because the interaction between student and teacher is a mutual process, depending on the teacher’s ability to teach the material correctly.

Classification of teaching methods

Teaching methods are ordered ways of presenting knowledge, skills and abilities from the teacher to the student. Without this process, it is impossible: the implementation of goals and objectives, knowledge and assimilation of material. Types of teaching methods:

1. Practical- refer to active methods, the main goal of which is to consolidate students’ theoretical skills in practice. They form high motivation for further activities and learning.
2. Visual methods– carried out through interactive means. Presentation of material becomes more successful and makes maximum use of the human visual sensory system.
3. Verbal methods teaching - traditional methods that were considered the only possible several centuries ago. With the help of words, during a lesson you can convey a large layer of information. The auditory channel of perception is involved.

Active learning methods

Active or practical teaching methods occur in a democratic manner and are aimed at activating thinking, awakening activity in students, which ensures:

• forced and sustainable involvement in the learning process;
• stimulation of educational activities;
• interaction between students and teacher;
• independent decision-making by the student, which has a beneficial effect on motivation and the development of positive emotions during successfully completed activities;
• strong assimilation of the material as a result of joint reflection on the results of activities.

Active learning methods include:

• laboratory works;
• workshops;
• conferences;
• round tables;
• seminars;
• discussions;
• role playing;
• collective discussion of problems.

Interactive teaching methods

Visual teaching methods, or in modern terms interactive, are one of the important areas for mastering educational material to perfection. As an innovation, the interactive approach arose in the early 90s of the 20th century. and is actively used now. Interactive methods are aimed at solving the following problems:

• creating comfortable conditions for students;
• training in communication and interaction, teamwork;
• formation of professional competence and opinion;
• overcoming conflicts and disagreements during the learning process.

Examples of interactive methods include:

1. Brainstorming as a teaching method was invented in the late 30s. A. Osborne. Brainstorming involves stimulating creative solutions that are thrown out in large numbers and not analyzed at the initial stage.
2. The synectics method is a heuristic method of advanced brainstorming. Develops creative imagination through the combination of heterogeneous, incongruous elements and participants look for analogies, or points of contact between incompatible objects.

Passive learning methods

Traditional or passive teaching methods are considered classics in education and are successfully used in modern times. The positive aspects of this type of training is the ability to orally present a large amount of material in a certain period of time. The disadvantages of verbal methods include the one-sidedness of the process (lack of effective communication between teacher and student).

Passive methods include the following forms of training:

1. Lecture (lesson)– a consistent presentation by the lecturer of a specific topic in verbal form. Presenting material on even a boring topic can interest a student if the speaker has charisma and interest in his specialty.
2. Video course- modern teaching method. It is highly effective if used in conjunction with a discussion of the viewed material in the classroom with the teacher and other students.
3. Seminar- carried out after a course of lectures on a specific topic in order to consolidate the material covered. Two-way communication and discussion takes place.

Modern teaching methods

The field of education is rapidly developing, the need for innovation is dictated by the times itself. Innovative teaching methods began to be introduced into educational processes by the 60s of the 20th century. It is customary to divide modern innovative methods into 2 types: imitation (imitation - aimed at creating an artificially simulated environment) and non-imitation.

Imitation teaching methods:

• role-playing games;
• didactic games (physical, psychological, intellectual);
• research projects;
• business games (game entry into a profession using paraphernalia).

Non-imitation teaching methods:

• method of multidimensional matrices (morphological analysis of problems, search for missing elements);
• key question method;
• coaching;
• consulting;
• thematic discussions.

Methods of control and self-control in training

Learning is a process that needs to be monitored in order to determine whether students have mastered the material and how deeply. If knowledge absorption is low, teachers analyze and revise teaching methods and techniques. There are several forms of control of the learning process:

1. Preliminary control is carried out at the beginning of the school year to assess the general situation of students’ preparedness, consolidating previous years of study.
2. Current control– checking the material covered, identifying gaps in knowledge.
3. Thematic control– the completed topic or section needs to be checked, for this purpose tests and tests are carried out.
4. Self-control– the method involves working with similar samples of solutions, answers to problems are proposed – the student’s goal is to find a solution that will lead to the correct answer.

Selection of teaching methods

Teachers use various professional learning methods for a successful teaching process. The choice of teaching methods depends on many factors:

• general goals and objectives of education;
• level of students' preparation;
• personal characteristics of the teacher;
• material equipment of the educational institution (modern equipment, technical means).

Conditions for the effectiveness of teaching methods

Effective teaching methods require a high result at the training output, which is monitored using monitoring tools. Teaching methods can be considered effective if the student demonstrates:

• deep knowledge, able to make interdisciplinary connections;
• willingness to apply acquired knowledge in real life situations;
• systematic and structured knowledge, able to substantiate and prove.

Teaching methods - books

Basic teaching methods are used in the education system and preschool institutions and universities. It is difficult for people who have chosen the path of teaching to navigate the various classifications of methods. Professional literature comes to the rescue:

1. “Fundamentals of learning: didactics and methodology”. Textbook manual for universities Kraevsky V.V., Khutorskoy A.V. - the book describes modern teaching methods for teachers.
2. "Active learning methods: a new approach". Genike E.A. New interactive teaching methods are described in an interesting and professional manner.
3. “Pedagogy” (edited by Pidkasisty). Textbook for students of pedagogical colleges.
4. “Methodology of teaching social disciplines in higher education”. Lyaudis V.Ya. – for students and teachers.

LECTURE No. 35. Teaching methods

Teaching Method– this is a way of organizing students’ cognitive activity; a way of activity of a teacher and students, aimed at students mastering knowledge, skills and abilities, at the development of students and their education. The teaching method is characterized by three characteristics; it determines:

1) the purpose of training;

2) method of assimilation;

3) the nature of interaction between learning subjects.

Teaching methods– specific historical forms of acquiring knowledge, they change with changes in the goals and content of education. American educator K. Kerr identifies four “revolutions” in teaching methods depending on the prevailing medium of instruction (1972):

1) the first was that parent teachers, who served as models, gave way to professional teachers;

2) the second is associated with the replacement of the spoken word with the written word;

3) the third introduced the printed word into teaching;

4) the fourth, currently occurring, involves partial automation and computerization of training.

The assimilation of knowledge and methods of activity occurs at three levels:

1) conscious perception and memorization;

2) application of knowledge and methods of activity according to the model or in a similar situation;

3) creative application.

Teaching methods are designed to ensure all levels of learning. The teaching methods in the practice of many teachers ensure the assimilation of knowledge and methods of activity mainly at the first two levels. The reason for the insufficient implementation of teaching methods that ensure the creative application of knowledge is the poor development of the theoretical concept of teaching methods.

Two more concepts are associated with the concept of “method”: “means” and “technique”.

Teaching aids are all the devices and sources that help the teacher teach and the student learn, that is, what helps him organize the cognitive activity of students. This is the word of the teacher, textbooks, manuals, books, reference books, educational laboratories, technical teaching aids, etc. Reception is a detail of the method. For example, storytelling is a teaching method; communicating a plan is a technique for activating attention, promoting systematic perception.

Classifications of teaching methods are different.

Depending on how the student acts in learning, we can distinguish:

1) active methods– the student works independently (laboratory method, work with a book);

2) passive methods– students listen and watch (story, lecture, explanation, excursion).

The division of methods associated with the living word of the teacher according to the source of transmission and acquisition of knowledge includes:

1) verbal methods– work with the book, experiments, exercises;

2) practical methods– practical work, written answers.

According to the degree of development of independence in the cognitive activity of students, the following are distinguished:

1) explanatory and illustrative method - the student assimilates ready-made knowledge communicated to him in a variety of forms;

2) heuristic method - a method of partially independent discoveries made with the guiding role of the teacher;

3) research method - experimental work.

Classification by Yu. K. Babansky:

1) organization and implementation of cognitive activities;

2) methods of stimulation and motivation of cognitive activity;

3) methods of control and self-control.

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LECTURE No. 63. The concept of educational technology Educational technology is a set of means and methods for reproducing theoretically based processes of teaching and upbringing that allow you to successfully implement your educational goals. Education technology

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Active learning methods

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TYPES AND METHODS OF TEACHING Methods of teaching are understood as a sequential alternation of methods of interaction between teacher and students, aimed at achieving a specific goal through the study of educational material. A common classification of methods has been built

The implementation of the educational process requires the correct use of a set of teaching methods. Modern literature considers the existence of several approaches to understanding the teaching method.

Approaches to defining and understanding the essence of a teaching method

The teaching method is considered as an ordered activity of the teacher and students, aimed at achieving the set didactic goals and solving current pedagogical problems.

Definition 1

Teaching method in pedagogy- this is a set of paths, methods of achieving didactic goals, solving educational problems, the teacher’s art of directing children’s thoughts in the right direction and a system that follows an algorithm to achieve the desired result.

If the concept of method refers to the activities of a teacher, then teaching methods are considered. When the term explains the activities of students, then they talk about methods. teachings. Teaching methods with teaching methods are teaching methods.

Structure of teaching method in pedagogy and definition

Definition 2

Method in pedagogy- this is the ordered activity of a teacher aimed at achieving a set goal.

Definition 3

The structure of the methods implies the presence of techniques– elements that are components of the method, one-time actions, isolated tactics in the process of implementation and transformation of the method.

The structure of the method indicates the presence of objective and subjective components. Objective is considered independent of the teacher, the presence of personal characteristics, and reflects general didactic patterns, principles, rules, goals, objectives, forms and content of educational activities. Subjective depends on the personality of the teacher, students and the specific teaching situation.

Definition 4

Definition of the educational process in pedagogy– this is a purposeful activity for the upbringing, training and development of the individual through the presence of organized educational and educational processes as a single whole.

Since the structure of the method has an objective, constant, general component, this allows scientists to develop a theory of methods, optimize each individual method, and build routes for optimizing the educational process through the use of several specific methods. The presence of subjective influences the realization of the teacher’s creativity, increasing the creativity of the learning process.

Problems of classification of teaching methods

The characteristics of the method lead to certain difficulties in their classification.

Definition 5

Classification of teaching methods is a system of methods ordered according to a certain characteristic.

The most ancient classification is based on taking into account sources of knowledge. For a general view, sources of knowledge are presented using practice, words, visuals, and literature. The use of information and communication technologies (ICT) as a source of knowledge in pedagogy is gaining popularity. All teaching methods can be classified as visual, practical, verbal, method of working with a book, method of working with ICT.

Modern pedagogy involves the use of a classification of methods based on the nature of children’s mental activity. Taking this criterion into account, the following types of training are distinguished:

• explanatory and illustrative;
• dogmatic;
• heuristic;
• problem;
• modularly developing.

The proposed classification was compiled based on the division of increasing student activity in the process of cognition and the implementation of his educational activities.

Note 1

Modern pedagogical science offers various approaches to understanding teaching methods and their classification. The general appearance of this category is an algorithmized tactic to achieve a set goal, which indicates the relevance of their use in the learning process.

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Methods and means of teaching, their pedagogical capabilities and conditions of application.

Plan:

The concept and essence of the method, technique and rules of training.

Evolution of teaching methods.

Classification of teaching methods.

Means of education.

Selection of teaching methods and means.

Basic concepts: method, technique, teaching rule, teaching aids.

The concept and essence of the method, technique and rules of training

The success of the educational process largely depends on the methods usedteaching methods.

Teaching methods - These are ways of joint activity between the teacher and students, aimed at achieving their educational goals.ExistingThere are other definitions of teaching methods.

Teaching methods - these are ways of interrelated activities of teachers and students to implement the tasks of education, upbringing andvitiia (Yu. K. Babansky).

Teaching methods - these are ways of teaching work of teachers and organstion of educational and cognitive activity of students in solving variousspecial didactic tasks aimed at mastering the material being studiedscrap (I.F. Kharlamov).

Despite the various definitions given to this concept by didactics, the common thing is that most authors tend to consider the methodteaching by means of joint work between the teacher and students in an organized mannertions of educational activities.

Thus, the concept of teaching method reflects in interrelation the methods and specifics of the teacher’s teaching work and educational activitiesstudents' ability to achieve learning goals.

Widespread concepts in didactics are alsothe concepts of “learning technique” and “learning rule”.

Reception training - Thiscomponent or separate aspect of a methodtraining.The boundaries between the concepts of “method” and “technique” are very fluid and changeable.Chivy. Each teaching method consists of individual elements (hourthose, techniques). With the help of a technique, a pedagogical or educational task is not completely solved, but only its stage, some part of it.

Teaching methods and methodological techniques can change places and replace each other in specific pedagogical situations. Samemethodological techniques can be used in different methods. Conversely, one method for different teachers may includevarious techniques.

Thus, the method includes a number of techniques, but is not itselfis their simple sum.

Learning Rule - Thisa normative instruction or instruction on howone should act in an optimal way in order to carry out the method of activity corresponding to the method.In other words,learning rule(didactic rule)- this is a specific instruction on what to doin a typical pedagogical situation of the learning process.A rule acts as a descriptive, normative model of reception, and a system of rules for solving a specific problem is already a normative descriptionsatative model of the method.

Evolution of teaching methods

Level of production developmenteconomic forces and the nature of production relations influencefocus on the goals, content, and means of the pedagogical process. With their betrayalTeaching methods are also changing.

In the early stages of social development, the transfer of social experience to younger generations was carried out spontaneously in the process of jointactivities of children and adults. Observing and repeating adultscertain actions, mainly labor ones, children mastered themduring direct participation in the life of the social group of which they were members. Teaching methods based on imitation prevailed. Imitating adults, children mastered ways and techniques togetting food, getting fire, making clothes, etc.

At the heart of lestingreproductive method training ("do as I do"). This is the most ancienta method of teaching from which all others have evolved.

As accumulated knowledge expands and complexity is masteredof human actions, simple imitation could not provide a sufficient level of assimilation of cultural experience. Since the organization of schools there have appearedverbal methods training. Teacher using the word peredaprovided ready-made information to children who assimilated it. With the emergencewriting, and then printing, it became possible to express, indrip, transfer knowledge in symbolic form. The word becomes headsa significant carrier of information, and learning from books is a wayinteraction between teacher and student.

Books were used in different ways. Teachers at a medieval schoolXia mechanically memorized texts, mainly of religious contentnia. This is how it arosedogmatic, or catechism, method training. Moreits perfect form is associated with the formulation of questions and the presentation oftotal answers.

In the era of great discoveries and inventions, verbal methods graduallybut they are losing their significance as the only way to transfer knowledge to students. Society needed people who not only knew the laws of nature, but also knew how to use them in their activities. In processteaching included such methods as observation, experiment, independent work, exercises aimed at developing the child’s independence, activity, consciousness, and initiative. Developmentgetvisual methods training, as well as methods to helppractice to apply the acquired knowledge.

On the edgeXIXAndXXcenturies began to occupy an important placeheuristic me tod as a verbal option that more fully took into account the needs andinterests of the child, development of his independence.

Aroused interestconcept of “learning through activity” usingpractical methods Dov training. The main place in the learning process was given to manuallabor, practical exercises, as well as student workwith literature, during which children developed the skills of independent work and the use of their own experience. Approvedpartial but-search, research methods.

Over time, they are becoming more widespreadmethods are problematic th training, based on raising the problem and on independentmovement of students towards knowledge.Gradually society beginsrealize that the child needs not only training, but also the assimilation ofZUN, but also in the development of his abilities and individualdual features. Getting distributiondevelopment methods training. Widespread introduction of technology into the educational process, computerizationtion of learning leads to the emergence of new methods.

The search for methods to improve the learning process remains constant. Regardless of the role assigned to one or another teaching method, none of them can be used on its own.No teaching method is universalgreasy. A variety of methods should be used in the educational processtraining.

INModern pedagogical practice uses a large number of teaching methods.There is no uniform classification of teaching methods. This is due to the fact that different authors based the division of teaching methods intogroups and subgroups put different signs, separate aspects of the processtraining.Let's consider the most common classifications of training methodsreadings.

Classification of teaching methods by student activity level (Go Lant E.Ya.). This is one of the earliest classifications of teaching methods. According to this classification, teaching methods are divided intopassive Andactive depending on the degree of student involvement in educational activities. TOpassiveinclude methods in which students only listen andwatching (story, lecture, explanation, excursion, demonstration, observationnie), toactive -methods that organize independent work of studentsworking methods (laboratory method, practical method, working with a book).

Classification of teaching methods by source gaining knowledge (Verzi Lin N.M.). There are three sources of knowledge: word, visualization, practice. Sootresponsibly allocatedverbal methods(the source of knowledge is the spoken or printed word);visual methods(sources of knowledge are observed objects, phenomena, visual aids);practical methodsyes(knowledge and skills are formed in the process of performing practicalactions).Verbal methods occupy a central place in the system of training methodsreadings. These includestory, explanation, conversation, discussion, lecture, workthe one with the book.The second group consistsvisual methods training, in which the assimilation of educational material is in essentialdepending on the visual aids used, diagrams, tables, drawingskovs, models, instruments, technical means. Visual methods are conditionalare divided into two groups:demonstration method and illustration method.Practical teaching methods based on practical activitiessti of students. The main purpose of this group of methods is the formationpractical skills and abilities. Practical methods includeunitary enterpriseconsiderations, practicalAndlaboratory works.This classification has become quite widespread, whichThis is obviously due to its simplicity.

Classification of teaching methods for didactic purposes (Danilov M.A., Esipov B.P.). This classification identifies the following teaching methods:

methods of acquiring new knowledge;

methods of developing skills and abilities;

methods of applying knowledge;

methods of consolidating and testing knowledge, skills and abilities.

As a criterion for dividing methods into groups according to this classfication are the learning objectives. This criterion better reflects theteacher’s activity in achieving the learning goal.

Classification of teaching methods by nature a cognitive activist ness of students (Lerner I.Ya., Skatkin M.N.). According to this classification, teaching methods are divided depending ondepends on the nature of students’ cognitive activity when mastering the material being studied.The following methods are distinguished:

explanatory and illustrative (informational and receptive);

reproductive;

problematic presentation;

partially search (heuristic);

research.

Essenceexplanatory-illustrative method is thatthe teacher communicates ready-made information using different means, and the teacherthose who perceive it perceive it, realize it and record it in memory. Message inThe teacher carries out formations using the spoken word (story, conversation,explanation, lecture), printed words (textbook, additional aids), visual aids (tables, diagrams, pictures, films and filmstrips), practicaltechnical demonstration of methods of activity (showing experience, working on a machine,way to solve the problem).Students’ cognitive activity comes down to memorizing ready-made knowledge. There is a lot ofdefinitely a low level of mental activity.

Reproductive method assumes that the teacher reports, explainsprovides knowledge in a ready-made form, and students assimilate it and can reproduce and repeat the method of activity as instructed by the teacher. Accepted criterionknowledge is the correct reproduction (reproduction) of knowledge.This method provides the opportunity to transfer a significant amount of knowledge and skillsin the shortest possible time and with little effort. ThisThe method is characterized by the fact that it enriches knowledge, skills,form special mental operations, but do not guarantee developmentcreative abilities of students.

Method of problem presentation is transitional from performingto creative activity. The essence of the problem presentation method is that the teacher poses a problem and solves it himself, showingtrain of thought in the process of cognition. Students follow the logswhat kind of presentation, mastering the stages of problem solving. In the same timethey not only perceive, realize and remember ready-made knowledge, youwater, but also follow the logic of the evidence, the movement of the teacher’s thoughts. And although students are not participants, but merely observers of the process of thinking, they learn to resolve cognitive difficulties.

A higher level of cognitive activity carries with ithour strictly search (heuristic) method. The method received this name because studentsindependently solve a complex educational problem not from beginning to end, but partially. The teacher involves students in performing individual search steps. Some of the knowledge is conveyed by the teacher, some is obtained by the students on their own, answering the questions posed orsolving problem tasks. WITHThe power of this teaching method isis hoping thatNot all knowledge is offered to students in a ready-made form; some of it isyou need to mine it yourself;The teacher's activity is to manageproblem solving process.

Research method of teaching provides for creative learningstudents knowledge. Its essence is as follows:The teacher and students formulate the problem;students resolve it independently;The teacher provides assistance only when difficulties ariseopinions in solving the problem.Thus, the research method is used not only to generalize knowledge, but also to ensure that the student learnsacquire knowledge, research an object or phenomenon, draw conclusions and apply the acquired knowledge and skills in life. Its essence is reducedto the organization of search, creative activity of students to solvenew problems for them.The main disadvantage of this teaching method is that it requiresthere is no significant time investment and a high level of pedagogical qualificationsteacher's qualifications.

Classification of teaching methods based on a holistic approach to the process training (Babansky Yu.K.). MTeaching methods are divided into three groups:

methods of organizing and implementing educational and cognitive activitiesness;

methods of stimulation and motivation of educational and cognitive activistsness;

methods of monitoring and self-monitoring of the effectiveness of educational and cognitive skillstelial activity.

First group includes the following methods: perceptual (transmission and perception of educational information throughyour feelings);verbal (lecture, story, conversation, etc.);visual (demonstration, illustration);practical (experiments, exercises, completing assignments);logical, i.e. organization and implementation of logical operations(inductive, deductive, analogies);gnostic (research, problem-search, reproductiontive); self-management of educational activities (independent work with a book, equipment, etc.).

To the second group methods include: methods of developing interest in learning (cognitive games,educational discussions, creating problem situations); methods of forming duty and responsibility in teaching (encouragingnie, approval, censure, etc.).

To the third group attributed various methods of oral, written and matire testing of the knowledge of learning, as well as methods of self-monitoring of the effectiveness of one’s own educational and cognitive activities.

Currently there is no common view on the problemclassifications of teaching methods, and any of the considered classificationshas both advantages and disadvantages that must be taken into account at the selection stage and in the process of implementing specific teaching methods.

Let us dwell in detail on the individual teaching methods includedinto various classifications.

Story

This is a monologue, sequential presentation of the materialin descriptive or narrative form. A story is used to convey factual information that requires imagery and presentation. The story is used at all stages of learning, only the objectives of the presentation, style and volume of the story change.

The goals are distinguished:

story-introduction,the purpose of which is toprepare students to learn new material;

story-narration -used to express the intended purposecontent;

conclusion story -summarizes the material studied.

There are certain requirements for storytelling as a teaching method.tions: the story should ensure the achievement of didactic goals; contain reliable facts; have clear logic; the presentation must be evidential, figurative, emotional, taking into account agecharacteristics of students.In its pure form, the story is used relatively rarely. More often he isused in combination with other teaching methods - illustration,judgment, conversation.If the story fails to provide a clear and distinct understandingmania, then the method of explanation is used.

Explanation

Explanation - this is the interpretation of patterns that are essentialproperties of the object being studied, individual concepts, phenomena. The explanation is characterized by an evidentiary form of presentation based on the uselogically inferences that establish the foundations of truththe validity of this judgment.How to teach method explanationwidely used in working with people of different age groups.

There are certain requirements for explanation: accurate and evenwhat is the formulation of the essence of the problem; consistent disclosure of causalinvestigative connections, argumentation and evidence; use of comparisonsopinions, analogies, comparisons; impeccable logic of presentation.

In many cases, explanation is combined with observations, with questionsquestions asked to students and can develop into a conversation.

Conversation

Conversation - a dialogical teaching method in which the teacher, by asking a system of questions, leads students to understand new material or checks their understanding of what has already been learned.

Distinguishindividual conversations(questions addressed to one student),group conversations(questions are addressed to a specific group) andfrontalnew(questions are addressed to everyone).

Depending on the tasks that the teacher sets in the learning process,content of educational materialallocatedifferent types of conversations:

introductory, or introductory conversations. Conducted before studyingnew material to update previously acquired knowledge and determine the degree of readiness of students for knowledge, inclusion in the upcomingeducational and cognitive activity;

conversations - messages of new knowledge. There arecatechetical(reproducedpresentation of answers in the same wording as given in the textbook orteacher);Socratic(involving reflection) andheuristicslogical(inclusion of students in the process of active search for new knowledge,formulating conclusions);

synthesizing, or consolidating conversations. Serve for generalization andsystematization of students’ knowledge and ways of applying itin non-standard situations;

control and correction conversations. Used in diagnosticpurposes, as well as to clarify and supplement existing information with new informationstudents' knowledge.

One type of conversation isinterview,which cancarried out with an individual or group of people.

When conducting a conversation, it is important to formulate and ask questions correctly. They should be short, clear, meaningful; have a logical connection with each other; promote the assimilation of knowledge in the system.

I'm not followingDo not ask double, prompt questions containing ready-made answersYou; formulate questions with answers like"Yes or no".

Conversation as a teaching method hasadvantages:activates the educational and cognitive activity of students; develops their speech, memory, thinking; has great educational power; is gooddiagnostic tool, helps to monitor students' knowledge.At the same time, this method also hasflaws:requires a lot of timeny costs; If students do not have a certain stock of ideas and concepts, then the conversation turns out to be ineffective. Moreover, the conversation does not givepractical skills and abilities.

Lecture

Lecture - This is a monologue way of presenting voluminous material.

It differs from other verbal methods of presenting material more strictlygoy structure; abundance of information provided; logic of presentationmaterial; the systematic nature of knowledge coverage.

Distinguishpopular scienceAndacademiclectures. Popular scienceThese lectures are used to popularize knowledge. Academic lecturestions are used in senior secondary schools, in secondary vocational schoolsny and higher educational institutions. Lectures are devoted to major and prinfundamentally important sections of the curriculum. They differ inits construction, methods of presentation of the material. The lecture may takework to generalize and repeat the material covered.

Educational discussion

Educational discussion how the teaching method is based on gaze exchangeus on a specific problem. Moreover, these views reflect either their ownown opinions of the participants in the discussion, or rely on the opinions of others.

The main function of educational discussion is to stimulate the learnerno interest. With the help of the discussion, its participants acquire new knowledge, strengthen their own opinions, and learn to defend their positiontion, to take into account the views of others.To the discussionit is necessary to prepare students in advance, both in content andin a formal sense. Content preparation consists of accumulationacquiring the necessary knowledge on the topic of the upcoming discussion, and the formalitynay - in the choice of the form of presentation of this knowledge. Without knowledge, discussion becomesseems pointless, meaningless, and without the ability to express thoughts,convince opponents - devoid of attractiveness, contradictory.

Working with a textbook and book

Working with a textbook and book - one of the most important teaching methods.The main advantage of this method is the opportunity for the student to repeatedly access the educational material at his own pace and at a convenient time.information.Work with the book can be organized under the direct supervisionguidance of the teacher (teacher) and in the form of independent work of the student with the text. This method implements two tasks: students learn educational material and accumulate experience working with texts, master variousnew techniques for working with printed sources.

Demonstration

Demonstrationhow the teaching method involves showing experiments, technicalinstallations, television programs, videos, filmstrips,computer programs, etc.Most effectiveThis method is effective when students themselves study subjects, processesand phenomena, perform the necessary measurements, establish dependencies, benefitgiving which the active cognitive process is carried out, expandshorizons, the basis of knowledge is created.

The demonstration of real objects has didactic value,phenomena or processes occurring in natural conditions. But not alwayssuch a demonstration is possible.

Closely related to the demonstration method is the methodillustrations.Sometimes these methods are identified and not distinguished as independent.

Illustration

The illustration method involves showing objects, processes and phenomena.nies in their symbolic representation using posters, maps, portraits, photographs, drawings, diagrams, reproductions, flat models, etc.

The methods of demonstration and illustration are closely interrelated.Demonstwalkie-talkie,as a rule, it is used when the process or phenomenon is being studiedthose present must perceive it as a whole. When it is necessary to understand the essence of a phenomenon, the relationships between its components, they resort toillustrations.

When using these methods, certain precautions must be observed.instructions: use clarity in moderation; coordinate the demonstrated clarity with the content of the material; the visualization used shouldcorrespond to the age of the students; the item on display mustbe clearly visible to all students; it is necessary to clearly highlight the main thing,essential in the demonstrated object.

A special group consists of teaching methods, the main purpose of which isrykh - the formation of practical skills. To this grouptods includeexercises, practicalAndlaboratory methods.

Exercise

Exercise - repeated (repeated) implementation of educational activitiesdevelopments (mental or practical) in order to master them or improveimproving their quality.Distinguishoral, written, graphicAndeducational and labor exercises. Oral exercisescontribute to the development of a culture of speech, logicalthinking, memory, attention, cognitive abilities of students. Main purposewriting exercisesconsists in consolidating the knowledgetions, developing the necessary skills and abilities to use them. Closely related to writtengraphic exercises.Their applicationlearning helps to better perceive, comprehend and remember educational material; promotes the development of spatial imagination. Graphic exercises include work on drawing up graphs,tags, diagrams, technological maps, sketches, etc.A special group consists ofeducational and labor exercises,whose purposeis the application of theoretical knowledge in work activity. Theycontribute to mastering skills in handling tools, laboratorytor equipment (instruments, apparatus), developinghave design and technical skills.

Any exercises depending on the degree of independence of studentscan wearreproductive, training or creative in nature. To activate the educational process, consciously carry out studiesThese tasks are used