Text Art. 3 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation in the current version for 2019:
1. The bearer of sovereignty and the only source of power in the Russian Federation is its multinational people.
2. The people exercise their power directly, as well as through state authorities and local governments.
3. The highest direct expression of the power of the people is a referendum and free elections.
4. No one can appropriate power in the Russian Federation. Seizure of power or misappropriation of power is punishable under federal law.
Commentary to Art. 3 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation
1. Sovereignty (from the French souverainete - independence) means the independence of one subject of legal relations from all others. A distinction is made between the sovereignty of the nation, the state (see) and the people.
The sovereignty of a nation (the nation in this case acts as a social category) arises at the stage of formation of an independent state and, as a rule, does not receive constitutional recognition. The people are a political and legal category and mean the totality of the entire population of the country, consisting primarily of citizens of a given state. The sovereignty of the people is derived from the sovereignty of the nation and means the supremacy of the political will of the people over the state, its bodies, and individual citizens. In a modern democratic state governed by the rule of law, the sovereignty of the people is expressed in legal forms, in the form of decisions that have the highest legal force.
Before the adoption of this Constitution, Russia was dominated by the constitutional formula of “sovereignty of the Soviet people,” which was a legal fiction, since in any, even the most democratic state, the people cannot and should not have all political power. Firstly, since people living in a stable civilized state that provides their most important vital needs in employment, social well-being and legal protection do not need power. The people seize it if the state fails to fulfill these functions in conditions of a socio-political crisis, the result of which could be a social revolution that violates the usual order of legal regulation. Secondly, the exercise of state power requires highly professional knowledge, experience, and certain personal qualities, which not every person has in total. We should also not forget that the exercise of public power also involves a high degree of responsibility, which not every person is ready to bear.
The commented article 3 of the Constitution enshrines a more correct than before formula for the sovereignty of the people, applied in most constitutions of developed democratic states of the world, containing a number of elements that require separate explanation.
The bearer is a person who attributively (inherently) possesses sovereignty, but exercises it in forms, cases and terms strictly defined by law. Of course, based on the principle of the supremacy of the will of the people, it has significant initiative in choosing these forms and complete freedom in their implementation, but in a rule-of-law state these actions are carried out within the framework of the law and in accordance with it.
A single source means that no government body can substitute its decision for the free will of the people. Any action of any person or body with the purpose of committing such actions is liable in accordance with this article (see commentary to part 4 of this article).
The multinational people, as noted above (see commentary to the preamble), is a novelty of this Constitution, meaning the totality of all citizens of the Russian Federation living on its territory and beyond its borders. It is obvious that although we are talking about a multinational people, in the conditions of a federal state (see, and) and local self-government recognized in Russia (see and), the sovereignty of the people has at least three levels: national, regional and local. Despite the unity of the forms of its implementation (see commentary to Part 3 of this article), one subject of will cannot replace another (for example, the people as a whole - make decisions for the people (population) of the subject of the Federation).
2. All numerous forms of expression of the will of the people are divided into two large groups - forms of direct and representative democracy.
Direct democracy means the direct expression of the will of the people, their decision-making, the election of an official without any intermediaries and the subsequent or preliminary approval or coordination of this decision.
Representative democracy means the delegation of part of the power of the people to public authorities formed by them. We are talking specifically about those public authorities operating on a professional basis, which were discussed above (see commentary to Part 1 of Article 3 of the Russian Constitution). The term “public” means the entire set of state authorities and local self-government, since the latter are not included in the system of state authorities (see).
The system of public authority can be conditionally divided into three groups of bodies, differing in the methods of their formation. The first group consists of bodies directly elected by the people (population): the President of the Russian Federation, the State Duma, legislative (representative) bodies of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation, local representative bodies of government and heads of municipalities and municipal judges (where the election of these bodies by the population is directly provided for by laws subjects of the Federation).
The second group includes bodies indirectly formed by voters, i.e. when their will is carried out through their elected representatives. These include: the Federation Council, the Accounts Chamber, the Commissioner for Human Rights, the Heads of the constituent entities of the Federation, local government bodies elected by elected collegial representative municipal councils.
The third group includes individually (collegially) appointed bodies formed by elected (directly or indirectly) public authorities: judges of the Constitutional, Supreme and Supreme Arbitration Courts, judges of other federal courts, the Chairman of the Government of the Russian Federation, ministers of the Russian Federation, Judges of Constitutional (statutory) courts courts of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation, heads of government (administration) of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation, heads of municipal administrations and some others.
Strictly speaking, in a democratic state, all government bodies, both elected and appointed, depend on the will of the voters. Not a single sensible elected politician will appoint (or present for election) a person to a position who does not correspond to the election platform that this elected person (organization) came up with. Another thing is that in collegial elected bodies of public power, as a rule, there is a political majority and a minority (opposition). Due to the above reasons, opposition candidates often do not qualify for elected (appointed) positions.
In general, it is necessary to keep in mind that democracy, even in the freest country, has its limits, determined by national historical traditions, the level of legislative regulation and, most importantly, the level of political consciousness and activity of citizens. It is obvious that all the shortcomings of democratic processes in modern Russia are explained primarily by the insufficiency of the latter.
3. Forms of direct democracy include: elections, referendums, meetings, rallies, street processions, demonstrations, recall of elected officials on the initiative of voters, appeals, political strikes, gatherings of citizens at their place of residence and other actions. Their effectiveness depends on the level of political activity of citizens, the adequacy of legal regulation and the ability of the authorities to respond. Nevertheless, the Constitution classifies elections and referendums from this list as the highest forms of direct democracy. There are a number of reasons for this. Firstly, these are the most “ancient” of all forms of direct democracy, the history of which dates back several thousand years. Because of this, they are among the attributive forms of direct democracy and are used with varying degrees of effectiveness in both democratic and authoritarian regimes masquerading as democratic. Secondly, these are indeed the most effective forms of direct democracy. Their essence is as follows.
Elections are a way of delegating representatives of a given part of the electoral corps, called the electorate, to the highest public authorities at the appropriate level * (12). Characteristic features of elections are their periodic holding and the rotation of elected officials. Elections in the Russian Federation are carried out on the basis of traditional principles - universal, equal, direct suffrage by secret ballot (see.
Section one
Chapter 1. Fundamentals of the constitutional system
Article 1
1. Russian Federation - Russia is a democratic federal legal state with a republican form of government.
2. The names Russian Federation and Russia are equivalent.
Article 2
Man, his rights and freedoms are the highest value. Recognition, observance and protection of human and civil rights and freedoms is the responsibility of the state.
Article 3
1. The bearer of sovereignty and the only source of power in the Russian Federation is its multinational people.
2. The people exercise their power directly, as well as through state authorities and local governments.
3. The highest direct expression of the power of the people is a referendum and free elections.
4. No one can appropriate power in the Russian Federation. Seizure of power or appropriation of power is punishable by federal law.
Article 4
1. The sovereignty of the Russian Federation extends to its entire territory.
2. The Constitution of the Russian Federation and federal laws have supremacy throughout the entire territory of the Russian Federation.
3. The Russian Federation ensures the integrity and inviolability of its territory.
Article 5
1. The Russian Federation consists of republics, territories, regions, cities of federal significance, autonomous regions, autonomous districts - equal subjects of the Russian Federation.
2. The republic (state) has its own constitution and legislation. A region, region, city of federal significance, autonomous region, autonomous district has its own charter and legislation.
3. The federal structure of the Russian Federation is based on its state integrity, the unity of the system of state power, the delimitation of jurisdiction and powers between the state authorities of the Russian Federation and the state authorities of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation, equality and self-determination of peoples in the Russian Federation.
4. In relations with federal government bodies, all subjects of the Russian Federation have equal rights among themselves.
Article 6
1. Citizenship of the Russian Federation is acquired and terminated in accordance with federal law, and is uniform and equal regardless of the grounds for acquisition.
2. Every citizen of the Russian Federation has all rights and freedoms on its territory and bears equal responsibilities provided for by the Constitution of the Russian Federation.
3. A citizen of the Russian Federation cannot be deprived of his citizenship or the right to change it.
Article 7
1. The Russian Federation is a social state whose policy is aimed at creating conditions that ensure a decent life and free development of people.
2. In the Russian Federation, the labor and health of people are protected, a guaranteed minimum wage is established, state support is provided for the family, motherhood, paternity and childhood, the disabled and elderly citizens, a system of social services is developed, state pensions, benefits and other guarantees of social protection are established.
Article 8
1. The Russian Federation guarantees the unity of the economic space, the free movement of goods, services and financial resources, support for competition, and freedom of economic activity.
2. In the Russian Federation, private, state, municipal and other forms of property are recognized and protected equally.
Article 9
1. Land and other natural resources are used and protected in the Russian Federation as the basis for the life and activities of the peoples living in the relevant territory.
2. Land and other natural resources may be in private, state, municipal and other forms of ownership.
Article 10
State power in the Russian Federation is exercised on the basis of division into legislative, executive and judicial. The legislative, executive and judicial authorities are independent.
Article 11
1. State power in the Russian Federation is exercised by the President of the Russian Federation, the Federal Assembly (Federation Council and State Duma), the Government of the Russian Federation, and the courts of the Russian Federation.
2. State power in the constituent entities of the Russian Federation is exercised by the state power bodies formed by them.
3. The delimitation of jurisdiction and powers between government bodies of the Russian Federation and government bodies of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation is carried out by this Constitution, the Federal and other agreements on the delimitation of jurisdiction and powers.
Article 12
Local self-government is recognized and guaranteed in the Russian Federation. Local government is independent within the limits of its powers. Local governments are not included in the system of state authorities.
Article 13
1. Ideological diversity is recognized in the Russian Federation.
2. No ideology can be established as state or mandatory.
3. Political diversity and multi-party system are recognized in the Russian Federation.
4. Public associations are equal before the law.
5. The creation and activity of public associations whose goals or actions are aimed at violently changing the foundations of the constitutional order and violating the integrity of the Russian Federation, undermining the security of the state, creating armed groups, inciting social, racial, national and religious hatred is prohibited.
Article 14
1. The Russian Federation is a secular state. No religion can be established as state or compulsory.
2. Religious associations are separated from the state and are equal before the law.
Article 15
1. The Constitution of the Russian Federation has supreme legal force, direct effect and is applied throughout the entire territory of the Russian Federation. Laws and other legal acts adopted in the Russian Federation must not contradict the Constitution of the Russian Federation.
2. State authorities, local governments, officials, citizens and their associations are obliged to comply with the Constitution of the Russian Federation and laws.
3. Laws are subject to official publication. Unpublished laws do not apply. Any regulatory legal acts affecting the rights, freedoms and responsibilities of man and citizen cannot be applied unless they are officially published for public information.
4. Generally recognized principles and norms of international law and international treaties of the Russian Federation are an integral part of its legal system. If an international treaty of the Russian Federation establishes rules other than those provided for by law, then the rules of the international treaty apply.
Article 16
1. The provisions of this chapter of the Constitution constitute the foundations of the constitutional system of the Russian Federation and cannot be changed except in the manner established by this Constitution.
2. No other provisions of this Constitution may contradict the fundamentals of the constitutional system of the Russian Federation.
The Russo-Japanese War began on January 26 (or, according to the new style, February 8) 1904. The Japanese fleet unexpectedly, before the official declaration of war, attacked ships located in the outer roadstead of Port Arthur. As a result of this attack, the most powerful ships of the Russian squadron were disabled. The declaration of war took place only on February 10.
The most important reason for the Russo-Japanese War was Russia's expansion to the east. However, the immediate cause was the annexation of the Liaodong Peninsula, previously captured by Japan. This prompted military reform and the militarization of Japan.
The reaction of Russian society to the beginning of the Russo-Japanese War can be briefly said as follows: Japan’s actions outraged Russian society. The world community reacted differently. England and the USA took a pro-Japanese position. And the tone of press reports was clearly anti-Russian. France, an ally of Russia at that time, declared neutrality - it needed an alliance with Russia in order to prevent the strengthening of Germany. But already on April 12, France concluded an agreement with England, which caused a cooling of Russian-French relations. Germany declared friendly neutrality towards Russia.
Despite active actions at the beginning of the war, the Japanese failed to capture Port Arthur. But already on August 6 they made another attempt. A 45-strong army under the command of Oyama was sent to storm the fortress. Having encountered strong resistance and having lost more than half of the soldiers, the Japanese were forced to retreat on August 11. The fortress was surrendered only after the death of General Kondratenko on December 2, 1904. Despite the fact that Port Arthur could have held out for at least 2 more months, Stessel and Reis signed the act of surrendering the fortress, as a result of which the Russian fleet was destroyed, and 32 thousand. people were captured.
The most significant events of 1905 were:
The Battle of Mukden (February 5 – 24), which remained the largest land battle in human history until the outbreak of the First World War. It ended with the withdrawal of the Russian army, which lost 59 thousand killed. Japanese losses amounted to 80 thousand.
The Battle of Tsushima (May 27 - 28), in which the Japanese fleet, 6 times larger than the Russian fleet, almost completely destroyed the Russian Baltic squadron.
The course of the war was clearly in Japan's favor. However, its economy was depleted by the war. This forced Japan to enter into peace negotiations. In Portsmouth, on August 9, participants in the Russo-Japanese War began a peace conference. It should be noted that these negotiations were a serious success for the Russian diplomatic delegation, headed by Witte. The concluded peace treaty sparked protests in Tokyo. But, nevertheless, the consequences of the Russian-Japanese War were very noticeable for the country. During the conflict, the Russian Pacific Fleet was practically destroyed. The war claimed more than 100 thousand lives of soldiers who heroically defended their country. Russia's expansion to the East was stopped. Also, the defeat showed the weakness of the tsarist policy, which to a certain extent contributed to the growth of revolutionary sentiments and ultimately led to the revolution of 1904–1905. Among the reasons for Russia's defeat in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904 - 1905. the most important are the following:
diplomatic isolation of the Russian Empire;
the unpreparedness of the Russian army for combat operations in difficult conditions;
outright betrayal of the interests of the fatherland or the mediocrity of many tsarist generals;
Japan's serious superiority in the military and economic spheres.
The Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905 was one of the imperialist wars, when the powers that be, hiding behind national and state interests, solved their own narrowly selfish problems, and ordinary people suffered, died, and lost their health. If you asked the Russians and Japanese a few years after that war why they killed and slaughtered each other, you wouldn’t be able to answerCauses of the Russo-Japanese War
-
The struggle of European great powers for influence in China and Korea
-
Confrontation between Russia and Japan in the Far East
-
Japanese government militarism
-
Economic expansion of Russia in Manchuria
Events leading up to the Russo-Japanese War
- 1874 - Japan captured Formosa (Taiwan), but under pressure from England was forced to leave the island
- 1870s - the beginning of the struggle between China and Japan for influence in Korea
- 1885 - Sino-Japanese Treaty on the presence of foreign troops in Korea
- 1885 - In Russia, the question arose about the construction of a railway to the Far East for the rapid transfer, if necessary, of troops
- 1891 - Russian construction of the Siberian Railway begins
- 1892, November 18 - Russian Finance Minister Witte submitted a memo to the Tsar on the development of the Far East and Siberia
- 1894 - popular uprising in Korea. China and Japan sent in their troops to suppress it
- 1894, July 25 - Beginning of the Sino-Japanese War over Korea. China was soon defeated
- 1895, April 17 - The Simonsek Peace Treaty was signed between China and Japan with very difficult conditions for China
- 1895, spring - Plan of Russian Foreign Minister Lobanov-Rostovsky on cooperation with Japan in the division of China
- 1895, April 16 - Change in Russia's plans regarding Japan in connection with the statement of Germany and France to limit Japanese conquests
- 1895, April 23 - Demand from Russia, France and Germany to Japan that the latter renounce the Liaodong Peninsula
- 1895, May 10 - Japan returned the Liaodong Peninsula to China
- 1896, May 22 - Russia and China entered into a defensive alliance against Japan
- 1897, August 27 -
- 1897, November 14 - Germany forcibly captured Qiao Chao Bay in East China on the shores of the Yellow Sea, in which Russia had an anchorage
- 1897, December - The Russian squadron moved to Port Arthur
- 1898, January - England offered Russia the division of China and the Ottoman Empire. Russia rejected the offer
- 1898, March 6 - China leased Qiao Chao Bay to Germany for 99 years
- 1898, March 27 - Russia leased from China the lands of the Kwatung region (a region in southern Manchuria, on the Kwantung Peninsula in the southwestern tip of the Liaodong Peninsula) and two ice-free ports on the southeastern tip of the Liaodong Peninsula - Port Arthur (Lüshun) and Dalniy (Dalian) )
- 1898, April 13 - Russian-Japanese treaty recognizing Japanese interests in Korea
- 1899, April - an agreement was reached on the delimitation of spheres of railway communication in China between Russia, England and Germany
Thus, by the end of the 90s, the division of a significant part of China into spheres of influence was completed. England retained under its influence the richest part of China - the Yangtze Valley. Russia acquired Manchuria and to some extent other areas of walled China, Germany - Shandong, France - Yuyanan. Japan regained predominant influence in Korea in 1898
- 1900, May - the beginning of a popular uprising in China, called the Boxer Uprising
- 1900, July - Boxers attacked CER facilities, Russia sent troops to Manchuria
- 1900, August - international armed forces under the command of Russian General Linevich suppressed the uprising
- 1900, August 25 - Russian Foreign Minister Lamsdorf said that Russia would withdraw troops from Manchuria when order was restored there
- 1900, October 16 - Anglo-German agreement on the territorial integrity of China. The territory of Manchuria was not included in the treaty
- 1900, November 9 - Russian protectorate established over the Chinese Governor-General of Manchuria
- 1901, February - protest of Japan, England, USA against Russian influence in Manchuria
Manchuria is a region in northeastern China, about 939,280 km², the main city of Mukden
- 1901, November 3 - construction of the Great Siberian Railway (Trans-Siberian) was completed
- 1902, April 8 - Russian-Chinese agreement on the evacuation of Russian troops from Manchuria
- 1902, end of summer - Japan invited Russia to recognize the Japanese protectorate over Korea in exchange for Japan's recognition of Russia's freedom of action in Manchuria in the sense of protecting Russian railways there. Russia refused
“At this time, Nicholas II began to be greatly influenced by a court group led by Bezobrazov, which convinced the tsar not to leave Manchuria contrary to the agreement concluded with China; Moreover, not content with Manchuria, the tsar was incited to penetrate into Korea, where since 1898 Russia had actually tolerated the predominant influence of Japan. The Bezobrazov clique acquired a private forest concession in Korea. The concession territory covered the basins of two rivers: the Yalu and the Tuman and stretched for 800 kilometers along the Sino-Korean and Russian-Korean borders from the Korean Gulf to the Sea of Japan, occupying the entire border zone. Formally, the concession was acquired by a private joint stock company. In fact, behind him stood the tsarist government, which, under the guise of forest guards, sent troops to the concession. Trying to penetrate Korea, it delayed the evacuation of Manchuria, although the deadlines established by the agreement on April 8, 1902 had already passed.”
- 1903, August - resumption of negotiations between Russia and Japan on Korea and Manchuria. The Japanese demanded that the object of the Russian-Japanese agreement be the position of Russia and Japan not only in Korea, but also in Manchuria. The Russians demanded that Japan recognize Manchuria as an area "in all respects outside the sphere of its interests."
- 1903, December 23 - The Japanese government, in terms reminiscent of an ultimatum, announced that it “feels forced to ask the Imperial Russian government to reconsider its proposal in this sense.” The Russian government made concessions.
- 1904, January 13 - Japan strengthened its demands. Russia was about to concede again, but hesitated to formulate
The course of the Russo-Japanese War. Briefly
- 1904, February 6 - Japan broke off diplomatic relations with Russia
- 1904, February 8 - The Japanese fleet attacked the Russian in the roadsteads of Port Athrur. Beginning of the Russo-Japanese War
- 1904, March 31 - While leaving Port Athrur, the battleship Petropavlovsk hit mines and sank. 650 people died, including the famous shipbuilder and scientist Admiral Makarov and the famous battle painter Vereshchagin
- 1904, April 6 - formation of the 1st and 2nd Pacific squadrons
- 1904, May 1 - defeat of a detachment under the command of M. Zasulich numbering about 18 thousand people from the Japanese in a battle on the Yalu River. Beginning of the Japanese invasion of Manchuria
- 1904, May 5 - Japanese landing on the Liaondong Peninsula
- 1904, May 10 - railway communication between Manchuria and Port Arthur was interrupted
- 1904, May 29 - the port of Dalniy is occupied by the Japanese
- 1904, August 9 - beginning of the defense of Port Arthur
- 1904, August 24 - Battle of Liaoyang. Russian troops retreated to Mukden
- 1904, October 5 - Battle of the Shah River
- 1905, January 2 - Port Arthur was commissioned
- 1905, January - beginning
- 1905, January 25 - an attempt at a Russian counter-offensive, the battle of Sandepu, lasted 4 days
- 1905, late February-early March - battle of Mukden
- 1905, May 28 - In the Tsushima Strait (between the Korean Peninsula and the islands of the Japanese archipelago of Iki, Kyushu and the southwestern tip of Honshu), the Japanese squadron defeated the Russian 2nd squadron of the Russian fleet under the command of Vice Admiral Rozhestvensky
- 1905, July 7 - the beginning of the Japanese invasion of Sakhalin
- 1905, July 29 - Sakhalin is captured by the Japanese
- 1905, August 9 - peace negotiations between Russia and Japan began in Portsmouth (USA) through the mediation of US President Roosevelt.
- 1905, September 5 - Peace of Portsmouth
His article No. 2 read: “The Russian imperial government, recognizing Japan’s predominant political, military and economic interests in Korea, undertakes not to interfere with those measures of leadership, patronage and supervision that the imperial Japanese government might consider necessary to take in Korea.” According to Article 5, Russia ceded to Japan lease rights to the Liaodong Peninsula with Port Arthur and Dalny, and under Article 6 - the South Manchurian Railway from Port Arthur to Kuan Cheng Tzu station, somewhat south of Harbin. Thus, Southern Manchuria became Japan's sphere of influence. Russia ceded the southern part of Sakhalin to Japan. According to Article 12, Japan imposed on Russia the conclusion of a fishing convention: “Russia undertakes to enter into an agreement with Japan in the form of granting Japanese subjects fishing rights along the shores of Russian possessions in the Seas of Japan, Okhotsk and Bering. It is agreed that such an obligation will not affect the rights already owned by Russian or foreign subjects in these parts.” Article 7 of the Treaty of Portsmouth stated: “Russia and Japan undertake to operate the railways belonging to them in Manchuria solely for commercial and industrial purposes, and in no way for strategic purposes.”
Results of the Russian-Japanese War 1904-1905
“The military observer, Chief of the German General Staff, Count Schlieffen, who carefully studied the experience of the war, noted that Russia could easily continue the war; her resources were barely touched, and she could field, if not a new fleet, then a new army, and was able to achieve success. It was only necessary to better mobilize the country's forces. But tsarism was not up to this task. “It was not the Russian people,” Lenin wrote, “but the Russian autocracy that started this colonial war, which turned into a war between the old and new bourgeois world. It was not the Russian people, but the autocracy that came to a shameful defeat.” “It was not Russia that was defeated by the Japanese, not the Russian army, but our order,” the famous Russian statesman S. Yu. Witte admitted in his memoirs” (“History of Diplomacy. Volume 2”)
The Russo-Japanese War showed Russia's failure not only in foreign policy, but also in the military sphere. A series of defeats caused irreparable damage to the authority's authority. Japan did not achieve complete victory, having exhausted its resources, it was content with small concessions.
How did the Russian-Japanese War take place and its main stages? Russian soldiers showed courage, but could not defeat Japan.
Earlier in the article we talked about some problems. In this article we will consider the general course and results of the war.
Causes of the war
- Russia’s desire to gain a foothold on the “non-freezing seas” of China and Korea;
- the desire of the leading powers to prevent Russia from strengthening in the Far East. Support for Japan from the USA and Great Britain;
- Japan's desire to oust the Russian army from China and seize Korea;
- Arms race in Japan. Raising taxes for the sake of military production;
- Japan's plans were to seize Russian territory from the Primorsky Territory to the Urals.
Progress of the war
January 27, 1904- near Port Arthur 3 Russian ships were hit by Japanese torpedoes, which did not sink thanks to the heroism of the crews. The feat of Russian ships " Varangian" And " Korean» near the port of Chemulpo (Incheon).
March 31, 1904- death of the battleship " Petropavlovsk"with the headquarters of Admiral Makarov and a crew of more than 630 people. The Pacific Fleet was decapitated.
May–December 1904– heroic defense of the Port Arthur fortress. The 50 thousandth Russian garrison, having 646 guns and 62 machine guns, repelled the attacks of the 200 thousandth enemy army. After the surrender of the fortress, about 32 thousand Russian soldiers were captured by the Japanese. The Japanese lost more than 110 thousand (according to other sources 91 thousand) soldiers and officers, 15 warships sank and 16 were destroyed.
August 1904- battle under Liaoyang. The Japanese lost more than 23 thousand soldiers, the Russians - more than 16 thousand. Uncertain outcome of the battle. General Kuropatkin gave the order to retreat, fearing encirclement.
September 1904- battle at Shahe River. The Japanese lost more than 30 thousand soldiers, the Russians - more than 40 thousand. Uncertain outcome of the battle. After this, a positional war was fought in Manchuria. In January 1905, revolution raged in Russia, making it difficult to wage the war to victory.
February 1905 – Battle of Mukden stretched over 100 km along the front and lasted 3 weeks. The Japanese launched their offensive earlier and confused the plans of the Russian command. Russian troops retreated, avoiding encirclement and losing more than 90 thousand. The Japanese lost more than 72 thousand.
Other events of the Russo-Japanese War
The Japanese command admitted underestimating the enemy's strength. Soldiers with weapons and provisions continued to arrive from Russia by rail. The war again took on a positional character.
May 1905- tragedy of the Russian fleet off the Tsushima Islands. Admiral's ships Rozhestvensky (30 combat, 6 transport and 2 hospital) They covered about 33 thousand km and immediately entered into battle. No one in the world I couldn’t defeat 121 enemy ships with 38 ships! Only the cruiser Almaz and the destroyers Bravy and Grozny broke through to Vladivostok (according to other sources, 4 ships were saved), the crews of the rest died heroes or were captured. The Japanese suffered 10 severe damage and 3 sank.
Until now, Russians, passing by the Tsushima Islands, lay wreaths on the water in memory of the 5 thousand dead Russian sailors.
The war was ending. The Russian army in Manchuria was growing and could continue the war for a long time. Japan's human and financial resources were depleted (elderly people and children have already been drafted into the army). Russia signed from a position of strength Treaty of Portsmouth in August 1905.
Russia withdrew troops from Manchuria, transferred to Japan the Liaodong Peninsula, the southern part of Sakhalin Island and money for the maintenance of prisoners. This failure of Japanese diplomacy caused widespread unrest in Tokyo.
After the war, Japan's external public debt increased 4 times, and Russia's by 1/3.
Japan lost more than 85 thousand killed, Russia more than 50 thousand.
More than 38 thousand soldiers died from wounds in Japan, and more than 17 thousand in Russia.
The Russo-Japanese War was lost by Russia. The reasons were economic and military backwardness, weakness of intelligence and command, the great remoteness and extension of the theater of military operations, poor supplies, and weak interaction between the army and navy. In addition, the Russian people did not understand why they needed to fight in distant Manchuria. The revolution of 1905–1907 further weakened Russia.
Will the right conclusions be drawn? To be continued.
Loading...
