Stylistic and semantic differences of indefinite pronouns. Semantic and stylistic features of reflexive and possessive, attributive, indefinite pronouns. Mistakes made when using pronouns. Semantics and place functions

When characterizing pronouns functionally and stylistically, the first thing that attracts attention is their special usage in colloquial speech. It is here that they appear as categorical units developed by language for the purpose of indication. It is no coincidence that researchers of colloquial style claim: “Colloquial language... is pronominal in nature.” This is explained by the fact that for oral communication the requirement of absolute accuracy is not as mandatory as for written communication.

The direct contact of the participants in the dialogue, its situational replenishment, the possibility of speakers using a pre-situation, which determines the topic and is a kind of “prologue” to the utterance - all this allows the use of pronouns in colloquial speech much more often than in book speech.

The use of pronouns in the process of live communication has a number of features. Only here is it possible to specify a pronoun with a gesture, which makes it possible to extremely shorten the linguistic expression of thought. In oral speech, the order of words is often not taken into account, which in written speech prevents the correct understanding of the statement: Look, everyone is running out of their houses and carrying some things! Youtheirdo you see?(not things, not houses, but those who run out). In such cases, the meaning depends on intonation, which is so significant in oral communication, where pronouns occupy an accent position in a phrase much more often than in bookish literary language.

In colloquial speech, the use of pronouns is accompanied by various methods of their actualization; Wed pleonastic use of pronouns when indicating the subject of an action: Dima,Hewon't let you down, or constructions like: Soitand it was; Goingshe - hairstyle, dress - everything isheraccording to fashion.

Pronouns such that and pronominal adverbs how, so, when, then, where, there, where, from where in colloquial speech they act as actualizers that determine the intonational division of the utterance and highlight certain parts of it: AHeWhat?promised to come?; She

How? takes us?; And youWhere? are you going to the village? Words and phrases highlighted in this way receive logical emphasis and receive greater dynamic weight. The use of pronouns in a conversational style is also distinguished by the ability, characteristic exclusively of oral communication, to introduce individual pronouns into speech as non-significant words to fill pauses when looking for the right word: You understand... this very one... Sokolov...(word found - Sokolov).

Only in oral speech are pronouns used in unfinished phrases: Gee, I see, Togo... And heThis... do you know? Indicative words seem to contain a hint of one or another continuation of the statement, but the interlocutor is given the opportunity to speculate on its content.

For the functional-style characteristics of pronouns, the selectivity of their use in different functional styles is also important. Thus, in book, and primarily in official business and scientific styles, pronouns are used such, such, which, other, someone, something, some; in colloquial - such, all kinds, so-and-so, some, some, some, some etc. It should also be noted the refusal to use some neutral pronouns in book styles. So, in official business and scientific styles, instead of words this, this, some pronominalized adjectives and participles are used more often given, indicated, above, above-named, next, following, certain, known:Famous of interestnext point of view...

The functional and stylistic specialization of pronouns is also manifested in the fact that many stylistically neutral pronouns have a tendency towards greater frequency in book or colloquial speech. This is especially clearly seen in the example of indefinite pronouns: in works of book styles, anyone, anything, any, some; in colloquial speech those close in meaning are more often used someone, something, some, some. Interrogative pronouns who, what, which, whose, how many are more often used in colloquial speech, which is associated with the frequency of interrogative sentences in dialogues. Corresponding relative pronouns as well as pronouns which, what is are particularly active in book styles, since complex syntactic constructions are especially common here, in the structure of which the allied words represented by these pronouns and pronominal adverbs play a crucial role where, when, where and etc.

The functional and stylistic consolidation of various pronouns is convincingly evidenced by the peculiarities of the use of personal pronouns in speech. In artistic speech they dominate: they are used 7 times more often than in official business papers, and 3.5 times more often than in scientific literature.

Information about the use of different forms of personal pronouns in book styles is also interesting. Thus, pronouns of the 1st and 2nd person singular and plural: me, we, you, you- are not presented at all in an official business style. In scientific literature, it is extremely rare to note an appeal to the personal pronoun of the 1st person singular, since it is replaced by the author’s We, There are also no 2nd person pronouns here. There is no doubt that this is “due to the extralinguistic basis of styles,” however, such selectivity in the use of forms of personal pronouns “determines the essential parametric features of the structure and specificity of these speech varieties.”

Interesting patterns can also be noted in changes in the semantics of individual pronouns depending on the conditions of their use in different styles and in common speech. In live communication, one pronoun often replaces another.

Let us recall the peculiarity of Gaev’s speech in A. P. Chekhov’s play “The Cherry Orchard”: his seemingly inappropriate question whom? instead of What? when expressing misunderstanding: - Once upon a time, you and I, sister, slept in this very room, and now I am already fifty-one years old, oddly enough. -Yes, time goes by... -Whom? - Time, I say, is ticking.

In common parlance, dialogue remarks often come down to the following “strange” interrogative pronouns:

On a stack of freshly smelling hay... Venka Fomin was sleeping serenely. Soshnin

He pulled him off the hay and shook him roughly by the lapels of his padded jacket. Venka is at him for a long time

stared, blinking, not understanding where he was, what was wrong with him.

- You what?
- I'm okay. Here you what?
- I’m asking you: are you what?
- Let's go outside the gate, the women there will explain to you, Kovo And what.
(IN. Astafiev.)

The use of the form is also colloquial in nature what, displacing neutral What in interrogative sentences meaning “why? for what reason?": What what's good about it?What performing in vain?; Wed also typical of colloquial speech; What there! Doesn't matter!

The use of a number of pronouns with special meanings is stylistically limited. Yes, pronoun which, used in the meaning of the indefinite, gets a colloquial coloring: You used to get so used to calves that whenwhom give him a drink and they will take him to inject him... after three days you cry(Leek.). Pronoun most, used with a personal pronoun meaning “in one’s own person”, has a colloquial character: - Is this him? - Hemost. Pronoun such takes on a colloquial connotation when used in combination with pronouns who, what, which to highlight them: And who are you?; Well, let's see what your secrets are, young lady.(Mst.).

Individual grammatical forms of certain pronouns can also receive a bright stylistic coloring. So, the short form of the common pronoun any has an outdated or colloquial connotation: Rumors about me will spread throughout Great Rus', and they will call meeveryonethe language that exists in it... SP.); And after allall sorts of thingstries to scold a trifle bald(Gonch.). The corresponding adverb also has a distinctly colloquial connotation all sorts of things: - Did you live well yourself? - I? Fine. And I lived poorlyall sorts of things(M.G.).

The form of the genitive case of the pronoun is stylistically marked How many with the preposition - until how long, which can only be used in colloquial speech.

Russian colloquial speech. - M., 1973. - P. 448.
Kozhina M.N. On the speech systematicity of the scientific style in comparison with some others. - Perm, 1972. - P. 253.

The concept of "transposition"

TRANSPOSITION (from the Middle Ages. Lat. transpositio - rearrangement) - the use of one linguistic form in the function of another form - its opposite in the paradigmatic series. In a broad sense, transposition is the transfer of any linguistic form, for example. transposition of tenses (using the present tense instead of the past or future), moods (using the imperative in the sense of an indicative or conditional mood), communicative types of sentences (using a question sentence in the sense of a narrative one), etc. The term “transposition” is also used to refer to metaphors and other hyphenation in vocabulary.

Transposition is based on semantic or functional comparison of linguistic units; this is a relationship and a process in which 3 elements are distinguished: the original form (transpose), the means of transposition (transpositor), the result (transposite). The transpositor is a sign of connection between the defined and the defining. Transposition is one of the consequences and forms of manifestation of asymmetry in language; it plays a large role in the structure and functioning of language. Thanks to transposition, the nominative capabilities of the language and the compatibility of words are expanded, and synonyms are created to express shades of meaning.

In a narrower sense, transposition, or functional transposition, is the translation of a word (or the stem of a word) from one part of speech to another or its use in the function of another part of speech.

The theory of transposition was first developed by Bally. L. Tenier gave a description of the types of transposition, distinguishing transpositions of the first degree (translation of words or stems from one part of speech to another) and second degree (translation of sentences into the function of a noun, adjective, adverb). The idea of transposition underlies the transformation method. In modern linguistics, transposition is studied in connection with issues of word formation, syntactic. synonymy, semantic syntax, trope theory, etc.

Semantics of pronouns

Deixis and anaphora. Unlike other parts of speech, the pronoun does not name the object directly, but points to it in the conditions of a given act of speech. Every act of speech is characterized by the distribution of roles between speakers, time, place, and attitude to the utterances that preceded the given one or should follow it.

There are two ways to indirectly point to objects:

a) deixis - indication from the point of view of the speaker, who is in the center of the speech situation. This function is characteristic of pronouns of the 1st-2nd line, possessive, demonstrative. In the phrase Je prends celui-ci, the word je denotes the speaker, for he is speaking the given phrase, and celui-ci denotes the object to which he points; b) anaphora - an indication of an object by referring to its previous (less often subsequent) designation in the text. Voyez cet homme bizarre! Le connaissez-vous? The word le denotes the same object as cet homme bizarre. The anaphoric function is primarily performed by 3rd-person pronouns, possessive, interrogative and relative. The replacement of a direct designation with a pronoun is called representation, and the corresponding pronouns are called substitutes or representatives.

Deictic and anaphoric functions are characteristic not only of pronouns-nouns, but also of other words. We can talk about the representation of different parts of speech. However, the grammatical tradition, interpreting the term “pronoun” etymologically (pronomen means “instead of a name”), classifies only noun substitutes as pronouns.

However, this term should not be understood literally as a substitute for a name. Many pronouns (1st-2nd letter, on, etc.) do not replace any name. It should rather be said that the pronoun “replaces” the name: it is used in a position where, due to various factors - semantic or grammatical - the name cannot be used. Pronouns perform the functions of a name.

Anaphora rules. Anaphora is the relationship between a pronoun and the word or phrase that it replaces. The replaced word is called the antecedent or represented (Bruno), semantic source (Tenier). Since the replaced word and pronoun refer to the same referent (the designated object), they are said to be coreferential.

Replacing a noun with a pronoun follows certain rules. First of all, it should be noted that the pronoun replaces not one noun, but the entire noun phrase, that is, the noun with its characteristics. C"est du lait bouillant qu"il te faudrait. Mais je n "en ai pas (en = du lait bouillant). On the other hand, a pronoun cannot replace a name that has lost its substance. For example, you cannot say: II a eu peur-* *N Ha eu; or Prendre la fuite - "*La fuite qu"il a price. But a noun without an article can be replaced by a pronoun if it does not lose its objectivity, for example, after quantitative words with the preposition de: On alla chercher un paquet de lattes. Charles en choisit une.

The basic rule of anaphora is that the pronoun and noun exclude each other in the same position. The constructions Pierre parle or II parle are common, but not *Pierre il parle. When deviating from this basic rule, anaphora appears in its secondary function - drill or stylistic:

the drill function is manifested in a complex inversion in the question:

Pierre viendra-t-il ?

structural-stylistic function - in means of emphasis: Pierre, lui, sait tout; Pierre, il est venu and redundantly in pleonasm in common parlance (without the intonation of a dissected sentence): Pierre il est la; Tu en as de la chance.

Types of anaphora. There are various structural and semantic types of anaphora.

Structural types differ depending on the relative position of the pronoun and the semantic source. There are two of them:

a) reprise (anaphora in the narrow sense) - the pronoun follows the semantic source: Nous avons fait un bon voyage, on s"en souviendra;

b) anticipation (cataphora) - the pronoun precedes the semantic source: On s"en souviendra, de ce voyage!

Since pronouns have a variable meaning, which is clarified in connection with the semantic source, the usual form of anaphora is reprise. Anticipation is a secondary function of anaphora and manifests itself in specific conditions, or performs a structural or stylistic task. Anticipation is normal:

for interrogative pronouns, since they anticipate direct designation, requiring clarification of the semantic source: Qui est la? C "est Pierre. This feature allows the same form to be used as an interrogative (in anticipation) and as a relative form (in reprise);

for indefinite pronouns that clarify other designations in a qualitative-quantitative sense: Chacun des élives a fait bien son devoir. Il n"y avait personne de blessе parmi ces soldats.

Anticipation acts as a grammatical means:

a) when using personal pronouns in a subordinate clause preceding the main clause: Quand Charles lui raconta, le soir, cette anecdote, Emma s"emporta bien haut contre le confrère. The use of a pronoun, which semantically depends on the noun of the main clause, emphasizes the syntactic dependence subordinate clause;

b) when using demonstrative pronouns as an antecedent of subordinate clauses: Celui qui vous a contй for s"est moqué de vous; Je sais ce que tu vas faire.

Anticipation acts as a stylistic expressive means in dissected sentences: Alors? demand and rent les parents. Il est fait, ce problemme?

Semantic types of anaphora depend on the relationship between the meanings of the semantic source and the pronoun. There is a distinction between adequate and inadequate pronominal anaphora. In the first case, the pronoun accurately reproduces the scope of the meaning of the word being replaced: J "aurais voulu appeler l"infirmiеre; j"essayai plusieurs fois; elle ne venait pas. In the second, the pronoun indicates the same referent, but not the same volume. So, in the example On alla cherchez un paquet de lattes. Charles en choisit une - en. .. une denotes one object, while the noun being replaced (lattes) is plural. In the sentence Ce livre n "est pas le mien, the pronoun not only replaces the name, but also provides additional information about the object (its affiliation).

§ 9.5. Stylistic possibilities of pronouns

Stylistic features of personal pronouns. Personal pronouns are usually used with the corresponding verb forms:

And what I could tell? That I saw her on the street with a man during the day. That's all? But I have seen, How they were walking, I saw their faces. And after that we received her.

- You should have done this a long time ago...

– Leaves Not she, I'm leaving, don't be afraid...

– I Always knew what do you you'll go your separate ways.

(Yu. Nagibin)

The use of personal pronouns with verbs of the 1st and 2nd person is not necessary, since the personal endings of the latter perform the same semantic role, indicating the proposed subject of the action: – You're losing Maybe? –You...playing; -Just blather to someone– Let's kill! – Vadik promised me after him(V. Rasputin). The absence of a personal pronoun gives the narrative a certain dynamism and at the same time a conversational tone. In formal business style, the norm is to use personal forms of the verb without personal pronouns. For example, in orders and instructions such wording is used as I order...; I suggest...; I confirm... .

In ordinary speech, non-use of 2nd person personal pronouns is more common with imperative verbs: Go with the flowtake a look to the green banks. Only strong characters can row against the current;Order to break through to the stars, or to the depths of the sea, orstories battalion attack– will lead, get through, fulfill the order(A. Andreev). Personal pronouns are used to soften commands. Wed. highlighted forms: – Pull yourself together,– she said sternly. - You... You better go away\..(A. Andreev).

Contact us You or at You reflects relationships between people that are often inexpressible otherwise. Therefore, the authors often comment on the forms of address used by the characters, revealing the complexity of relationships, characters, and circumstances. For example, the characters in S. Zalygin’s novel “Paths of Altai”, deputy dean Reutsky and graduate student Loparev, were sent together on a mountain route:

By the evening of the first day, Reutsky found himself at Loparev’s beck and call, and Loparev finally became on first-name terms with him: “Count up, Lev, the shoots on the meter!”, “Divide, Lev, a plot ten by ten and describe the undergrowth!” , “Come on, take a good look at the mouse holes, Leo, are there many of them here?!” ...

Transition between well-known people with You on You may be associated with a disagreement, a quarrel, the end of friendly relations, the emergence of some kind of internal barrier and is usually accompanied by the psychological impact of one interlocutor on the other, as shown by S. Antonov:

- You lived, took a walk. Old. And she is young, rosy. And she wants to sing and dance...

- Yes, I served ten chairmen in these felt boots! – Avdey suddenly shouted. - Served for ten and you I'll survive!<...>

- I still yours I'll play dice with dice! Equality, social work! They've fooled people's heads!<_.>

- I've been watching for a long time you, Rudakov. You have a nocturnal soul...

As soon as the chairman called him by his last name and “you,” Avdey Andreich became terribly frightened.

– You Don't counter me! – he crowed. - There is no cult now.

Personal pronoun We can be used not only to designate a group of people, which includes the subject of speech. So, in scientific, and in some cases also journalistic speech, it is used in the meaning of the 1st person singular: Considering Ostrovsky’s comedy “Own People”– let's settle",We drew the attention of readers to some features of Russian, mainly merchant life, reflected in this comedy(N. Dobrolyubov). Some considered this use We archaic: The reader these days is accustomed, accustomed to the author’s “I” in journalism. Not so long ago there was controversy about this, many thought it was immodest, many preferred “we” in journalism. Now there is no dispute, now everyone writes “I”: “I came, I saw, I think”(A. Agranovsky). In journalism, thanks to the liberalization of our life, this is to a certain extent true (although much depends on the authority of this “I”). However, in scientific style, for example in abstracts, it is difficult to find the author's “I”.

In prepositional combinations with a pronoun We they talk and for us, And for us, but the last combination is colloquial in nature: – Oh ugly Fritz! He doesn't know a damn thing about music. Doesn't let me sing! - Was it really they who beat him?for us? – According to us, Certainly(V. Chudakova).

Pronoun We instead of I used in pre-revolutionary Russia in addresses on behalf of the monarch: We, NikolayII...

In a conversation between a doctor and a patient, there is also the so-called “doctoral We", to emphasize sympathy for someone: – Ah, dear young man! – the doctor met him.– Well, howWe how are we feeling?(A. Chekhov).

The personal pronoun is used after the nominative presentation. In this case, the semantic role of the preceding noun is not simply emphasized, but strengthened with the help of the pronoun: .

Rudeness of an official... It comes from the spiritual, first of all, incompatibility of a person with his official place, from the distortion of the spirit and letter of official position, when service turns into service and self-service, from civil inferiority, from the instability, spasmodic nature of public orders and the complacency of public retribution (V. Rasputin).

This use of a personal pronoun is a kind of stylistic device in journalism, but it is often used in both oratory and poetic speech.

In classical literature, the personal pronoun of the 3rd person plural They occurs in the singular with a respectful and obsequious connotation: Vitaly Petrovich is a man of the most noble rules;They they won’t go into any little detail(A. Ostrovsky); In the presence of a board member and a school trustee, she[teacher] stands up, does not dare to sit down, and when he speaks about one of them, he expresses himself respectfully:"They" (Ah, Chekhov). Modern writers' use of pronouns They in this role speech archaizes: – We won’t let dad in anymore, as you wish, Ivan Yegorovich.They elderly man(Yu. German).

Personal pronouns have a general, abstract nature and can refer to any object or person, to any event. Therefore, when expressing thoughts orally or in writing, you must be extremely precise when narrating, use, for example, clarification after using personal pronouns: – Hereshe's a lady. “Forgotten, mother,” the winner laughed and moved all the chips towards him.(B. Akunin). Really, what or who is “she”? The situation is clarified only by clarifying that we are talking about a map. Without such clarification, ambiguities and misunderstandings may arise between interlocutors, similar to those played out, for example, by S. Zalygin in the novel “Altai Paths”:

Senya began to express judgments that were not yet usual for him. Said once:

- Few We we know each other... >.

- Who We? – Ryazantsev asked.

– People... Radio, television, cinema - all this shows people in breadth. Quantitatively. Externally. But we are losing one primitive thing: the old, good, time-tested genre - the genre of friendly conversation.

The transition of the conversation from industrial topics to philosophical ones also involuntarily gave rise to a question from one of the interlocutors: “Who are we?”

Sometimes writers deliberately present a text that makes it unclear who or what they are talking about, thereby achieving a comic effect. In the same novel by S. Zalygin:

Loparev, standing on a hillock, looked around and asked Reutsky:

- So what she what will he do now?..

- Who? Who she?

– I’m asking about larch!

- Don't know. I do not know...

The initial is added to the 3rd person personal pronouns n, if they are used: a) after simple (primitive) prepositions (without, in, for and etc.); b) after adverbial prepositions (such as near, around, ahead), genitive case managers: A piece of blue sky with two stars looked out the windowOn him (M. Gorky); Rushed toher, to his Tatyana, My uncorrected eccentric(A. Pushkin); Past them a police motorcycle rumbled slowly(A. Adamov).

Using 3rd person personal pronouns with the prepositions listed above without an initial n, characteristic of writers of the past, now seems colloquially colloquial: - That's it, brother!.. All women are the same,– Syrkin continued to philosophize with enthusiasm. - They all have one thing on their mind...(Yu. Skop); – So, therefore,” he began, “he and I are going in the carriage(V. Astrov).

Parallel forms of 3rd person personal pronouns (with initial n and without it) are acceptable if used:

a) after prepositions with a defining pronoun all (under allthem – under everyonethem, behind everyonethem – behind everyonethem); b) after some denominative prepositions (in a relationshipher, abouthim opinions are divided).

Personal pronouns of the 3rd person are used without the initial n: a) after adverbial and verbal prepositions with the dative case (towards them, thanks to him): A line of people moved slowly, bending over wheelbarrows loaded with stones, andtowards them another was walking with empty wheelbarrows (M. Bitter); b) after the comparative degree of adjectives and adverbs: Jealous of everyone who stoodtaller than him career ladder, he still hoped that he would be left as a foreman(V. Voroshilov).

Stylistic features of non-personal pronouns. Using a reflexive pronoun myself, indicating the attitude of the actor to himself, and the possessive pronoun mine, indicating that someone or something belongs to the person-subject in this sentence requires special attention, since they can refer to any person: The director ordered the assistant to bein your own (at your place) in the office. The ambiguity of the sentence is due to the fact that the referent receiving this order remains unclear where he should be: in his own office or in the director’s office. In such cases, the speaker needs to construct the phrase in such a way that its ambiguity disappears, for example: The director ordered the assistant to remainin his office (did not leave his office) and The director ordered the assistant to come to him and be in his office.

Parallel to the pronoun mine use possessive pronouns my yours etc. So, in a sentence How will I cum longmy story(A. Pushkin) pronoun my can be replaced without affecting the meaning by a pronoun mine. In other cases, such a replacement is possible, but undesirable: it does not correspond to generally accepted usage, the compatibility of these pronouns, or the lexical environment. For example: There was a treatyours, unbought; breadmine, any vegetablemine, different birdsits... in a word, everything wasyours (D. Mamin-Sibiryak) and Here is my house. I built it myself. Take the table - I made it. Take a chair -my Job(B. Gorbatov). At first glance, the combinations your treat And my treat, my job And own work identical in meaning, but in these contexts these combinations must be exactly as they are presented. Basically pronouns mine And myself should not be included in sentences that refer to two different equal subjects of action. In such sentences they should be replaced with other pronouns if the context allows: I suggested that he takemy book (bettermine or his depending on the situation).

At the same time, in expressions imagine, imagine the pronoun should not be omitted; correct to say: This information is notwere no scientific interest; The expedition members did notimagined all the difficulties that they will encounter along the way. You can't talk pretend to be(instead of represent), any of oneself(instead of any oneself).

Determinative pronouns are close in meaning, but not interchangeable everyone, everyone, anyone. In accordance with the definitions given in the Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language SI. Ozhegov and N.Yu. Shvedova:

ANY. 1. Everyone, anyone from everyone, anyone. It's the same thing every time. 2. Different, all kinds. All sorts of books. 3. Whatever. Lack of any desires.

EVERY. 1. Anyone, any of his own kind. Every five days. Every day. Every third student is an excellent student.

ANY. Any; everyone, everyone. Anytime. Achieve success at any cost. In any conditions.

None of the given phrases can use all three pronouns. For example, you can say Any(or every time it's the same thing but you can't say Every time it's the same; one might say Every(or any) five days, but you can't Every five days. The compatibility and semantic shades in the contexts of these pronouns are different. Therefore, you need to be careful when using them.

It is necessary to distinguish between attributive pronouns myself And most. As noted in the Dictionary of the Russian Language, ed. A.P. Evgenieva, pronoun myself used: a) with a noun or personal pronoun and means that it is this person or thing that is directly involved in the action: Father himself was carrying Tema(N. Garin-Mikhailovsky), b) to highlight a person or object in the meaning “even, even”: In the midst of misfortune we see one poetic side(V. Belinsky). Pronoun most used with demonstrative pronouns that one to clarify them in the meaning “exactly, just”: At this very a minute a strong gust of wind split the cloud(D. Grigorovich) - or with nouns denoting place and time, indicating a spatial or temporal limit of action: Wasthe most mid summer(L. Tolstoy).

Feminine attributive pronoun herself in the accusative case singular has two forms - modern herself and outdated (and also having a bookish character) the most: I remember the Leningrad winter as strange... unlike any other, and not much likethe winter itself\ (N. Dementiev); You can change into your silk dress and look like you againthe most myself(B. Polevoy).

Definitive pronoun All in the meaning of “taken in full” not only does not have clear semantic boundaries, extends to an unlimited number of subjects, but its generalizing-vague meaning is accumulated in a large number of stable expressions that permeate our verbal generalization and put pressure on our consciousness: All for one, one for, and all; LoveAll ages are submissive and so on.

Demonstrative pronouns provide interesting opportunities for the writer. For example, the pronoun This S. Zalygin uses t to reveal the spiritual world of his heroine:

She could not imagine that this happened to her, Rita Plonskaya, who possessed something extraordinary. It, this extraordinary thing, could not be recognized, could not be seen, but this is how it should be - the most extraordinary thing should be invisible. And not knowing what it was that no one had and could not have, she believed in it. She "this" I was happy "this" was proud, and: even everything that was good and bad around her, everything "this" assessed "this" felt it.

The writer’s demonstrative pronoun turned out to be covered in a haze of mystery This, elevated to the rank of the unknown, although inherent in a given human nature. It is interesting that the author did not find a specific name for “this”, and it turned out to be more convenient for him, reflecting on girlish self-affirmation and willfulness, to use words with an abstract meaning, indicating specific manifestations of the girl’s feelings and experiences.

P. Dashkova in the novel “Air Time”, telling about the relationship between members of the same family, writes: The dacha relatives put all the force of their dislike for Nadezhda Sergeevna and Liza’s parents into the definition of “strange child.” They considered their grandmother an arrogant egoist, and they called their mother and father nothing more than “these.”

Difficulties may arise when using a pronoun each other. It should be remembered that only its second part is declined and the preposition is placed only before it: for each other, to each other, but not behind each other, towards each other. For example: The opponents stood about forty paces from each other(L. Tolstoy); We walked in single file one after another(V. Arsenyev).

Some colloquial forms of pronouns are used in fiction to characterize characters in speech: – So, they say, you should place your people on the waiting list in a new building, and ontheirs square, residents were relocated from Zhukovskaya(K. Fedin); – But you will never talk to me...– Aabout what talk to you? – he asked in surprise. She was confused: and rightly so.– "about what" (G. Nikolaeva).

§ 9.6. Stylistic possibilities of verbs

Stylistic features of personal forms of the verb. As noted above, a verb in the 1st or 2nd person form can be combined with personal pronouns, or can do without them:

When using a verb in the 3rd person without a personal pronoun, the subject of the action is completely unclear unless it is directly suggested by the context. Let us give an example from B. Akunin’s book “Extracurricular Reading”. A conversation between the president of a company giving advice to people in crisis and a client. The militants took his two children hostage and suggested: “We will kill one of your children, choose which one.”

- Okay, I’ll give you some advice... The solution is this: rush at the most disgusting bandit, sink your teeth into his throat and let them kill you. But under no circumstances should you choose between your children... Even if exists the afterlife and the torment of hell, there cannot be a worse torture than the situation you proposed. So you will win anyway.

The unknown man took his hand out of his pocket (thank God, empty, without a razor) and looked at Nika differently, without mockery and a sparkle in his eyes.

– Exists,- he said.

– What "exists"?,

- Afterlife. But now this is not relevant.

The verb “exists”, separated from the sentence in which it was used with the subject (“afterlife”), has lost its “subjectivity”, and its form does not suggest this subjectivity. If this verb had the form of the 1st or 2nd person (“I exist” or “you exist”), then, even being further removed from the base sentence, it would not lose its correlation with the only possible subject - the pronoun of the 1st or 2nd person.

At the same time, it is possible to interchange some personal forms of the verb with others. Let us present these cases.

1. The 1st person plural form of the verb instead of the 1st person singular is used in scientific speech to give the statement a more modest character regarding the merits of the author: First of all,note, that languageXVIIV. studied mainly from regional sources or from business texts of narrow genres(N. Blagova). Compare: the use of a possessive pronoun “for modesty” our: However, limiting the analysis of particles only to the sphere of dialogue is inappropriate, since the functions of particles in dialogue and monologue differ significantly and therefore, onour view, require special consideration(G. Shcherban). Currently copyright We usually replaced by a noun author draws on classic research in public sphere theory(A. Crooked-nosed). Pronoun We instead of I can also be used for the purpose of exalting one’s own person, but this refers more to everyday speech: We moreWe'll see, who will win; The old man loved to show himself on occasion: they say, we lived in the light!(I. Turgenev).

2. The verb form of the 1st person plural can be used to designate an indefinite character: – When to rest?!– The flexible, gray-eyed Larisa turned with the upper half of her body.– No movies, no dancing. No culture at allwe see (S. Antonov).

3. Using the 2nd person singular instead of the 1st person in colloquial speech: Yes, in the same forestyou walk, but there is no good mushroom for you(F. Abramov). It is not difficult to notice in sentences of this kind the meaning of repetition of an action, a shade of generalization.

4. The 2nd person singular form can be used in a generalized personal meaning, especially in proverbs: What goes around comes around.

5. Using the 2nd person plural form instead of the 2nd person singular: Notgo crazy. I was once rejected from university. And Howyou see I am not crazy(A. Andreev). In this case, we have before us a polite form of address to You to a stranger. But such treatment can also be accepted among family members, for example between children and parents: Mom, are you on your knees begging for a scarf?stroked (S. Antonov).

6. Using the 3rd person singular form instead of the 1st person singular: Listening to his interlocutor, he knew where, in what place to smile or squint his eye, and in what place to say: “Yes, yes, Ilya Ilyichunderstands." It should be noted that Ilya Ilyich liked to talk about himself in the third person, not “I’m listening to you”, “I’m asking you”, but “Ilya Ilyich youlistens", "Ilya Ilyich youasks" At the same time, he smiled so pleasantly that this sweet, endearing smile of his was immediately transmitted to his interlocutor(S. Babaevsky). This use of the 3rd person verb form characterizes an individual speech feature.

Some verbs have options for using personal forms. Such variation occurs in language, and you also need to know it. Let us indicate the most common verbs that have variants of personal forms:

Verbs recover, get sick of, get sick of when conjugated they have variants like will recover– will recover, become disgusted– disgusted, disgusted - disgusted, the first of which are normative, since the verbs themselves belong to the 1st conjugation: It is, perhaps, lordship - like smallpox... andwill recover man, but the signs remain(M. Gorky). Changing the above verbs to the 2nd conjugation is obsolete or colloquial: When I get well, I’ll live with Nikita Yegorych and leave my father!(M. Gorky);

Verbs cluck, purr, splash and some others have two forms of the present tense: one without alternating the final consonants of the base (splashes, cackles), the other - With with appropriate alternation (splashing, purring). Forms without alternation are characteristic of colloquial speech, while forms with alternation are strictly standardized: The fire does not allow the beast to get close, and now the lynx is angry,purrs (P. Melnikov-Pechersky) and I walked and sang, because when I am happy, I will certainlypurring About myself(F. Dostoevsky).

A small group of verbs do not have separate personal forms at all. Thus, verbs are not used in the 1st and 2nd person singular bud off, rust, show through, calve and etc.; verbs do not form the 1st person singular form find yourself, feel, win, convince, wonder etc. In this case, to convey the meaning of the 1st person, descriptive forms like I can find myself, feel; must win, convince.

The impossibility of forming 1st person singular forms from some verbs is played out in fiction. For example: “But in Russian you cannot say in the first person singular:"I'll run..." or"I will win..." – thought Seryozha. – Grammar resists. Maybe it’s impossible to win alone? Only everyone together"(E. Yevtushenko). Educational and methodological center “Professional textbook" V qualitytextbookForstudents ... Professor ...

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Close in meaning, but different in semantic and stylistic shades of the pronoun something, something, something, anything, something; the same parallel series is formed by the pronouns someone, someone, someone, someone, someone.

The pronoun something (respectively someone) indicates something unknown for both the speaker and the listener, for example: Something flashed in the air; Someone is knocking on the door.

The pronoun something (respectively, someone) indicates something unknown to the listener, but to some extent known to the speaker, for example: I remember something about this incident; You'll have to let someone in on the details of the issue. Wed. the difference in the use of something and something, associated with the presence of different personal pronouns as the subject: I could tell you something. “He could tell us something.” In colloquial speech the particle koi- (koi-that, koi-who) is also used.

We establish the same distinction between the pronouns some and some. Wed: You see, there are some books on the counter (unknown to both interlocutors). – I recently bought some books on my specialty (to some extent known to me).

The difference between the pronouns something and something (respectively someone and someone) is that the particle that gives the meaning “it is unknown what or who”, and the particle - gives the meaning “it doesn’t matter what or who”. Wed: He said something interesting. - Tell me something interesting; He began to call someone for help (it is unknown who for the speaker's face). – He began to call someone for help (it doesn’t matter who). Wed. also in the dialogue: - Did anyone come to us today? - Yes, someone came. The indefiniteness of pronouns with the particle -something allows us to associate them with an object that is not yet present, hence the possibility of using them with a predicate verb in the form of the future tense, imperative or subjunctive mood, as well as in interrogative sentences, for example: I will try to do something for you; Send your manuscript to someone for review; If someone had called me in advance, I would have stayed home.

The pronoun something (respectively, anyone) is close in meaning to the pronoun with the particle -something, but has a more general meaning (not one indefinite object or not one of the few indefinite objects, but one of any of these objects). Wed: ask someone (one of the few unknown people) - ask someone (any of the unknown people); Wed also in negative sentences: I don’t want to turn to anyone (to just anyone, no matter who) - I don’t want to turn to anyone (to anyone, to anyone). Pronouns with the particle - have a bookish character. The pronoun something (and accordingly someone), which is usually accompanied by an explanatory word, also has a bookish character, for example: something unexpected, someone in gray.

In the meaning of “it doesn’t matter what”, “it doesn’t matter who”, combinations of interrogative-relative pronouns (who, what, which, etc.) with words anywhere are used, for example: do anything, do anything.

The pronoun neky (bookish, cf. nekoty) has parallel case forms: nekoim - nekiem, nekoy - some, nekoim - some (obsolete nekiimi); The second options are more often used. The forms of a certain one are used as equals.

5. Semantics of pronouns

Deixis and anaphora. Unlike other parts of speech, the pronoun does not name the object directly, but points to it in the conditions of a given act of speech. Every act of speech is characterized by the distribution of roles between speakers, time, place, and attitude to the utterances that preceded the given one or should follow it.

There are two ways to indirectly point to objects:

Anaphora rules. Anaphora is the relationship between a pronoun and the word or phrase that it replaces. The replaced word is called the antecedent or represented (Bruno), semantic source (Tenier). Since the replaced word and pronoun refer to the same referent (the designated object), they are said to be coreferential.

Replacing a noun with a pronoun follows certain rules. First of all, it should be noted that the pronoun replaces not one noun, but the entire noun phrase, that is, the noun with its characteristics. Cest du lait bouillant quil te faudrait. Mais je nen ai pas (en = du lait bouillant). On the other hand, a pronoun cannot replace a name that has lost its substance. For example, you cannot say: II a eu peur-* *N Ha eu; or Prendre la fuite -» *La fuite quil a price. But a noun without an article can be replaced by a pronoun if it does not lose its objectivity, for example, after quantitative words with the preposition de: On alla chercher un paquet de lattes. Charles en choisit une.

the drill function is manifested in a complex inversion in the question:

Pierre viendra-t-il ?

Types of anaphora. There are various structural and semantic types of anaphora.

Structural types differ depending on the relative position of the pronoun and the semantic source. There are two of them:

a) reprise (anaphora in the narrow sense) - the pronoun follows the semantic source: Nous avons fait un bon voyage, on sen souviendra;

b) anticipation (cataphora) - the pronoun precedes the semantic source: On sen souviendra, de ce voyage!

for interrogative pronouns, since they anticipate direct designation, requiring clarification of the semantic source: Qui est la? Cest Pierre. This feature allows the same form to be used as an interrogative (in anticipation) and as a relative form (in reprise);

for indefinite pronouns that clarify other designations in a qualitative-quantitative sense: Chacun des élives a fait bien son devoir. Il ny avait personne de blessе parmi ces soldats.

Anticipation acts as a grammatical means:

a) when using personal pronouns in a subordinate clause preceding the main one: Quand Charles lui raconta, le soir, cette anecdote, Emma semporta bien haut contre le confrére. The use of a pronoun, which semantically depends on the noun of the main clause, emphasizes the syntactic dependence of the subordinate clause;

b) when using demonstrative pronouns as an antecedent of subordinate clauses: Celui qui vous a contй for sest moqué de vous; Je sais ce que tu vas faire.

Anticipation acts as a stylistic expressive means in dissected sentences: Alors? demand and rent les parents. Il est fait, ce problemme?

Semantic types of anaphora depend on the relationship between the meanings of the semantic source and the pronoun. There is a distinction between adequate and inadequate pronominal anaphora. In the first case, the pronoun accurately reproduces the scope of the meaning of the word being replaced: Jaurais voulu appeler linfirmiеre; jessayai plusieurs fois ; elle ne venait pas. In the second, the pronoun indicates the same referent, but not the same volume. So, in the example On alla cherchez un paquet de lattes. Charles en choisit une -- en... une denotes one thing, while the noun it replaces (lattes) is plural. In the sentence Ce livre nest pas le mien, the pronoun not only replaces the name, but also provides additional information about the object (its affiliation).

In terms of categorical meaning, the pronoun is opposed to all significant parts of speech, the main function of which is the nominative function. The pronoun does not name anything, but only indicates objects, signs, quantity...