What refers to syntactic means of expressiveness. Methods for studying syntax. Syntactic means of expression

Among the issues of the particular theory of translation, a special place is occupied by the features of transferring the functions of syntactic structures during translation. Since the choice of translation option directly depends on the functional features, in order to solve the translation problem, one must first solve an intermediate problem - to describe the functions of this design, which in turn will allow significant progress in considering ways to achieve translation equivalence. Syntax, that is, the organization of communicative units, largely serves to convey linguistic experience to other members of society. That is why, when translating from one language to another, we proceed from the equivalence of the meaning of communicative units, for which we select morphological means that contribute to the organization of these units in these languages.

Let's touch on the syntactic structure, which can be illustrated with two examples:

Example 1 - At dawn I returned to what was once my house. All now a mass of ashes. (R.D., Jan. 91)

Example 2 - The rain was pouring down as we said goodbye to what was once my family's house, but which is today so much more important to the former servant than to the grandson of the then master. (T., Nov. 4 , 95)

Despite the fact that in both examples the construction is represented by the same lexical composition, its syntactic order seems possible to be partially preserved only in the second case.

It was pouring rain, we said goodbye to the house in which my family had once lived, but which was now more important to the former servant than to the grandson of the previous owner.

In the first case, you have to add additional pronouns:

At dawn I returned to where my home once was. Now there was only a pile of ash.

At dawn I returned to what was once my home, but now a pile of ash.

This translation option contradicts the norms of compatibility of the verb “to return” and the demonstrative pronoun “that”, as well as common sense, because it turns out that the hero returned either to “what” or to the “heap of ashes”.

It would be interesting to establish what exactly determines the choice of the translator in each case of using such a construction. Let us also try to more specifically identify this construction, originally called “subordinate clause introduced by the preposition + conjunction what”.

The choice of translator primarily depends on the functional features of such a design. The functional properties of syntactic structures were considered in particular by Barkhudarov in an article on the surface and deep structures of a sentence. (1973). He proved that “the theory of surface and deep structure of sentences makes it possible to transfer to the syntactic level the opposition of variational and functional differences that have long been rooted at the phonological and morphological levels” (p. 60).

The first type includes differences in terms of expression, the second - in terms of content, but it is especially emphasized that “only the latter give language the opportunity to fulfill its role as a means of communication, that is, the transmission of meaning.” (p. 50) And therefore, they are qualitatively different from the first type. In our case, when the plan of expression coincides, the sentences differ in the plan of content. Although what in both cases means “house,” in the first case it is no longer a building, but only what it once was.

In the second case, the existence of the designated object continues, although one of its characteristics has changed, that is, when one of the characteristics changes, no qualitative changes occur.

From a functional point of view, the construction is used to designate an object that is not itself named. On the one hand, this could be an example of an attempt to achieve greater objectivity, as in the example: “They came back to take what he said was stolen from him.” Or to create a special stylistic device called tension, for example: The College of Law has set up a career advisory service in response to what it calls “the difficulties currently experienced by students about to enter an increasingly competitive market” (Ind., May 28.93).

In a complex sentence, the general contour of the speaker’s communicative intention is superimposed on the topic-rhematic structures of each of its relatively independent parts. This circuit includes categories of expanded identity of expanded difference, realized in the categories of information load, distributed according to the degree of hierarchical dependence. If in two-link complex sentences the relations of the communicative core (center) and the qualifier are superimposed on two theme-rhematic structures, then a multi-link sentence poses the task of establishing, so to speak, a macro theme and a macro rheme and identifying what is common that cements the individual links into a monolith, that is, tension analysis the entire structure.

Syntactic means (figures of speech)

Antithesis reveals the contrast between phenomena or objects. Forms the antithesis of a pair (or several) antonyms, linguistic or contextual. When everything is calm, you making noise; when everyone is worried you are calm; ... if you have to be silent, you scream; when you should speak, you are silent; ... Antithesis is a way of creating ideas: the author extracts the opposite from thought, cognizes the world not only by comparing similar phenomena (metaphor), but also in the collision of “opposite”, “extreme” phenomena.

Gradation- a rhetorical figure, the essence of which is in the arrangement of the listed elements (words, phrases, phrases) in increasing order of their values (“ascending gradation”) or in descending order of values (“descending gradation”). A full life of Russian classics in school is a condition for the existence of our people, our state; this, as they say now, is a matter of national security. Without reading “Onegin”, without knowing “Crime and Punishment”, “Oblomov”, we turn into some other people. What about “people”! They already don’t call us anything other than “the population...” The first sentence is based on an “ascending” gradation. From the second sentence to the end of the passage there is a descending gradation.

Repeat used to enhance the statement, give speech dynamism, a certain rhythm. White-white; asked and asked for help; a little.

Lexical repetition — repetition of the same word or phrase with slight variations. Behind those villages are forests, forests, forests. Winter was waiting, nature was waiting.

Anaphora- a type of repetition: the same word, several words, repeated at the beginning of several phrases, following one after another. Anaphora gives rhythm to speech. I miss my grandfather’s house with its big green yard... I miss the spacious kitchen in my grandfather’s house with its dirt floor... I miss the evening roll call of women from hill to hill...

Epiphora – repetition of the same elements at the end of each parallel row. I would like to know why I am a titular councilor? Why titular adviser?

Syntactic parallelism - repetition of syntactic structures, a special arrangement of successive phrases with the same syntactic structure, with the same type of word order, the same type of predicates. In the previous example, anaphora is inseparable from syntactic parallelism. I miss my grandfather’s house with its big green yard... I miss the spacious kitchen in my grandfather’s house with its dirt floor... I miss the evening roll call of women from hill to hill...

Period is a way of syntactically formatting a complex sentence, which combines anaphora and syntactic parallelism. When I think about the fate of Russian literature, when I remember the feat of arms that it accomplished, when I understand that it lives in the soul of every person at any time - then I agree with Maxim Gorky: yes, literature is our national pride!

Rhetorical exclamation notes emotional semantic climax segment and (parts of) speech. Serves the task of establishing active interaction with the addressee. O times! O morals!

A rhetorical question serves for emotional release semantic centers of the text, for the formation emotional-evaluative attitude addressee to the subject of speech. What is culture, why is it needed? What is culture as a value system? What is the purpose of that liberal education that has always been in our tradition?

Introduction of someone else's speech - (fictional). The author of the text (speech) acts as a playwright, creating inferred listener cues, with which he either agrees or argues. In addition to the voice of the speaker himself, other voices begin to be heard in his speech, speaking from other positions (the opinion of the opponent); reasoning turns into discussion. If we exclude rare eccentrics, we usually try to surround and present ourselves in the best possible way, to show ourselves and others even better than we really are. You will say, this is vanity, vanity, pretense. Yes, absolutely so. Just let me draw your attention to two very nice motives...

Hypophora- this is a question-and-answer move, this is a segment of monologue speech that combines a rhetorical question (or a series of questions) and an answer to them; question-thought. The question-and-answer move is that the speaker, as if anticipating the objections of the listeners, guessing their possible questions, formulates such questions himself and answers them himself. The question-and-answer course involves the addressee in the dialogue, making it a participant in the search for truth.

Rhetorical address or exclamation not so much used for naming the addressee, how much for attracting attention. Rus! Rus! Where are you heading? Ice formed at zero degrees does not sink in water. Truly a fabulous property!

Allegory- allegory, in art - a detailed simile, the details of which form a system of allusions; Moreover, the direct meaning of the image is not lost, but is supplemented by the possibility of its figurative interpretation. In fables and fairy tales, cunning is shown in the form of a fox, greed in the form of a wolf, deceit - in the form of a snake.

Parcellation - such division of the sentence, in which the content of the utterance is realized not in one, but in two or more intonation-semantic speech units, following one after another after a separating pause. Flerov can do everything. And uncle Grisha Dunaev. And the doctor too.

Polysindeton- multi-union. The ocean disappeared before my eyes, and swayed, and thundered, and sparkled, and faded, and glowed, and went somewhere into infinity.

Asyndeton- non-union. Swede, Russian, stabs, chops, cuts. People knew: somewhere, very far from them, there was a war going on. If you are afraid of wolves, do not go into the forest.

Ellipsis - omission of an utterance element, easily restored in a given context or situation. There are curious people in all the windows, and boys on the roofs. We sat in ashes, hail in dust, swords - sickles and plows.

Default- a figure of speech which means that the author does not fully express the idea, leaving it to the reader to find out exactly what was left unsaid. But listen: if I owe you... I own a dagger, I was born near the Caucasus.

Grotesque- image of reality in exaggerated, ugly-comic form, intertwining the real with the fantastic m, scary with funny.

Pamphlet– topical satire, usually of a political nature.

Pathos- (feeling, passion) - passionate inspiration, enthusiasm.

To enhance the expressiveness of the text, a variety of structural, semantic and intonation features of syntactic units of language (phrases and sentences), as well as features of the compositional structure of the text, its division into paragraphs, and punctuation design can be used.
The most significant expressive means of syntax are:
- syntactic structure of sentences and punctuation marks;
- special syntactic means of expression (figures);
- special techniques of compositional speech design of the text (question-answer form of presentation, improperly direct speech, quotation, etc.).

Syntactic sentence structure and punctuation marks

From the point of view of the syntactic structure of a sentence, the following are especially important for the expressiveness of the text:
grammatical features of a sentence: whether it is simple or complex, two-part or one-part, complete or incomplete, uncomplicated or complicated (i.e., containing series of homogeneous members, isolated members of a sentence, introductory words or addresses);
type of sentence according to the purpose of the statement: narrative, interrogative, incentive;
characterization of a sentence by emotional coloring: non-exclamatory - exclamatory.
Any of the listed grammatical features of a sentence can acquire special semantic significance in the text and be used to strengthen the author’s thoughts, express the author’s position, and create imagery.
For example, in the poem by A. A. Blok “Night, street, lantern, pharmacy...” five extremely short one-part nominative sentences create particular tension and expressiveness of the text, with sharp jolts indicating the development of the theme and emphasizing the idea of the transience of human life, which swirls in a meaningless round dance of the night, the street, the pharmacy and the dim light of the lantern.
In the poem by A. A. Blok “I am nailed to the tavern counter...” already in the first stanza:

The impersonal sentences in the last two lines convey the special state of the lyrical hero, who, not finding support in himself and turning to God, experienced the “power of grace” of prayer and is in the power of this divine power, which brings hope for the salvation of the soul.
Interrogative, motivating and exclamatory sentences can also emphasize and strengthen certain aspects of the author’s thoughts, assessments and emotions.
For example, in a poem by A. A. Akhmatova:

special expressiveness and emotional tension are created as a result of the use, already at the beginning of the text, of two interrogative and two incentive sentences, conveying the heroine’s mental pain and the request-plea addressed to her lover to let her go to “prophetic concerns.”
Role punctuation marks as expressive means in the text is determined primarily by their ability to convey a variety of shades of the author’s thoughts and feelings: surprise (question mark), doubt or special emotional tension (ellipsis), joy, anger, admiration (exclamation mark). A dot can emphasize the neutrality of the author’s position, a dash can add dynamism to a phrase, or, conversely, pause the narrative. For the semantic content of a text that includes a complex non-union sentence, the nature of the punctuation mark between parts of this sentence, etc., matters.
They have a special role in creating expressiveness of the text. copyright punctuation marks, which do not correspond to generally accepted punctuation rules, violate the automaticity of perception of the text and serve the purpose of enhancing the semantic or emotional significance of one or another fragment of it, focus the reader’s attention on the content of a concept, image, etc.:

Ex. 65. In the given texts, find syntactic means of expression and determine their functions.

1) Sounded over a clear river,
It rang in a darkened meadow,
Rolled over the silent grove,
It lit up on the other side. (A. A. Fet)

2) Russia is not only a state... It is a superstate, an ocean, an element that has not yet taken shape, has not yet entered its destined shores. It has not yet sparkled in its sharpened and faceted concepts in its originality, as a rough diamond begins to sparkle in a diamond. She is still in foreboding, in fermentation, in endless desires and endless organic possibilities.
Russia is an ocean of land, spanning a full sixth of the world and holding the West and the East in touch with its outstretched wings. (N.K. Roerich)

Ex. 66. Determine the features of the syntactic structure of sentences and the role of punctuation marks in the text of I. S. Turgenev.

Thousands of my brothers and brothers are dying there, in the distance, under the impregnable walls of fortresses; thousands of brothers thrown into the gaping jaws of death by inept leaders.
They die without a murmur; they are destroyed without repentance; they do not regret themselves; Even those inept leaders do not regret them...
Hot, heavy drops make their way, slide down my cheeks... slide onto my lips... What is this? Tears... or blood?

Special expressive means of syntax (figures)

With figures(rhetorical figures, stylistic figures, figures of speech) are stylistic devices based on special combinations of words that go beyond the scope of ordinary practical use, and aimed at enhancing the expressiveness and figurativeness of the text.
The main figures of speech include rhetorical question, rhetorical exclamation, rhetorical appeal, repetition, syntactic parallelism, polyunion, non-union, ellipsis, inversion, parcellation, antithesis, gradation, oxymoron, nominative themes.
A rhetorical question is a figure that contains a statement in the form of a question. A rhetorical question does not require an answer; it is used to enhance the emotionality, expressiveness of speech, and to attract the reader’s attention to a particular phenomenon:

There is nothing more dangerous than half-knowledge. This applies equally to science, technology, and culture. How can one judge the work of Leo Nikolayevich Tolstoy by watching the film, but without reading “War and Peace”? (From newspapers)

Rhetorical exclamation is a figure that contains a statement in the form of an exclamation. Rhetorical exclamations enhance the expression of certain feelings in a message; they are usually distinguished not only by special emotionality, but also by solemnity and elation:

Rhetorical appeal- this is a stylistic figure consisting of an emphasized appeal to someone or something to enhance the expressiveness of speech. It serves not so much to name the addressee of the speech, but rather to express the attitude towards what is said in the text. Rhetorical appeals can create solemnity and pathosity of speech, express joy, regret and other shades of mood and emotional state:

Attention! Rhetorical questions, rhetorical exclamations and rhetorical appeals as means of linguistic expressiveness are widely used in journalistic and artistic texts. The mentioned figures are also possible in texts of scientific and colloquial styles, but are unacceptable in texts of official business style.

Ex. 67. Find rhetorical questions, rhetorical exclamations and rhetorical appeals in the texts. Explain what they are used for.

1) Eagles sometimes descend lower than chickens:
But chickens will never reach the clouds! (I. A. Krylov)

2) How long, happiness, are you crowned
Will you decorate the villains? (M. Yu. Lermontov)

3) The earth is the mistress! I bowed my forehead to you. (V. Solovyov)

4) But there is no people on earth who would like war. There are forces that throw entire nations into the fire. Can its ashes not knock in the writer’s heart, the ashes of the vast conflagrations of the Second World War? Can an honest writer not speak out against those who would like to doom humanity to self-destruction? (M. A. Sholokhov)

Repeat(positional-lexical repetition, lexical repetition) is a stylistic figure consisting of the repetition of any member of a sentence (word), part of a sentence or a whole sentence, several sentences, stanzas in order to attract special attention to them.

Attention! Repetition as a stylistic figure should be distinguished from the means of textual communication of the same name. The same applies to syntactic parallelism, parcellation and ellipsis.

« Young you are still very young!“- Ivan Ignatievich sighed. (V.F. Tendryakov);
Miracle he lives in the warmth, behind the stove. Miracle listens to fairy tales, howling in the trumpet. Miracle shaggy, kind, homely. Miracle - the dead mother's down scarf on her sore shoulders. Miracle - grandmother's hands, her grumbling and noisy swearing. Miracle - counter person. Miracle - his voice, eyes, ears. Miracle - that's life! (V.P. Astafiev)
Types of repetition are anaphora, epiphora And pickup.
Anaphora(translated from Greek - ascent, rise), or unity of beginning, is the repetition of a word or group of words at the beginning of lines, stanzas or sentences:

She thought: really this beauty still appears to people today, really During this time that she lived in the world, her beauty did not fade or fade at all? (V. G. Rasputin)

Epiphora(translated from Greek - addition, final sentence of a period) is the repetition of words or groups of words at the end of lines, stanzas or sentences:

They got a loaf of light bread - joy! Today the film is good in the club - joy! A two-volume edition of Paustovsky was brought to the bookstore - joy!(A.I. Solzhenitsyn)

Pickup- this is a repetition of any segment of speech (sentence, poetic line) at the beginning of the corresponding segment of speech following it:

Serpilin was silent. Silent and he thought not about separate education and not about the sons of this woman who liked him more and more, but about his own life and about his own son... (K. M. Simonov)

Attention! Various types of repetitions as a means of enhancing the expressiveness of the text are widely used in artistic, journalistic and colloquial styles of speech. In order to attract attention to any phenomenon or concept, repetition can also be used in scientific, business and official business styles.

Ex. 68. Find different types of repetitions in the texts. Determine their functions.

1) Dear friend, and in this quiet house
The fever hits me.
I can't find peace in a quiet house
Near the peaceful fire. (A. A. Blok)

2) Young trumpeters are thundering above us,
Alien constellations rise above us,
Alien banners are rustling above us...
A little wind
A little north -
Run after them
Run after them
Chase them
Roll in the fields
Sing in the steppes! (E. G. Bagritsky)

3) The world nomadism began in the darkness:
It is the trees that roam the night earth,
These are fermenting golden wine - clusters,
It is the stars who wander from house to house,
These are the rivers starting their journey - backwards!
And I want to sleep on your chest. (M. I. Tsvetaeva)

Parallelism(syntactic parallelism) (in translation from Greek - going side by side) - identical or similar construction of adjacent parts of the text: adjacent sentences, poetic lines, stanzas, which, when correlated, create a single image:

I look at the future with fear,
I look at the past with longing... (M. Yu. Lermontov);

I was a ringing string for you,
I was your blooming spring,
But you didn't want flowers
And you didn't hear the words? (K. D. Balmont)

Attention! Syntactic parallelism as a means of linguistic expressiveness is characteristic of artistic and journalistic styles of speech. In scientific and official business styles, the named stylistic figure is used as one of the means of logical highlighting.
It should be taken into account that, in addition to syntactic parallelism, there is compositional parallelism. It is based on the similarity of plot lines and semantic parallelism between parts of the text. For example, a description of a change in nature may precede a description of a change in the character’s internal state.

Multi-Union(polysyndeton) - a repetition of conjunctions that is redundant from a grammatical point of view, felt as superfluous and used as an expressive means:
How strange And alluring, And carrier, And wonderful in the word: road! And how wonderful this road itself is (N.V. Gogol);

Pseudoculture may not differ in word or gesture from the culture But business, But consequence, But differs in its fallibility. (S. P. Zalygin)

Attention! Polyunion can be used as a means of increasing the semantic significance of the listed elements, giving the speech a solemn tone and emotional elation.

Asyndeton(asyndeton) - deliberate omission of conjunctions between homogeneous members of a sentence or parts of a complex sentence:

Non-union as a stylistic device is used to enhance the figurativeness of speech, as well as to enhance the semantic opposition of the components of the statement and increase the expressiveness of the text.
The first of these functions is characteristic of non-union in the artistic style of speech, the second - for non-union in the journalistic style.

Attention! Non-union and multi-union as expressive means are used in artistic, journalistic and colloquial styles of speech.

Ex. 69. Find cases of parallelism, polyunion and non-union. Determine their functions in texts.

1) Black raven in the snowy twilight,
Black velvet on dark shoulders. (A. A. Blok)

2) The hour hand is approaching midnight.
The candles fluttered like a wave of light.
Thoughts stirred like a dark wave.
Happy New Year, heart! (M. I. Tsvetaeva)

3) No, I will say positively, there was no poet with such universal responsiveness as Pushkin, and it’s not just responsiveness that matters, but its amazing depth, but the transformation of his spirit into the spirit of foreign peoples, an almost perfect transformation. (F. M. Dostoevsky)
4) If such masters as Akhmatova or Zamyatin are walled up alive for the rest of their lives, condemned to the grave to create in silence, without hearing the echo of their writing, this is not only their personal misfortune, but the grief of the entire nation, but a danger for the entire nation. (A.I. Solzhenitsyn)
5) Each of them (those who died during the Great Patriotic War) was the whole world. And this world went out forever. Along with him went to the graves unfulfilled dreams, unfulfilled weddings, unborn children, unsung songs, unbuilt houses, unwritten books. (V.V. Bykov)

Ellipsis(in translation from Greek - lack, lack) - a stylistic device consisting in the deliberate (deviating from the neutral norm) omission of any member or part of a sentence:
- Here I am with a broadsword! - shouted a courier galloping towards him with a mustache as long as an arshin (N.V. Gogol);
And a minute later the captain, Chang and the artist are already on the dark street, where the wind and snow blow out the lanterns. (I. A. Bunin)
With ellipsis, the predicate verb is most often omitted, which gives the text special expressiveness and dynamism, emphasizing the swiftness of the action and the intensity of the hero’s mental state.
Ellipsis can also be expressed in the omission of other members of the sentence, including the entire predicative basis:

An engine roar, an annoying howl that takes out the soul - a waterfall from the sky... And the unshakably strong earth shakes, breaks, crumbles... Face, chest, stomach, knees into the unsafe ground.(V.F. Tendryakov)

In addition to creating a special expressiveness of the text, ellipsis can also perform other stylistic functions:
- give the beginning of the text (beginning) an intriguing character:
After lunch, we left the brightly and hotly lit dining room on the deck and stopped at the railing (I. A. Bunin);
- express the author’s assessment of the content of the previous part of the text:
And then you’ll think: on our global spaceship, where some people also live this way and others that way (this applies to individual people, entire states, and entire nations), in the face of an imminent environmental catastrophe, we will all be equal: both the president and the last "hard worker", the billionaire with the last beggar... in the end the chances will be zero. Comforts. (V. A. Soloukhin)

Inversion(translated from Greek - rearrangement, inversion) is a change in the usual order of words in a sentence in order to emphasize the semantic significance of any element of the text (word, sentence), giving the phrase a special stylistic coloring: solemn, high-sounding or, conversely, colloquial, somewhat reduced characteristics.
The following combinations are considered inverted in Russian:
- the agreed definition comes after the word being defined:
I'm sitting behind bars in dungeon dank(M. Yu. Lermontov);
But there were no swells running through this sea; the stuffy air did not flow: it was brewing great thunderstorm(I. S. Turgenev);
- additions and circumstances expressed by nouns come before the word to which they relate:
Hours monotonous the battle(monotonous clock strike);
- the predicate comes before the subject, known from the previous context (the subject is “given” in the sentence, and the predicate is “new”):

Going Zhilin, all the shadows are held. (L.N. Tolstoy)

Attention! As means of linguistic expressiveness, ellipsis and inversion are widely used in artistic and journalistic styles. They are unacceptable in official business and scientific styles of speech (with the exception of popular science).

Parcellation(in translation from French - particle) - a stylistic device that consists in dividing a single syntactic structure of a sentence into several intonational and semantic units - phrases. At the point where the sentence is divided, a period, exclamation and question marks, and an ellipsis can be used.
In the morning, bright as a splint. Scary. Long. Ratnym. The rifle regiment was defeated. Our. In an unequal battle (R. Rozhdestvensky);
Why isn't anyone outraged? Education and healthcare! The most important areas of society! Not mentioned in this document at all (From newspapers);
The state needs to remember the main thing: its citizens are not individuals. And the people. (From newspapers)
Parceling can enhance the expressiveness of the text, highlighting any details of the overall picture, emphasizing the significance of certain parts of the statement that are most important from the author’s point of view, and conveying the author’s attitude to what is being communicated.

Attention! Parcellation is typical for literary, journalistic and colloquial texts. It is unacceptable in scientific and official business texts.

Ex. 70. Find cases of ellipsis, inversion and parcellation. Determine their functions in texts.

1) But those who profess only a dead shell of churchliness are not fit to be leaders... The people will not accept these. If he receives it, he will reset it. (I. E. Shmelev)

2) We wanted songs - there were no words.
We wanted to sleep - there were no dreams.
We wore mourning - the orchestra played carcasses. (V. Tsoi)

3) And the first one is more complete, friends, more fully! And all the way to the bottom in honor of our union! (A.S. Pushkin)

4) Oh you, Motherland! ...You, immeasurable one, the tired and driven one falls to you, and you take your poor sons on your powerful chest, hug them with arms that span many miles, and feed them with eternal strength. (B.K. Zaitsev)
5) Who doubts our right and duty to think about the structure of the future Russia! Everything is changing in this world. Nobody knows the timing, the time will come - there will be a new Russia. (I. S. Shmelev)
6) By the way, on a cloudy day before it rains, look closely at the light. Before the rain it is one, during the rain it is different, and after the rain it is completely special. Because wet leaves give the air a faint shine. Grey, soft and warm. (K. G. Paustovsky)

Gradation(in translation from Latin - gradual increase, strengthening) - a technique consisting in the sequential arrangement of words, expressions, tropes (epithets, metaphors, comparisons) in order of strengthening (increasing) or weakening (decreasing) of a characteristic.
Increasing gradation is usually used to enhance the imagery, emotional expressiveness and impact of the text:

Glowed, burned, shone huge blue eyes. (V. A. Soloukhin)

Descending gradation is used less frequently and usually serves to enhance the semantic content of the text and create imagery:

It should be taken into account that the gradation technique is based on a change in the attribute on an abstract quantity scale (up: average - more - a lot - very much; down: a lot - less - a little - very little) and an abstract rating scale (with a positive rating: good - quite good - very good - excellent - above the norm; with a negative assessment: bad - pretty bad - very bad - disgusting):

Attention! Gradation as a means of expressiveness is used in artistic, journalistic and colloquial styles of speech.

Ex. 71. Find examples of gradation in the texts, determine on what basis its members are arranged, describe its expressive role.

1) He brought it - and weakened, and lay down
Under the arch of the hut on the bast,
And the poor slave died at his feet
The invincible ruler. (A.S. Pushkin)

2) Will I find the same embrace there?
Hello old man, will you meet me?
Will friends and brothers find out
A sufferer, after many years? (M. Yu. Lermontov)

3) Rus'! Rus! I see you from my wonderful, beautiful distance, I see you: poor, scattered and uncomfortable in you... (N.V. Gogol)

4) Sweet, kind, old, gentle,
Don't be friends with sad thoughts. (S. A. Yesenin)

5) And it became more and more difficult to walk. The wind roared, hitting people with cold, wet palms, trying to knock them off their feet. Above, something hideously huge, broken from its chains, was raging, sobbing, roaring. (V. M. Shukshin)

6) No, he would be unbearably scary,
Earthly destiny, don’t always be with us
Neither our childhood days, nor our youth,
Not the whole life in its last hour. (A. T. Tvardovsky)

Antithesis(in translation from Greek - opposition) is a turn in which opposing concepts, positions, images are sharply contrasted. To create an antithesis, antonyms are usually used - general linguistic and contextual:

Attention! Antithesis is used to enhance the expressiveness of speech, emphasizing contrasting images, contrasting assessments. Antithesis, like gradation, is characteristic primarily of artistic and journalistic texts.

Ex. 72. Find examples of antithesis in the texts. Determine what antonyms are used in them, how the technique of opposition affects the expressiveness of the text.

1) My faithful friend! my enemy is treacherous!
My king, my slave! Native language! (V. Ya. Bryusov)

2) You and the poor one,
You are also abundant
You are mighty
You are also powerless
Mother Rus'! (N. A. Nekrasov)

3) I’m sad because you’re having fun. (M. Yu. Lermontov)

4) The world is multifaceted, multicolored,
Sometimes kind, sometimes cruel,
He is generous and stingy, rich and poor:
Look at him - he is all for us! (V. Alatyrtsev)

5) I am a king, I am a slave, I am a worm, I am God. (G. R. Derzhavin)

6) Faces appear and disappear,
Nice today, far away tomorrow. (A. Akhmatova)

Oxymoron(translated from Greek - witty-stupid) is a stylistic figure in which usually incompatible concepts are combined, usually contradicting each other ( bitter joy, ringing silence and so on.); in this case, a new meaning is obtained, and speech acquires special expressiveness:
From that hour began for Ilya sweet torment, lightly scorching the soul (I. S. Shmelev);

Eat joyful melancholy in the red of dawn (S. A. Yesenin);

But their ugly beauty
I soon comprehended the mystery. (M. Yu. Lermontov)

Ex. 73. Find the oxymoron in the following texts. Explain its meaning and expressive role.

1) The forest silence mysteriously rustles,
Autumn sings and wanders invisibly through the forests...
It gets darker day after day, and now I can hear it again
A yearning song accompanied by the ringing of gloomy pines. (I. A. Bunin)

3) It's a sad time! charm of the eyes,
Your farewell beauty is pleasant to me -
I love the lush decay of nature,
Forests dressed in scarlet and gold. (A.S. Pushkin)

4) Out of hateful love,
From crimes, frenzy -
A righteous Rus' will emerge. (M. A. Voloshin)

Attention! An oxymoron as a means of enhancing the expressiveness of a text is permissible only in journalistic and artistic styles.

Nominative themes(segmented syntactic construction) is a stylistic figure that is a structure divided into two parts, in which the first part denotes a concept that is relevant to the speaker or writer (the topic of the message), and the second part contains any statement about this concept. The first part of the nominative topic can be represented by a word, a combination of words, a sentence, or even several sentences:
Moscow! On the maps of the world there is no such word for us, filled with such content (L. M. Leonov);
Fourth Symphony, our symphony, my symphony, Where's she? (Yu. M. Nagibin);

The expressive functions of the nominative theme are associated with its ability to highlight the most significant parts of the text, attract the attention of the reader or listener to them, and also give speech a special pathosity and expressiveness.

Attention! The nominative theme is widely used in literary and journalistic texts, in colloquial speech, as well as in works of popular science.

Ex. 74. Find designs with nominative themes. Explain their functions in the text.

1) Citizenship... We have gradually reduced this great and invaluable concept to a demagogic prefix pronounced in a trained voice. (V. G. Rasputin)
2) Freedom from everything in the world - why do we need it if we don’t know what we are free for? (S. L. Frank)

Generalization exercises

Ex. 75. a) Determine what means of linguistic expression are used in the text.

The city of Pushkin is the cradle of the poet’s creativity. This is where he spent his early years and where his first creative ideas were born. The beautiful landscapes of the parks, the majestic monuments of Russian military glory, the slender Cameron Gallery, and the sculpture “Girl with a Jug” evoke stanzas from many of Pushkin’s works. (According to G. A. Obernikhina)

b) Compare different explanations of the role of some linguistic means of expression in this text. Which of them seem most accurate to you and why?

1. The metaphor “the cradle of the poet’s creativity” serves to enhance the expressiveness of the text.
2. The metaphor “the cradle of the poet’s creativity” gives the text extraordinary expressiveness.
3. A number of homogeneous members of the sentence (“beautiful landscapes of parks, majestic monuments of Russian military glory, the slender Cameron Gallery, the sculpture “Girl with a Jug”) makes it possible to imagine the places where Pushkin spent his youth.
4. The last sentence sounds especially expressive due to a number of homogeneous members: “Beautiful landscapes of parks, majestic monuments of Russian military glory, the slender Cameron Gallery, the sculpture “Girl with a Jug” ...”
5. Using the metaphor “the cradle of the poet’s creativity,” the author characterizes the role of the places where Pushkin spent his youth in the formation of him as a poet. G. A. Obernikhin reveals the content of this influence in the following series of homogeneous members of the sentence: “beautiful landscapes of parks, majestic monuments of Russian military glory, the slender Cameron Gallery, the sculpture “Girl with a Jug”.”

Ex. 76. Write out all the visual and expressive means from the texts: paths and their types; stylistic figures and their types. Indicate the means of creating images at the level of phonetics, vocabulary, morphology, word formation, syntax.

1) Why in the language of departed people
Were there thunders of singing passions?
And hints of the ringing of all times and feasts,
And the harmony of colorful words?

Why in the language of modern people -
The sound of bones being poured into a hole?
The imitation of words is like an echo of rumor,
Like the murmur of marsh grass?

Because when, young and proud,
Water appeared between the rocks,
She was not afraid to break forward, -
If you stand in front of her, she will kill you.

And it kills, and floods, and runs transparently,
He only values his will.
Thus a ringing sound is born for the times to come,
For today's pale tribes. (K. D. Balmont)

Paths,

Lexical means

Syntactic means.

Let us consider which specific language means are included in each group. Don’t be intimidated by the volume of theoretical material; I’m sure you are familiar with these concepts. It is only necessary to systematize knowledge on this topic.

TRAILS:

TROPES is a generalized name for stylistic devices that consist of using a word in a figurative meaning.

METAPHOR - a type of allegory, transfer of meaning from one word to another based on similarity of characteristics, a hidden comparison in which there is no comparative phrase. For example: The bird cherry tree is pouring snow. (snow is like blooming bird cherry brushes). The red sun rolled down like a wheel behind the blue mountains (the sun is like a wheel).

Meaning: increases the accuracy of poetic speech and its emotional expressiveness.

METONYMY - replacement of one word or concept with another that has a causal or other connection with the first. For example: Here on new waves All flags will visit us. (the metonymy "all flags" replaces the verbose expression "ships of all countries flying different flags")

Meaning: technique of short expressive speech, saving lexical means.

IRONY (pretense) - the use of a word or expression in the opposite sense to the literal one, for the purpose of ridicule. For example: Ay, Moska, I know she is strong, That she barks at an elephant.

Meaning: creating a comic effect.

HYPERBOLE (exaggeration) - a figurative expression consisting of exaggeration of size, strength, beauty, etc. For example: ... the rocks trembled from their blows, the sky trembled from the menacing song.

Meaning: the imagery of satirical works is built on hyperboles. Hyperbolization is a source of humor, a means of ridicule.

PERSONIFICATION is a type of metaphor, the transfer of human properties to inanimate objects and abstract concepts. For example: Evening illuminated a star with a blue candle Above my road.

Meaning: increases the emotional expressiveness of the text.

SYNECDOCHE (generalization) is a special case of metonymy, the designation of a whole through its part. For example: Swede, Russian stabs, chops, cuts.

Meaning: gives speech brevity and expressiveness, enhances the expression of speech and gives it a deep generalizing meaning.

LITOTA (simplicity) is a figurative expression that downplays the size, strength, or significance of the described object or phenomenon. For example: Your Pomeranian, a lovely Pomeranian, is no bigger than a thimble.

Meaning: the simultaneous use of litotes and hyperbole sharply and strongly emphasizes the created image. Stylistic device of double negative. Serves as a means to create a satirical and humorous effect.

EPITHET - a figurative definition of an object or action. For example: On the shore of desert waves He stood full of great thoughts.

Meaning: Creates a visible image of an object, phenomenon, forms an emotional impression, conveys a psychological atmosphere, mood. Characterizes, explains some property, quality of a concept, object or phenomenon; the writer's worldview is embodied. An epithet in the description of nature as a means of expressing feelings, mood. An expression of a person's inner state.

ANTONOMASY (renaming) is a trope consisting in the use of a proper name in the meaning of a common noun, a type of metonymy. For example: in the Russian language, the use of the words Donquixote, Don Juan, Lovelace, etc. in a figurative sense has been established.

Meaning: This trope is often used in journalism. It is based on a rethinking of the names of historical figures, writers, and literary heroes. In fiction it is used as a means of figurative speech.

ALLEGORY - an allegorical image of an object or phenomenon with the aim of most clearly showing its essential features (in fables, riddles). The expression of an abstract concept or idea in a specific artistic image. For example: in fables and fairy tales, stupidity, stubbornness are embodied in the image of a Donkey, cowardice - a Hare, cunning - a Fox. The allegorical meaning can receive an allegorical expression: “autumn has come” can mean “old age has come.”

Meaning: widely used in Aesopian language - a manner that reveals resourcefulness in the invention of reservations, omissions and other deceptive means. Used to bypass censorship. With the help of allegory, ideas of deep philosophical content are expressed figuratively.

PERIPHRASE or PERIPHRASE (descriptive expression) is a stylistic device consisting of replacing the usual one-word name of an object or phenomenon with a descriptive expression. For example: Leo is the king of beasts. A sad time, the charm of the eyes (instead of “autumn”).

Meaning: essential aspects, characteristic features of an object or phenomenon are emphasized.

ARTISTIC SYMBOL - figurative words that replace the name of a life phenomenon, the concept of an object with its conventional designation, reminiscent of this phenomenon and giving it a new, deeper meaning. For example: Rain is a symbol of sadness and tears. The cuckoo is a symbol of a lonely, yearning woman. Birch is a symbol of Russia.

Meaning: gives the word a new, deeper meaning.

LEXICAL MEANS:

1. HOMONYMS are words that have different meanings, but are identical in pronunciation and spelling. For example, the water supply system systematically fails, and the repairmen do not have any system to work with.

Meaning: add liveliness and expressiveness to the language. They can give a comic coloring, ambiguity, and the nature of a pun. For example: A person with good command of the language is required to apply stamps.

2. SYNONYMS are words of the same part of speech that are close to each other in meaning. Synonyms form a synonymous series, for example, to feel fear, to be afraid, to be apprehensive, to be frightened, to be afraid, to be horrified, to be cowardly.

Meaning: indicate the richness of the language, serve to more accurately express thoughts and feelings.

3. ANTONYMS are words of the same part of speech that are opposite in meaning. For example, early - late, fall asleep - wake up, white - black.

Meaning: make speech bright, emotional. Serve to create contrast.

4. PARONYMS - words with the same root, similar in sound, but not the same in meaning. For example: imprints and typos (have different prefixes), unresponsive and irresponsible (have different suffixes).

5. COMMON VOCABULARY - words known to all speakers of Russian, used in all styles of speech, stylistically neutral. For example, spring, water, earth, night.

Meaning: denotes vital objects, actions, signs, phenomena.

5. DIALECTISM - these are words belonging to a specific dialect. Dialects are Russian folk dialects that contain a significant number of original words known only in a certain area. For example: kochet - rooster, gutarit - talk, beam - ravine.

Meaning: they evoke in the reader more vivid ideas about the place where the described events develop for the purpose of the character’s speech characteristics.

6. PROFESSIONALISM - these are words that are used in various fields of production, technology, etc. and which have not become generally used; terms - words that name special concepts of any sphere of production or science; professionalisms and terms are used by people of the same profession, in the same field of science. For example, abscissa (mathematics), affricates (linguistics); window - free time between lessons in the teacher's speech.

Meaning: used in fiction and journalism as an expressive means to describe a situation, create a production landscape, or verbally characterize a certain sphere of human activity.

7. JARGONISM - words limited in their use to a certain social or age environment. For example, they distinguish between youth (ancestors - parents), professional (nadomae - undershooting the landing sign), and camp jargon.

Meaning: jargon is used in works of fiction for the purpose of verbal characterization of characters and creating the desired flavor.

8. ARGO - a dialect of a certain social group of people (originally a thieves' language - "Fenya"), created for the purpose of linguistic isolation (Argonisms are used as a symbol, like an encrypted code, so that people who do not belong to this group cannot understand the meaning of these words). For example: ballerina - master key; kipish - disorder, shu; nix - danger; raspberry - stash.

Meaning: used in works of fiction for the purpose of verbal characterization of a character or creating a special flavor.

9. EMOTIONALLY COLORED WORDS - words expressing attitudes towards objects, signs, actions, etc. For example: a nag (not just a horse, but a bad horse), to lie (not just to tell a lie, but to tell it brazenly), to crave (not just to desire, but to desire passionately).

Meaning: serve to express the speaker’s attitude to what he is talking about, as well as to characterize the speaker.

10. ARCHAISMS - obsolete words that have modern synonyms that have replaced them in the language. For example: young - young, gold - gold; eye - eye, mouth - lips, behold - see.

Meaning: used to create the flavor of antiquity when depicting antiquity. They perform a vivid stylistic role, acting as a means of creating civil-patriotic pathos of speech. They are the source of the sublime sound of speech.

11. HISTORISM - words that served as the name of disappeared objects. concepts, phenomena. For example: tivun - an official in ancient Rus', hryvnia - the monetary unit of Kievan Rus, footman - a person who served in rich houses.

Meaning: they serve to create the flavor of antiquity, a bygone era, and give the description of past times historical authenticity.

12.NEOLOGISM - new words that appear in the language. For example: video phone, airbus, Internet.

Meaning: serve to denote those new concepts. which appeared in connection with the development of social relations, science, culture, and technology. They are a kind of technique for enhancing expressiveness.

13. BORROWED WORDS - words that came into the Russian language from other languages. For example: charter, sail, cedar (from Greek); sandwich, sprats, landscape (from German); veil, coat, taxi (from French); tenor, opera, flute (from Italian); sailor, cabin, boat (from Dutch); basketball, coach, comfort (from English).

Meaning: source of dictionary replenishment.

14. OLD SLAVANisms - borrowings from a closely related language associated with the baptism of Rus' and the development of spiritual culture.

Peculiarities:

a) combinations RA, LA, LE, corresponding to the Russian ORO, OLO, ERE. For example: temper - temper, gate - gate, gold - gold, shore - shore, captivity - full.

b) a combination of ZhD, corresponding to the Russian Zh. For example: leader, clothes, need.

d) suffixes STVIE, CHY, YNYA, TVA, USH, YUSCH, ASH, YASCH. For example: action, helmsman, pride, battle, burning, carrying.

e) prefixes IZ, IS, NIZ. For example: go away, overthrow. Meaning: they recreate the flavor of the era, giving an ironic touch.

15. TRADITIONAL POETIC WORDS - a group of words that was formed at the turn of the 18th-19th centuries and was used mainly in poetry. The main source is Slavicisms. For example: breg, voice, right hand, forehead, cheeks, fire, bush, lily, roses, myrtle, hand, golden, mellifluous, tree, spring, star.

Meaning: in the past, highly expressive vocabulary, without which not a single poetic work could do. In modern language, ironic use, stylization.

16. FOLK POETIC WORDS - words characteristic of oral folk poetry. For example: baby, share, little road, azure, sad, mediocre, ant, dumushka.

Meaning: create an emotional impression, serve as a means of expressing the national Russian character.

17. CONVERSATIONAL VOCABULARY - these are words. which are used in everyday speech, have a casual character and therefore are not always appropriate in written and book speech. For example: soda (sparkling water), blond (blonde, person with very blond hair), bubblegum (chewing gum).

Meaning: in book speech, this context is given a colloquial tone. Used in works of fiction for the purpose of speech characterization of characters.

18. COLLAR WORDS - words. expressions characterized by simplicity, a touch of rudeness and usually serving to express harsh assessments. Colloquial words stand on the border of literary language and are often undesirable even in ordinary conversation. For example: bashka (head), dreary (unpleasant), get confused (strengthen your consciousness).

Meaning: a means of speech characterization of heroes.

19. BOOK VOCABULARY - words that are used primarily in written speech, used in scientific works, official and business documents, and journalism. For example: hypothesis (scientific assumption), genesis (origin), addressee (person to whom the letter is sent).

Meaning: a means of speech characterization of heroes and phenomena.

20. TERMS - words or combinations of words denoting special concepts used in science, technology, and art. For example: leg, hypotenuse, morphology, conjugation, verb.

Meaning: serve for an accurate, strictly scientific definition of scientific and special concepts. Used to characterize the depicted environment and language.

21. PHRASEOLOGISTS - stable combinations of words that usually have a holistic meaning. For example: work with your sleeves rolled up, take care of it like the apple of your eye, put a spoke in your wheel.

Meaning: add brightness and expressiveness to speech.

22. WINGED WORDS - bright and apt expressions of writers, scientists, public figures, as well as folk proverbs and sayings. For example: Not for horse feed. How little has been lived, how much has been experienced.

Meaning: as a figurative means of revealing the inner appearance of a character, characteristics of his speech manner.

23. EMOTIONAL-EXPRESSIVE VOCABULARY - words that are evaluative in nature (as opposed to neutral vocabulary). For example: words with a positive connotation - valiant, radiant; words with a negative connotation - upstart, nonsense.

Meaning: the use of emotionally expressive vocabulary is associated with a specific task, a certain stylistic orientation of the text.

SYNTACTIC MEANS

Rhetorical appeal- a conditional address to someone within the framework of a monologue. This request does not open a dialogue and does not require a response. In reality, this is a statement in the form of an address. So, instead of saying, “My city is mutilated,” a writer might say, “My city! How they mutilated you!”

This makes the statement more emotional and personal.

Syntactic means can be divided into 2 groups:

1. related to repetitions

multi-union,

asyndeton,

syntactic parallelism,

gradation

2. not related to repetitions

a rhetorical question,

rhetorical exclamation

rhetorical appeal

parcellation,

inversion,

paraphrase,

LEXICAL-SYNTACTIC MEANS

1. Oxymoron is a technique when one concept is defined through its impossibility. As a result, both concepts partially lose their meaning, and a new meaning is formed. The peculiarity of an oxymoron is that it always provokes the generation of meaning: the reader, faced with a blatantly impossible phrase, will begin to “complete” meanings. Writers and poets often use this technique to say something briefly and succinctly. In some cases, the oxymoron is striking (“Living Corpse” by L.N. Tolstoy, “Hot Snow” by Yu. Bondarev), in others it may be less noticeable, revealing itself upon a more thoughtful reading (“Dead Souls” by N.V. Gogol - after all, the soul has no death, the “dead green branches” of Pushkin’s anchar - after all, the green foliage of a tree is a sign of life, not death).

2. Catachresis is a deliberately illogical statement that has an expressive meaning. “Yes, she’s a fish! And her hands are kind of white, like fish.” It is clear that a fish cannot have arms; the metaphor is based on catachresis.

3. Antithesis - a sharp opposition of something, emphasized syntactically. A classic example of antithesis is Pushkin’s characterization of the relationship between Lensky and Onegin:

They got along. Wave and stone

Poetry and prose, ice and fire

Not so different from each other.

Let us note that in Pushkin the emphasized antithesis is partially removed by the next line, which makes the situation ambiguous.

Secondly, analyze the list of terms listed in the task. Group them:

Mark the trails with the letter "T"

lexical means - "L",

syntactic means - "C".

Here's what we came up with (list of terms from the 2013 demo project):

1. anaphora - C

2. metaphor - T

3. hyperbole - T

4. professional vocabulary - L

5. parcellation - C

6. lexical repetition - C

7. opposition - C

8. epithets - T

9. contextual synonyms - L

Thus, the search area for the specified language tool has narrowed noticeably.

The assignment says that the first 3 means are paths.

There are 3 of them in the list: metaphor, hyperbole, epithets.

All we have to do is arrange them in the right order.

We recall the definitions of these linguistic means and re-read the examples indicated in brackets.

We compare definitions with examples.

We arrange the numbers in the correct order: 2,8,3.

It remains to determine the last linguistic means. It is not specified which group it belongs to. Therefore, we exclude only trails from the list, because... There should be no repetition of numbers.

We have 6 concepts left. Let's re-read the examples again. The situation becomes clearer when we turn to these proposals. We are talking about linguistic means number 6.

Mission accomplished!

2. Find the words in the text of the review: tropes, lexical means, syntactic means.

4. Group concepts.

5. Remember the definitions of these concepts and compare them with examples.

6. Arrange the numbers in the correct order.

Syntactic means- these are the means by which units of syntax are constructed, syntactic relations are expressed, and syntactic categories are formalized. They are very diverse. These include: word forms, function (relational) words, word order And intonation.

The main ones are: forms of words in their interaction And function words(conjunctions and allied words, particles, prepositions, connectives) . Only used in phrases prepositions, they do not use function words such as unions And particles.

At the level of simple and complex sentences, the indicator of the dependence of components is unions And allied words.

Intonation is the most universal syntactic means. Intonation- this is the rhythmic and melodic side of speech, which serves in a sentence as a means of expressing syntactic meanings and emotional and expressive coloring.

In formal terms, it is the presence of intonation that distinguishes a sentence and text as communicative units from a phrase.

Word order- this is the relative arrangement of words as part of a phrase and sentence in a certain linear sequence. In Russian, word order is more free than, for example, in French, English or German. However, it has certain rules for the relative arrangement of words in different types of combinations. Thus, the grammatical norm in a Russian sentence is the direct word order, when the predicate is located after the subject. The agreed definition is usually placed before the word being defined, and the inconsistent definition is placed after it. Deviations from this rule are used for stylistic purposes.

So, the ways of expressing syntactic relations in a phrase and a sentence differ. In phrases these are: 1) forms of words, 2) prepositions, 3) word order; and in sentences these are: 1) forms of words, 2) function words, 3) word order, 4) intonation.

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