Until now, we talked about the expressive means of language, which grew out of comparison: Everything in this world has its own similarities, everything looks like something. The left hemisphere evaluates and compares - "find 10 differences". The right, on the basis of this comparison and these found differences, creates a new image, a new reality. Thus, there is both an active process of knowing the world and an active process of creation.
But there are other means of expressiveness in human language that have grown out of comparing an object or phenomenon ... with itself.
Weird! What's the point of this? Of course, that 1 = 1, and not otherwise.
But humanity in time immemorial is trying to convince itself that 1 = 10, or 10 = 1.
We look out the window: terrible weather! What's so terrible outside the window: an earthquake, a samum, a tsunami? No, it's just raining, but we would like the sun.
And we do not notice that we have just deceived ourselves, exaggerated the quality of the weather that is undesirable for us. And we have this at every step.
We exaggerate everything: the good, the bad, the scary, the funny. As if we are bored to see that 1 = 1. And it’s probably really boring. This boring equality of the object does not give itself any food to the right hemisphere. But it is worth exaggerating or underestimating the quality of an object or phenomenon, the left hemisphere begins to bustle and rush in horror: sentry! not true! wrong data! That is, he begins to feverishly work on comparing the subject with himself and the meaninglessness of this work gives rise to emotion. Only this is what our crafty right hemisphere needs!
Hyperbole is one of the most ancient figures of speech, found in all human languages without exception. This is the kind of craving a person has for everything big. Or some kind of memory imprinted in the gene code of an eternally hungry existence with many dangers at every step. And so we always subconsciously want everything - and more.
And I want to see the danger even more terrible than it really is. If you win, more honor. If you run away, then it's not so embarrassing.
Well it is, fantasies on the topic of hyperbole.
However, in our speech, Russian, this stylistic device is fixed at the level of the language, that is, it is simply stabilized as the norm. This refers to suffixes.
By the way, there are strangely few augmentation suffixes in our language and they are used less and less often. The suffix -isch - (wind, wolf), mainly in book speech, like archaism, in stylized folk speech, folklore speech. And the suffix "-in-", as an augmenting suffix, (colossus, domina) has become quite rare and merged with the homonymous suffix "-in-", denoting a single object out of many (beads - a bead, grass - a blade of grass)
Why have magnifying suffixes disappeared from our speech? Tired of scaring ourselves?
But on the other hand, how actively hyperboles are used in literature and art, that is, where we agree to perceive the conventional reality. What amazing images does hyperbole create?
Look at the painting "Bolshevik" by K. Petrov-Vodkin. It is rather strange that this picture was not hidden from ordinary eyes in Soviet times.
This robber-looking man with mad eyes rises above the world, dark, terrible against the background of the joyful sky, and he carries a bloody flag. And that's it! And enough has been said about how the artist saw this new post-revolutionary reality.
But the understatement, or litota, is much more clearly recorded in our suffixes!
Moreover, as we remember from the school course, there are two types of them: diminutive-affectionate and diminutive-derogatory. These are precisely two functions of understatement.
Why are we kidding ourselves by downplaying the qualities of an object? To feel great yourself. And when we feel great, we can laugh evilly at insignificance. And we can, and vice versa, feel a fatherly tenderness for something small and defenseless.
But in literature and art, a strange situation has developed with the cast. That is why the term "litota" is not widely known to anyone. Indeed, the situation can be seen as an understatement of the size of an object or phenomenon, and perhaps as an exaggeration of miniature size.
An excerpt from the poem "Peasant Children" by N.A. Nekrasov, which we know as "A Little Man with a Marigold", is built on this crafty game.
Diminutive suffixes are surprisingly used by Bulat Okudzhava in his song "Departure". The poet, feeling old and obsolete, leaves Salzburg with the eternally young ... Mozart.
Hyperbola- the type of transfers, when the meaning remains the same as it was, but acquires grandiose dimensions. So, in Gogol, the number of cups on a tray is equal to the number of seagulls on the seashore, or in Dostoevsky: "You should have emitted streams ... what I say, rivers, lakes, seas, oceans of tears."
Aristotle: “hyperbole is a special case of metaphor”. (Rhetoric) Hyperbolism of epithets and comparisons is common in poetry. There are comic hyperboles. The opposite form of hyperbole is litota - substitution along the line of understatement.
X Hyperbola and litota... Hyperbole consists in excessive, sometimes to the point of unnaturalness, enlargement of objects or actions, in order to make them more expressive and thereby enhance the impression of them: boundless sea; on the battlefield the mountains corpses.
Derzhavin depicts Suvorov's exploits with the following features:
Midnight whirlwind - the hero is flying!
Darkness from his brow, dust whistling!
Lightning from the eyes run ahead,
The oaks lie behind the ridge.
Steps on the mountains - the mountains crack;
Lies on the water - the abyss boil;
It touches the hail - the hail falls,
He throws towers with his hand behind the clouds.
Litotes- an equally excessive decrease: it's not worth a damn; you can't see him from the ground(small).
What tiny cows!
There is, really, less a pinhead!
TICKET 8.
Syllabo-tonic versification system. Three-dimensional sizes.
X Syllabo-tonic versification system
From the Greek. Syllabe- syllable and Greek. Tonos- tension, stress.
The merit of transforming Russian verse belongs to V.K. Trediakovsky and especially M.V. Lomonosov. Trediakovsky back in the 30s. 18th c. came out with poems based on principles of versification different from the syllabic system.
Rhythmic units of verse in syllabo-tonic ( syllabic) the system appeared, as in the metric, feet. In Russian verse foot began to call the stressed syllable with adjoining unstressed syllables.
The essence of the syllabo-tonic system is that stressed and unstressed syllables alternate in a line of verse according to a certain pattern and form the so-called two-syllable and three-syllable sizes. Distinguish in two-syllable sizes trore and iambic... Arrangement of all possible stresses in a line is feasible only if the line consists of short one-, two- and three-syllable words.
But already Lomonosov admitted that it is "difficult" to write poetry this way, because there are a lot of long words in the language, and they will not fit in a full-stroke poetic line. Therefore, the placement of stress is not strictly observed - they should not fall on "foreign" places, but you can skip them - the rhythmic sound does not suffer from this, on the contrary, the verse sounds more diverse. In this case, two unstressed syllables may appear in a row - they form a group of unstressed syllables, which is called by analogy with ancient verse pyrrhic... Sometimes words flock in such a way that two consecutive stressed syllables appear ( spondee). In Russian disyllabic sizes, various combinations of iambic and chorea feet with pyrrhia are especially frequent.
In three-syllable sizes, depending on the location of the stressed syllable, they are distinguished: dactyl- with stress on the first syllable of the foot, amphibrach- with emphasis on the middle syllable and anapaest- on the last, third syllable of the foot.
The sequence of such groups of stressed and unstressed syllables (stop) in a line creates poetic meter... Theoretically, the number of feet in a verse line can be any - from one or more, in practice, the length of the line can be in two-syllable sizes (trochaic, iambic) from 2 to 6 feet, and in three-syllable (dactyl, amphibrach, anapest) - from 2 to 4 ...
So, the main dimensions of Russian classical verse are five: trochee, iambic, dactyl, amphibrachium, anapest.
Tri-syllable sizes
Dactyl- three-syllable size with stress in the foot on the first syllable (dactyl foot diagram -ÈÈ), and in the verse as a whole - on the first, fourth, seventh, tenth, thirteenth, etc.
How good you are, oh night sea, -
It is radiant here, it is gray-dark ...
In the moonlight, as if alive
It walks and breathes, and it shines.
-ÈÈ -ÈÈ -ÈÈ -È
-ÈÈ -ÈÈ -ÈÈ -
-ÈÈ -ÈÈ -ÈÈ -È
-ÈÈ -ÈÈ -ÈÈ -
Amphibrach- three-syllable size with stress in the foot on the second syllable (scheme of the foot amphibrachia È-È), and in the verse as a whole - on the second, fifth, eighth, eleventh, etc.
In the sandy steppes of the Arabian land
Three proud palms grew high
È-È È-È È-È È-
È-È È-È È-È È-
Anapaest- three-syllable size with stress in the foot on the third syllable (anapesta foot diagram ÈÈ-), and in the verse as a whole - on the third, sixth, ninth, twelfth, etc.
Sounded over the clear river,
Ranged in the faded meadow,
It rolled over the mute grove,
It lit up on the other side.
ÈÈ- ÈÈ- ÈÈ- È
ÈÈ- ÈÈ- ÈÈ-
ÈÈ- ÈÈ- ÈÈ- È
ÈÈ- ÈÈ- ÈÈ-
TICKET 9.
Prose and poetry. The rhythm of artistic speech.
Among the various types of speech, artistic speech occupies a special place. With the help of words of artistic speech, writers reproduce those individual traits of their characters and the details of their lives, which make up the objective and inner world of the work. Not only can artistic speech "absorb" the speech of any other stylistic layer, but it is also figuratively expressive. Those. For example, scientific speech conveys only knowledge to a person, and artistic speech is designed to convey a mood. And if the artist skillfully uses stylistic layers, dialects, dialects, he will be able to do it. If the realism of the writer is deep, then he will write a speech for his character in order to convey his social. position, mood, etc. A good example is Griboyedov's Woe from Wit. Skalozub's speech, for example, is rough and rough, like himself. They were fond of the words of local and social. dialects writers 20s, 30s Describing the heroes-revolutionaries, they used the “Soviet” language, which was new for those times. So, we found out that artistic speech does not always correspond to the norms of the literary language. However, the definition of the boundaries of dialect, literary and (which I would like to emphasize) decency is a very controversial issue. It is precisely the determination of the decency of a work of art in particular that censors or literary critics are engaged in.
Read more about Pospelova. You will find the page yourself, scrap me. J
TICKET 10.
Impersonation and figurative parallelism. Their place in the system of literature.
Impersonation- the transfer of human traits to inanimate objects and phenomena. Impersonations, like metaphors, are based on the identification of natural phenomena, flora and fauna with the conscious life and activities of people according to the principle of similarity between them. “The heart speaks,” “the river plays,” and so on are examples of personification. Nekrasov often resorted to personification in his poem "Who Lives Well in Russia". He personifies, for example, the image of an echo: "He has only one concern, to tease honest people, to scare children and women!"
Figurative parallelism- the traditional type of verbal and subject depiction. The image of nature in figurative parallelism is always in the first place (this is the first term), and the image of human actions and relationships is in the second (second term). There is a direct connection between the first and second members. This kind of imagery is called direct binomial parallelism. Relationships that arise in nature, as it were, clarify the actions and relationships of people. Figurative parallelism is very often found in ritual and everyday folk songs. Figurative parallelism has also received a peculiar application in epic literature. As a means of figurative cognition, as a way to enhance emotional expressiveness. Such is the "psychological" parallelism in Tolstoy's War and Peace. (With a feeling of hopeless disappointment in life, Prince Andrei goes to the Rostovs' estate and on the way sees an oak tree, all withered, broken off. At the Rostovs, Andrei meets Natasha and comes to life. On the way back, he sees that this oak has also come to life ...)
X Examples of impersonations:
And woe, woe, woe!
And grief girded with a bast,
Legs are entangled with scabs.
Nar. song
The personification of winter:
After all, it's autumn already
Looks through the spindle.
Winter followed her
In a warm fur coat goes
The path is powdery with snow,
Crunches under the sleigh ...
Literary tropes are artistic techniques, word or expression used by the author to enhance the expressiveness of the text and enhance the imagery of the language.
Paths include comparison, epithet, hyperbole,. This article will talk about hyperbole and its antonym - litote.
Wikipedia says that hyperbole is a word from the Greek language and denotes exaggeration. The first part of the word "hyper" is in many words with the meaning of exaggeration, excess: hypertension, hyperglycemia, hyperthyroidism, hyperfunction.
Hyperbole in literature is artistic exaggeration... In addition, the concept of hyperbola is in geometry, and there it denotes the locus of points.
This article will talk about hyperbole from a literary point of view. Its definition, how long it has been known, by whom and where it is used. It is found everywhere: in literary works, in oratorical speeches, in everyday conversations.
Hyperbole in fiction
She has been known for a long time. In ancient Russian epics, exaggeration is often found when describing heroes-heroes and their exploits:
Hyperboles are often found in fairy tales and folk songs: “something is mine, my heart groans like an autumn forest is buzzing.”
The author of the old Russian story About Prince Vsevolod often uses hyperbole, he writes: “You can sprinkle the Volga with oars, and bail out the Don with helmets” to show how numerous his squad is. Here exaggeration is applied to the sublime poetic characterization of the prince.
For the same purpose N.V. Gogol uses hyperbole for a poetic description of the Dnieper River: “a road, without measure in width, without end in length”. “A rare bird will fly to the middle of the Dnieper.” “And there is no river. equal to him in the world. "
But more often Gogol uses it in his satirical works with irony and humor, ridiculing and exaggerating the shortcomings of his heroes.
Hyperboles in the monologues of the heroes of Gogol's "Inspector General":
- Osip - "as if the whole regiment had blown the trumpets."
- Khlestakov - "... Thirty-five thousand couriers alone", "as I pass ... just an earthquake, everything trembles and shakes", "the State Council itself is afraid of me."
- The governor - "I would wipe you all into flour!"
Gogol often uses artistic exaggeration in the pages of his work Dead Souls.
"Countless as the sands of the sea, human passions ..."
Emotional and loud-voiced hyperbole in verse V. Mayakovsky:
- "At one hundred and forty suns, the sunset blazed ..."
- ”Shine and no nails! This is my slogan and the sun ”
In verse A. Pushkin , S. Yesenina and many other poets use artistic exaggeration in describing events and landscapes.
"Seeing no end and edge
Only the blue sucks the eyes. "
S. Yesenin
In colloquial speech, exaggeration is used on a daily basis without hesitation. Especially often we resort to it in a state of passion, irritation, so that the interlocutor understands our feelings better.
“I’ve called a hundred times already, presented thousands of troubles, almost died of anxiety,”
"Twenty times you explain it to you, but you still do it wrong."
"Again you're late, again you've waited forever."
Sometimes when declaring love:
"I love you as no one knows how to love, stronger than anyone in the world."
Litota and its meaning
The antonym of hyperbole is litota, artistic understatement... In their colloquial speech, people constantly use both exaggeration and understatement.
Do not have time to blink an eye and life flew by. When you wait, it takes a second for years. The waist is thin, thinner than a reed.
Hyperbole and litota, together with other artistic techniques, make Russian speech expressive, beautiful and emotional.
Don't Miss: Artistic Technique in Literature and Russian.
Zoom in and out in science fiction
Writers, creating a literary text of their work, can realistically describe life without resorting to exaggeration or understatement of surrounding objects. But some authors underestimate or exaggerate not only words, but also objects of the surrounding world, creating a fantastic unreal world.
A striking example is fairy tale by Lewis Carroll "Alice in Wonderland"... The heroine of a fairy tale finds herself in a world where she and all the heroes she met change their sizes. Authors need such a technique to express their thoughts and views on some problems and suggest ways to eradicate them. You can recall "Gulliver in the Land of the Lilliputians" by Jonathan Swift.
Writers with a satirical, romantic and heroic orientation in their work often resort to fantasy. It is creative, original, invented by the author, but based on the real social conditions of the authors' life. The writer creates a fantastic work, but his situations resonate with real events.
When the social reality that gave rise to the creation of this fantastic work passes, then the new generation no longer understands everything where such fantastic inventions came from.
Hyperbole and litota make a literary text more expressive, help to convey emotions more accurately. Without them, a creative work would be boring and impersonal. Not only authors, but also ordinary people in everyday conversations cannot do without them, although they do not know their names, but simply emotionally express their feelings and thoughts.
Litota (from the Greek Litotes - simplicity) is a trope opposite to hyperbole (a more correct name is meiosis): an understatement of the attribute of an object ("A man with a nail").
Litota refers to a euphemism, distinct from exaggeration. In particular, litota is taken in a transitive sense and is an expression of a look at the third person, among other things, contempt for him; meanwhile, humiliation and belittling (litota) is taken in a reflective sense when a person speaks about himself.
The main thing that brings litota and hyperbole closer together is "excessiveness". Therefore, sometimes litota is considered as a kind of hyperbole. Litota is also a way of creating a subjective-evaluative image with the help of "sensual excesses", and this is its expressiveness. With the help of litota, the artist is able to convey a lyrical mood, undivided rapture with one feeling.
A. Potebnya proposed to distinguish between transitive and reflexive litoty. If the speaker (narrator, lyric subject, character) talks about another person, belittling him, we can talk about a transitive, transitional litota. The transitive litota is an effective means of conveying a contemptuous attitude towards someone or something. If the subject is engaged in self-deprecation, underestimates any of his characteristics, we are talking about a reflexive (introspection) lithote.
Litota is a technique opposite to hyperbole, that is, a deliberate understatement of the qualitative or quantitative characteristics of an object or its properties. Usually this technique is expressed by the negation of the opposite (notbad = verygood).
Examples of litota:
She "s not the brightest girl in the class. (She" s stupid!)
He "s not the most handsome fellow! (He" s ugly!)
They aren "t the happiest couple around. (They" re unhappy)
That was not useless / to the warrior now. "(" The warrior has a use for the sword now. ")
"He was not unfamiliar with the works of Dickens." ("He was acquainted with the works of Dickens.")
"She is not as young as she was." ("She" s old. ")
"He" s no oil painting. "(" He "s ugly.")
"Not unlike ..." ("Like ...")
"You are not wrong." ("You are correct.")
Traditionally in English, litota is used to express the meaning of "feel bad", it is very often replaced by expressions with a softer meaning "feel not very good": Heisnotwell, I amafraid.
Based on this, we can come to the conclusion that the figure of speech, called cast or understatement (understatement) and consisting in the use of a particle with an antonym already containing a negative prefix: itisnotunlikely = itisverylikely; hewasnotunawareof = hewasquiteawareof. Cast design can have different functions in combination with different stylistic colors. In a colloquial style, she conveys predominantly well-mannered restraint or irony. In a scientific style, she imparts great severity and caution to the statement: itisnotdifficulttosee = itiseasytosee.
Litota is interesting for its national specificity. It is customary to explain it by the English national character, reflected in the speech etiquette of the British: English restraint in the manifestation of assessments and emotions, the desire to avoid extremes and maintain composure in any situations. For example: It is rather an unusual, story, isn "t it? = You lie. It would not suit me all that well. = It is impossible.
We have already mentioned the expressiveness of denial at the level of vocabulary, but the connection between different levels in denial is so close that it is advisable here to return to the stylistic function of negative prefixes.
The abundance in the lyrics of J. Byron of words with negative suffixes and prefixes, and in particular adjectives expressing the absence or loss of something, E.I. Klimenko connects with the general tendency among the romantic poets of this period to an increased, acute emotionality of poetry and to the desire to convey acute feelings and impressions with emotionally colored words.
The accumulation of denials in the next passage reinforces the tragedy. Byron addresses the ocean:
Man marks the earth with ruin - his control
Stops with the shore; --Upon the watery plain
The wrecks are all thy deed, nor doth remain
A shadow of man "s ravage, save his own,
When, for a moment, like a drop of rain,
He sinks into thy depths with bubbling groan,
Without a grave, unknelled, uncoftmed, and unknown.
(G. Byron. ChildeHarold)
In M. Arnold's poem, the means of denial are different, more generalized, and the general emotional orientation, which they emphasize, is different: the poet asks his beloved to be especially loyal to the feeling, for they are surrounded by an evil and cruel world. The hero says to his beloved:
Ah, love, let us be true
To one another! for the world ...
Hath really neither joy, nor love, nor light,
Nor certitude, nor peace, nor help for pain;
And we are here as on a darkling plain.
It is noteworthy that here too, like the previous examples, denial plays an important role in convergence.
The range of expressive possibilities of all types of denial is very significant. In the satire of J. Swift, as noted by E.I. Klimenko, negative prefixes are a means of amplification and irony. In "Asylum for the Incurable" the following combinations are repeated: insupportable plagues, effect of that incurable distemper, inexpressible, incurable fools, inconceivable plagues. All of these denials underscore the hopelessness of the "incurable."
Comparison
Comparison is the juxtaposition of one object with another for the purpose of artistic description of the first [Ice is not strong on the river as cold as melting sugar lies].
Comparison is the simplest form of figurative speech. Almost any figurative expression can be reduced to comparison. Unlike other tropes, comparison is always two-term: it names both objects being compared (phenomena, qualities, actions).
Usually, comparisons appear in the form of a comparative turnover, attached with the help of unions as, exactly, as if, as if, etc.
Comparisons often take the form of nouns in the instrumental case (his beaver collar is silvered with frosty dust ... - P.). Such comparisons fulfill the syntactic function of the circumstances of the course of action. There are comparisons that are introduced with words similar, similar, reminiscent, acting as a predicate.
Vague comparisons are also known; they give the highest assessment of what is described, which, however, does not receive a specific figurative expression (You cannot tell, you cannot describe what kind of life it is when you hear your own artillery in a battle behind someone else's fire. - Tward.). A stable folklore turnover, either in a fairy tale, or to describe with a pen, also belongs to indefinite comparisons.
Sometimes, for comparison, two images are used at once, connected by a dividing union: the author, as it were, gives the reader the right to choose the most accurate comparison (Kandra was waiting for him on guard, and she ran after him like a shadow or a faithful wife. - P.).
Comparisons that indicate several common features in the compared items are called expanded. The detailed comparison includes two parallel images, in which the author finds much in common. The artistic image used for a detailed comparison gives the description a special expressiveness. ...
Hyperbola and litota
Hyperbole (from gr. Gyperbolz - exaggeration, surplus) is a figurative expression consisting in exaggerating the size, strength, beauty, meaning of what is described (My love, as wide as the sea, cannot be accommodated by the life of the coast. - A.K.T.).
Litota (from gr. Lituts - simplicity) is a figurative expression that belittles the size, strength, meaning of what is described (- your spitz, adorable spitz, no more than a thimble. - Gr.). Litota is also called inverse hyperbola.
Hyperbole and litota have a common basis - a deviation from an objective quantitative assessment of an object, phenomenon, quality - therefore they can be combined in speech.
Hyperbole and litota can be expressed in linguistic units of various levels (word, phrase, sentence, complex syntactic whole), therefore, their classification as lexical figurative means is partly conditional.
However, more often hyperbole and litota take the form of various tropes, and they are always accompanied by irony, since both the author and the reader understand that these figurative means inaccurately reflect reality.
Hyperbole can be "layered", superimposed on other tropes - epithets, comparisons, metaphors, giving the image the features of grandeur. In accordance with this, hyperbolic epithets, hyperbolic comparisons, hyperbolic metaphors are distinguished. Litota most often takes the form of comparison, an epithet.
Like other tropes, hyperbole and litota are common linguistic and individual author's.
The general language includes hyperboles:
Wait forever,
Suffocate in the arms,
Sea of tears,
· Love to madness, etc .;
Wasp waist,
Two inches from the pot,
· reckless,
· a drop in the sea,
These tropes are included in the emotionally expressive means of phraseology. ...
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