How the reign of Catherine 2 ended. The death of Elizabeth Petrovna. Catherine's foreign policy

Coronation:
Predecessor:
Successor:
Religion:	Orthodoxy
Birth:
Buried:	Peter and Paul Cathedral, St. Petersburg
Dynasty:	Askania (by birth) / Romanov (by marriage)
	Christian Augustus of Anhalt-Zerbst
	Johanna Elisabeth of Holstein-Gottorp
	Pavel I Petrovich
Autograph:

Origin

Domestic policy

Imperial Council and transformation of the Senate

Stacked commission

Provincial reform

Liquidation of the Zaporozhye Sich

Economic policy

Social politics

National politics

Legislation on estates

Religious politics

Domestic political problems

Sections of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth

Relations with Sweden

Relations with other countries

Development of culture and art

Features of personal life

Catherine in art

In literature

In fine arts

Monuments

Catherine on coins and banknotes

Interesting Facts

(Ekaterina Alekseevna; at birth Sophia Frederica Augusta of Anhalt-Zerbst, German Sophie Auguste Friederike von Anhalt-Zerbst-Dornburg) - April 21 (May 2), 1729, Stettin, Prussia - November 6 (17), 1796, Winter Palace, St. Petersburg) - Empress of All Russia (1762-1796). The period of her reign is often considered the golden age of the Russian Empire.

Origin

Sophia Frederika Augusta of Anhalt-Zerbst was born on April 21 (May 2), 1729 in the German Pomeranian city of Stettin (now Szczecin in Poland). Father, Christian August of Anhalt-Zerbst, came from the Zerbst-Dorneburg line of the Anhalt house and was in the service of the Prussian king, was a regimental commander, commandant, then governor of the city of Stettin, where the future empress was born, ran for duke of Courland, but unsuccessfully , ended his service as a Prussian field marshal. Mother - Johanna Elisabeth, from the Holstein-Gottorp family, was a cousin of the future Peter III. Maternal uncle Adolf Friedrich (Adolf Fredrik) was King of Sweden from 1751 (elected heir in 1743). The ancestry of Catherine II's mother goes back to Christian I, King of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, first Duke of Schleswig-Holstein and founder of the Oldenburg dynasty.

Childhood, education and upbringing

The Duke of Zerbst's family was not rich; Catherine was educated at home. Studied German and French, dance, music, basics of history, geography, theology. She was brought up in strictness. She grew up a playful, inquisitive, playful and even troublesome girl, she loved to play pranks and flaunt her courage in front of the boys, with whom she easily played on the streets of Stetin. Her parents did not burden her with her upbringing and did not stand on ceremony when expressing their displeasure. Her mother called her Ficken as a child. Figchen- comes from the name Frederica, that is, “little Frederica”).

In 1744, the Russian Empress Elizaveta Petrovna and her mother were invited to Russia for subsequent marriage with the heir to the throne, Grand Duke Peter Fedorovich, the future Emperor Peter III and her second cousin. Immediately after arriving in Russia, she began to study the Russian language, history, Orthodoxy, and Russian traditions, as she sought to become more fully acquainted with Russia, which she perceived as a new homeland. Among her teachers are the famous preacher Simon Todorsky (teacher of Orthodoxy), the author of the first Russian grammar Vasily Adadurov (teacher of the Russian language) and choreographer Lange (dance teacher). Soon she fell ill with pneumonia, and her condition was so serious that her mother suggested bringing a Lutheran pastor. Sofia, however, refused and sent for Simon of Todor. This circumstance added to her popularity at the Russian court. On June 28 (July 9), 1744, Sofia Frederica Augusta converted from Lutheranism to Orthodoxy and received the name Ekaterina Alekseevna (the same name and patronymic as Elizabeth’s mother, Catherine I), and the next day she was engaged to the future emperor.

Marriage to the heir to the Russian throne

On August 21 (September 1), 1745, at the age of sixteen, Catherine was married to Pyotr Fedorovich, who was 17 years old and who was her second cousin. During the first years of their marriage, Peter was not at all interested in his wife, and there was no marital relationship between them. Catherine will later write about this:

I saw very well that Grand Duke doesn't love me at all; two weeks after the wedding, he told me that he was in love with the maiden Carr, the maid of honor of the empress. He told Count Divier, his chamberlain, that there was no comparison between this girl and me. Divier argued the opposite, and he became angry with him; this scene took place almost in my presence, and I saw this quarrel. To tell the truth, I told myself that with this man I would certainly be very unhappy if I succumbed to the feeling of love for him, for which they paid so poorly, and that there would be no reason to die of jealousy without any benefit for anyone. So, out of pride, I tried to force myself not to be jealous of a person who does not love me, but in order not to be jealous of him, there was no choice but not to love him. If he wanted to be loved, it would not be difficult for me: I was naturally inclined and accustomed to fulfilling my duties, but for this I would need to have a husband with common sense, and mine did not have this.

Ekaterina continues to educate herself. She reads books on history, philosophy, jurisprudence, the works of Voltaire, Montesquieu, Tacitus, Bayle, a large number of other literature. The main entertainment for her was hunting, horse riding, dancing and masquerades. The absence of marital relations with the Grand Duke contributed to the appearance of lovers for Catherine. Meanwhile, Empress Elizabeth expressed dissatisfaction with the lack of children of the spouses.

Finally, after two unsuccessful pregnancies, on September 20 (October 1), 1754, Catherine gave birth to a son, who was immediately taken away from her by the will of the reigning Empress Elizabeth Petrovna, they call him Pavel (the future Emperor Paul I) and are deprived of the opportunity to raise him, allowing him to be seen only occasionally. A number of sources claim that Paul’s true father was Catherine’s lover S.V. Saltykov (there is no direct statement about this in the “Notes” of Catherine II, but they are also often interpreted this way). Others say that such rumors are unfounded, and that Peter underwent an operation that eliminated a defect that made conception impossible. The question of paternity also aroused interest among society.

After the birth of Pavel, relations with Peter and Elizaveta Petrovna completely deteriorated. Peter called his wife “spare madam” and openly took mistresses, however, without preventing Catherine from doing the same, who during this period developed a relationship with Stanislav Poniatowski, the future king of Poland, which arose thanks to the efforts of the English ambassador Sir Charles Hanbury Williams. On December 9 (20), 1758, Catherine gave birth to her daughter Anna, which caused strong dissatisfaction with Peter, who said at the news of a new pregnancy: “God knows why my wife became pregnant again! I’m not at all sure if this child is from me and whether I should take it personally.” At this time, Elizaveta Petrovna’s condition worsened. All this made the prospect of Catherine’s expulsion from Russia or her imprisonment in a monastery real. The situation was aggravated by the fact that Catherine’s secret correspondence with the disgraced Field Marshal Apraksin and British Ambassador Williams, dedicated to political issues. Her previous favorites were removed, but a circle of new ones began to form: Grigory Orlov and Dashkova.

Death of Elizabeth Petrovna (December 25, 1761 (January 5, 1762)) and accession to the throne of Peter Fedorovich under the name Peter III The spouses were further alienated. Peter III began to live openly with his mistress Elizaveta Vorontsova, settling his wife at the other end of the Winter Palace. When Catherine became pregnant from Orlov, this could no longer be explained by an accidental conception from her husband, since communication between the spouses had stopped completely by that time. Catherine hid her pregnancy, and when the time came to give birth, her devoted valet Vasily Grigorievich Shkurin set fire to his house. A lover of such spectacles, Peter and his court left the palace to look at the fire; At this time, Catherine gave birth safely. This is how Alexey Bobrinsky was born, to whom his brother Pavel I subsequently awarded the title of count.

Coup of June 28, 1762

Having ascended the throne, Peter III carried out a number of actions that caused a negative attitude towards him from the officer corps. Thus, he concluded an unfavorable agreement for Russia with Prussia, while Russia won a number of victories over it during the Seven Years' War and returned the lands captured by the Russians to it. At the same time, he intended, in alliance with Prussia, to oppose Denmark (Russia’s ally), in order to return Schleswig, which it had taken from Holstein, and he himself intended to go on a campaign at the head of the guard. Peter announced the sequestration of the property of the Russian Church, the abolition of monastic land ownership, and shared with those around him plans for the reform of church rituals. Supporters of the coup also accused Peter III of ignorance, dementia, dislike for Russia, and complete inability to rule. Against his background, Catherine looked favorably - an intelligent, well-read, pious and benevolent wife, subjected to persecution by her husband.

After the relationship with her husband completely deteriorated, and dissatisfaction with the emperor on the part of the guard intensified, Catherine decided to participate in the coup. Her comrades-in-arms, the main of whom were the Orlov brothers, Potemkin and Khitrovo, began campaigning in the guards units and won them over to their side. The immediate cause of the start of the coup was rumors about the arrest of Catherine and the discovery and arrest of one of the participants in the conspiracy, Lieutenant Passek.

Early in the morning of June 28 (July 9), 1762, while Peter III was in Oranienbaum, Catherine, accompanied by Alexei and Grigory Orlov, arrived from Peterhof to St. Petersburg, where the guards units swore allegiance to her. Peter III, seeing the hopelessness of resistance, abdicated the throne the next day, was taken into custody and died in early July under unclear circumstances.

After her husband's abdication, Ekaterina Alekseevna ascended the throne as reigning empress with the name of Catherine II, publishing a manifesto in which the grounds for the removal of Peter were indicated as an attempt to change the state religion and peace with Prussia. To justify her own rights to the throne (and not the heir to Paul), Catherine referred to “the desire of all Our loyal subjects, obvious and unfeigned.” On September 22 (October 3), 1762, she was crowned in Moscow.

The reign of Catherine II: general information

In her memoirs, Catherine characterized the state of Russia at the beginning of her reign as follows:

The Empress formulated the tasks facing the Russian monarch as follows:

1. The nation that is to be governed must be enlightened.
2. It is necessary to introduce good order in the state, support society and force it to comply with the laws.
3. It is necessary to establish a good and accurate police force in the state.
4. It is necessary to promote the flourishing of the state and make it abundant.
5. It is necessary to make the state formidable in itself and inspiring respect among its neighbors.

The policy of Catherine II was characterized by progressive development, without sharp fluctuations. Upon her accession to the throne, she carried out a number of reforms - judicial, administrative, provincial, etc. The territory of the Russian state increased significantly due to the annexation of fertile southern lands - Crimea, the Black Sea region, as well as the eastern part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, etc. The population increased from 23.2 million ( in 1763) to 37.4 million (in 1796), Russia became the most populous European country (it accounted for 20% of the European population). Catherine II formed 29 new provinces and built about 144 cities. As Klyuchevsky wrote:

The Russian economy continued to remain agricultural. The share of the urban population in 1796 was 6.3%. At the same time, a number of cities were founded (Tiraspol, Grigoriopol, etc.), iron smelting more than doubled (for which Russia took 1st place in the world), and the number of sailing and linen manufactories increased. In total, by the end of the 18th century. there were 1,200 large enterprises in the country (in 1767 there were 663). The export of Russian goods to other European countries has increased significantly, including through the established Black Sea ports.

Catherine II established a loan bank and introduced paper money into circulation.

Domestic policy

Catherine's commitment to the ideas of the Enlightenment determined the character of her domestic policy and directions for reforming various institutions of the Russian state. The term “enlightened absolutism” is often used to characterize the domestic policy of Catherine’s time. According to Catherine, based on the works of the French philosopher Montesquieu, the vast Russian spaces and the severity of the climate determine the pattern and necessity of autocracy in Russia. Based on this, under Catherine, the autocracy was strengthened, the bureaucratic apparatus was strengthened, the country was centralized and the management system was unified. Their main idea was a critique of the outgoing feudal society. They defended the idea that every person is born free, and advocated the elimination of medieval forms of exploitation and oppressive forms of government.

Soon after the coup, statesman N.I. Panin proposed creating an Imperial Council: 6 or 8 senior dignitaries rule together with the monarch (as was the case in 1730). Catherine rejected this project.

According to another Panin project, the Senate was transformed - December 15. 1763 It was divided into 6 departments, headed by chief prosecutors, and the prosecutor general became its head. Each department had certain powers. The general powers of the Senate were reduced; in particular, it lost legislative initiative and became a body for monitoring the activities of the state apparatus and the highest court. The center of legislative activity moved directly to Catherine and her office with secretaries of state.

Stacked commission

An attempt was made to convene the Statutory Commission, which would systematize the laws. The main goal is to clarify the people's needs to carry out comprehensive reforms.

More than 600 deputies took part in the commission, 33% of them were elected from the nobility, 36% from the townspeople, which also included nobles, 20% from the rural population (state peasants). The interests of the Orthodox clergy were represented by a deputy from the Synod.

As a guiding document for the 1767 Commission, the Empress prepared the “Nakaz” - a theoretical justification for enlightened absolutism.

The first meeting was held in the Faceted Chamber in Moscow

Due to the conservatism of the deputies, the Commission had to be dissolved.

Provincial reform

7 Nov In 1775, the “Institution for the management of the provinces of the All-Russian Empire” was adopted. Instead of a three-tier administrative division - province, province, district, a two-tier administrative division began to operate - province, district (which was based on the principle of the size of the tax-paying population). From the previous 23 provinces, 50 were formed, each of which was home to 300-400 thousand people. The provinces were divided into 10-12 districts, each with 20-30 thousand d.m.p.

Governor-General (viceroy) - kept order in local centers and 2-3 provinces united under his authority were subordinate to him. He had extensive administrative, financial and judicial powers; all military units and commands located in the provinces were subordinate to him.

Governor - stood at the head of the province. They reported directly to the emperor. Governors were appointed by the Senate. The provincial prosecutor was subordinate to the governors. Finances in the province were handled by the Treasury Chamber, headed by the vice-governor. The provincial land surveyor was in charge of land management. The executive body of the governor was the provincial board, which exercised general supervision over the activities of institutions and officials. The Order of Public Charity was in charge of schools, hospitals and shelters (social functions), as well as class judicial institutions: the Upper Zemstvo Court for nobles, the Provincial Magistrate, which considered litigation between townspeople, and the Upper Justice for the trial of state peasants. The criminal and civil chambers judged all classes and were the highest judicial bodies in the provinces.

Captain police officer - stood at the head of the district, leader of the nobility, elected by him for three years. He was the executive body of the provincial government. In counties, as in provinces, there are class institutions: for nobles (district court), for townspeople (city magistrate) and for state peasants (lower reprisal). There was a county treasurer and a county surveyor. Representatives of the estates sat in the courts.

A conscientious court is called upon to stop strife and reconcile those who argue and quarrel. This trial was classless. The Senate becomes the highest judicial body in the country.

Since there were clearly not enough cities and district centers. Catherine II renamed many large rural settlements as cities, making them administrative centers. Thus, 216 new cities appeared. The population of the cities began to be called bourgeois and merchants.

The city was made a separate administrative unit. Instead of the governor, a mayor was placed at its head, endowed with all rights and powers. Strict police control was introduced in cities. The city was divided into parts (districts) under the supervision of a private bailiff, and the parts were divided into quarters controlled by a quarterly overseer.

Liquidation of the Zaporozhye Sich

Carrying out provincial reform in Left Bank Ukraine in 1783-1785. led to a change in the regimental structure (former regiments and hundreds) to the administrative division common to the Russian Empire into provinces and districts, the final establishment of serfdom and the equalization of the rights of the Cossack elders with Russian nobility. With the conclusion of the Kuchuk-Kainardzhi Treaty (1774), Russia gained access to the Black Sea and Crimea. In the west, the weakened Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was on the verge of partition.

Thus, there is a further need to maintain the presence of Zaporozhye Cossacks in their historical homeland to protect the southern Russian borders disappeared. At the same time, their traditional way of life often led to conflicts with the Russian authorities. After repeated pogroms of Serbian settlers, as well as in connection with the Cossacks’ support for the Pugachev uprising, Catherine II ordered the disbandment of the Zaporozhye Sich, which was carried out by order of Grigory Potemkin to pacify the Zaporozhye Cossacks by General Peter Tekeli in June 1775.

The Sich was disbanded, and then the fortress itself was destroyed. Most of the Cossacks were disbanded, but after 15 years they were remembered and the Army of the Faithful Cossacks was created, later the Black Sea Cossack Army, and in 1792 Catherine signed a manifesto that gave them Kuban for eternal use, where the Cossacks moved, founding the city of Ekaterinodar.

Reforms on the Don created a military civil government modeled on the provincial administrations of central Russia.

Beginning of the annexation of the Kalmyk Khanate

As a result of general administrative reforms of the 70s aimed at strengthening the state, a decision was made to annex the Kalmyk Khanate to the Russian Empire.

By her decree of 1771, Catherine abolished the Kalmyk Khanate, thereby beginning the process of annexing the Kalmyk state, which previously had vassalage relations with the Russian state, to Russia. The affairs of the Kalmyks began to be in charge of a special Expedition of Kalmyk Affairs, established at the office Astrakhan governor. Under the rulers of the uluses, bailiffs were appointed from among Russian officials. In 1772, during the Expedition of Kalmyk Affairs, a Kalmyk court was established - Zargo, consisting of three members - one representative each from the three main uluses: Torgouts, Derbets and Khoshouts.

This decision of Catherine was preceded by the empress’s consistent policy of limiting the khan’s power in the Kalmyk Khanate. Thus, in the 60s, crisis phenomena intensified in the Khanate associated with the colonization of Kalmyk lands by Russian landowners and peasants, the reduction of pasture lands, the infringement of the rights of the local feudal elite, and the intervention of tsarist officials in Kalmyk affairs. After the construction of the fortified Tsaritsyn Line, thousands of families of Don Cossacks began to settle in the area of ​​​​the main Kalmyk nomads, and cities and fortresses began to be built throughout the Lower Volga. The best pasture lands were allocated for arable land and hayfields. The nomadic area was constantly narrowing, which in turn exacerbated internal relations in the Khanate. The local feudal elite was also dissatisfied with the missionary activities of the Russian Orthodox Church on the Christianization of nomads, as well as the outflow of people from the uluses to cities and villages to earn money. Under these conditions, among the Kalmyk noyons and zaisangs, with the support of the Buddhist church, a conspiracy matured with the aim of leaving the people to their historical homeland - Dzungaria.

On January 5, 1771, the Kalmyk feudal lords, dissatisfied with the policy of the empress, raised the uluses, which were roaming along the left bank of the Volga, and set off on a dangerous journey to Central Asia. Back in November 1770, an army was gathered on the left bank under the pretext of repelling the raids of the Kazakhs of the Younger Zhuz. The bulk of the Kalmyk population lived at that time on the meadow side of the Volga. Many Noyons and Zaisangs, realizing the disastrous nature of the campaign, wanted to stay with their uluses, but the army coming from behind drove everyone forward. This tragic campaign turned into a terrible disaster for the people. The small Kalmyk ethnic group lost about 100,000 people along the way, killed in battles, from wounds, cold, hunger, disease, as well as prisoners, and lost almost all their livestock - the main wealth of the people.

These tragic events in the history of the Kalmyk people are reflected in Sergei Yesenin’s poem “Pugachev”.

Regional reform in Estland and Livonia

The Baltic states as a result of the regional reform in 1782-1783. was divided into 2 provinces - Riga and Revel - with institutions that already existed in other provinces of Russia. In Estland and Livonia, the special Baltic order was eliminated, which provided for more extensive rights of local nobles to work and the personality of the peasant than those of Russian landowners.

Provincial reform in Siberia and the Middle Volga region

Siberia was divided into three provinces: Tobolsk, Kolyvan and Irkutsk.

The reform was carried out by the government without taking into account the ethnic composition of the population: the territory of Mordovia was divided between 4 provinces: Penza, Simbirsk, Tambov and Nizhny Novgorod.

Economic policy

The reign of Catherine II was characterized by the development of the economy and trade. By a decree of 1775, factories and industrial plants were recognized as property, the disposal of which does not require special permission from their superiors. In 1763, the free exchange of copper money for silver was prohibited, so as not to provoke the development of inflation. The development and revival of trade was facilitated by the emergence of new credit institutions (state bank and loan office) and the expansion of banking operations (acceptance of deposits for safekeeping was introduced in 1770). A state bank was established and the issue of paper money- banknotes.

Of great importance was the state regulation of prices for salt introduced by the empress, which was one of the most vital goods in the country. The Senate legislatively set the price of salt at 30 kopecks per pood (instead of 50 kopecks) and 10 kopecks per pood in regions where fish are mass-salted. Without introducing a state monopoly on the salt trade, Catherine hoped for increased competition and, ultimately, an improvement in the quality of the product.

Russia's role in the global economy has increased - Russian sailing fabric began to be exported in large quantities to England, and the export of cast iron and iron to other European countries increased (consumption of cast iron on the domestic Russian market also increased significantly).

Under the new protectionist tariff of 1767, the import of those goods that were or could be produced inside Russia was completely prohibited. Duties of 100 to 200% were imposed on luxury goods, wine, grain, toys... Export duties amounted to 10-23% of the value of exported goods.

In 1773, Russia exported goods worth 12 million rubles, which was 2.7 million rubles more than imports. In 1781, exports already amounted to 23.7 million rubles against 17.9 million rubles of imports. Russian merchant ships began to sail in the Mediterranean Sea. Thanks to the policy of protectionism in 1786, the country's exports amounted to 67.7 million rubles, and imports - 41.9 million rubles.

At the same time, Russia under Catherine experienced a number of financial crises and was forced to external loans, the size of which by the end of the Empress’s reign exceeded 200 million silver rubles.

Social politics

In 1768, a network of city schools was created, based on a class-lesson system. Schools began to open actively. Under Catherine, the systematic development of women's education began; in 1764, the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens and the Educational Society for Noble Maidens were opened. The Academy of Sciences has become one of the leading scientific bases in Europe. An observatory, a physics laboratory, an anatomical theater, a botanical garden, instrumental workshops, a printing house, a library, and an archive were founded. The Russian Academy was founded in 1783.

In the provinces there were orders for public charity. In Moscow and St. Petersburg there are educational homes for street children (currently the building of the Moscow Orphanage is occupied by the Peter the Great Military Academy), where they received education and upbringing. To help widows, the Widow's Treasury was created.

Compulsory smallpox vaccination was introduced, and Catherine was the first to receive such a vaccination. Under Catherine II, the fight against epidemics in Russia began to acquire the character of state measures that were directly included in the responsibilities of the Imperial Council and the Senate. By decree of Catherine, outposts were created, located not only on the borders, but also on the roads leading to the center of Russia. The “Border and Port Quarantine Charter” was created.

New areas of medicine developed for Russia: hospitals were opened to treat syphilis, psychiatric hospitals and shelters. A number of fundamental works on medical issues have been published.

National politics

After the annexation of lands that had previously been part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth to the Russian Empire, about a million Jews ended up in Russia - a people with a different religion, culture, way of life and way of life. To prevent their resettlement in the central regions of Russia and attachment to their communities for the convenience of collecting state taxes, Catherine II in 1791 established the Pale of Settlement, beyond which Jews had no right to live. The Pale of Settlement was established in the same place where Jews had lived before - on the annexed the result of three divisions of Poland lands, as well as in the steppe regions near the Black Sea and sparsely populated areas east of the Dnieper. The conversion of Jews to Orthodoxy lifted all restrictions on residence. It is noted that the Pale of Settlement contributed to the preservation of Jewish national identity and the formation of a special Jewish identity within the Russian Empire.

In 1762-1764, Catherine published two manifestos. The first - “On the permission of all foreigners entering Russia to settle in whichever provinces they wish and the rights granted to them” - called on foreign citizens to move to Russia, the second defined a list of benefits and privileges for immigrants. Soon the first German settlements arose in the Volga region, reserved for settlers. The influx of German colonists was so great that already in 1766 it was necessary to temporarily suspend the reception of new settlers until those who had already arrived were settled. The creation of colonies on the Volga was increasing: in 1765 - 12 colonies, in 1766 - 21, in 1767 - 67. According to the census of colonists in 1769, 6.5 thousand families lived in 105 colonies on the Volga, which amounted to 23.2 thousand people. In the future, the German community will play a significant role in the life of Russia.

By 1786, the country included the Northern Black Sea region, the Azov region, Crimea, Right Bank Ukraine, the lands between the Dniester and the Bug, Belarus, Courland and Lithuania.

The population of Russia in 1747 was 18 million people, by the end of the century - 36 million people.

In 1726 there were 336 cities in the country, by the beginning. XIX century - 634 cities. In con. In the 18th century, about 10% of the population lived in cities. IN rural areas 54% - privately owned and 40% - public

Legislation on estates

21 Apr In 1785, two charters were issued: “Charter on the rights, liberties and advantages of the noble nobility” and “Charter granted to cities.”

Both charters regulated legislation on the rights and duties of estates.

Letter of grant to the nobility:

• Already existing rights were confirmed.
• the nobility were exempt from the poll tax
• from cantonment military units and teams
• from corporal punishment
• from compulsory service
• the right to unlimited disposal of the estate was confirmed
• the right to own houses in cities
• the right to establish enterprises on estates and engage in trade
• ownership of the subsoil of the earth
• the right to have their own class institutions
• The name of the 1st estate changed: not “nobility”, but “noble nobility”.
• it was forbidden to confiscate the estates of nobles for criminal offenses; the estates were to be transferred to the legal heirs.
• nobles have the exclusive right of ownership of land, but the Charter does not say a word about the monopoly right to have serfs.
• Ukrainian elders were given equal rights with Russian nobles.
• a nobleman who did not have an officer rank was deprived of the right to vote.
• Only nobles whose income from estates exceeded 100 rubles could hold elected positions.

Certificate of rights and benefits to cities of the Russian Empire:

• the right of the elite merchant class not to pay the poll tax was confirmed.
• replacement of conscription with a cash contribution.

Division of the urban population into 6 categories:

1. nobles, officials and clergy (“real city dwellers”) - can have houses and land in cities without engaging in trade.
2. merchants of all three guilds (the lowest amount of capital for merchants of the 3rd guild is 1000 rubles)
3. artisans registered in workshops.
4. foreign and out-of-town merchants.
5. eminent citizens - merchants with a capital of over 50 thousand rubles, rich bankers (at least 100 thousand rubles), as well as the city intelligentsia: architects, painters, composers, scientists.
6. townspeople, who “support themselves by fishing, handicrafts and work” (who do not have real estate in the city).

Representatives of the 3rd and 6th categories were called “philistines” (the word came from the Polish language through Ukraine and Belarus, originally meaning “city dweller” or “citizen”, from the word “place” - city and “shtetl” - town).

Merchants of the 1st and 2nd guilds and eminent citizens were exempt from corporal punishment. Representatives of the 3rd generation of eminent citizens were allowed to file a petition for conferment of nobility.

Serf peasantry:

• The decree of 1763 entrusted the maintenance of military commands sent to suppress peasant uprisings to the peasants themselves.
• According to the decree of 1765, for open disobedience, the landowner could send the peasant not only to exile, but also to hard labor, and the period of hard labor was set by him; The landowners also had the right to return those exiled from hard labor at any time.
• A decree of 1767 prohibited peasants from complaining about their master; those who disobeyed were threatened with exile to Nerchinsk (but they could go to court),
• The peasants could not take an oath, take farm-outs or contracts.
• Trade by peasants reached wide proportions: they were sold in markets, in advertisements on the pages of newspapers; they were lost at cards, exchanged, given as gifts, and forced into marriage.
• The decree of May 3, 1783 prohibited the peasants of Left-Bank Ukraine and Sloboda Ukraine from passing from one owner to another.

The widespread idea of ​​Catherine distributing state peasants to landowners, as has now been proven, is a myth (peasants from lands acquired during the partitions of Poland, as well as palace peasants, were used for distribution). The zone of serfdom under Catherine extended to Ukraine. At the same time, the situation of the monastic peasants was alleviated, who were transferred to the jurisdiction of the College of Economy along with the lands. All their duties were replaced by monetary rent, which gave the peasants more independence and developed their economic initiative. As a result, the unrest of the monastery peasants ceased.

Clergy lost its autonomous existence due to the secularization of church lands (1764), which made it possible to exist without the help of the state and independently of it. After the reform, the clergy became dependent on the state that financed them.

Religious politics

In general, a policy of religious tolerance was pursued in Russia under Catherine II. Representatives of all traditional religions did not experience pressure or oppression. Thus, in 1773, a law on tolerance of all religions was issued, prohibiting Orthodox clergy interfere in the affairs of other faiths; secular authorities reserve the right to decide on the establishment of churches of any faith.

Having ascended the throne, Catherine canceled the decree of Peter III on the secularization of lands from the church. But already in February. In 1764 she again issued a decree depriving the Church of land property. Monastic peasants numbering about 2 million people. of both sexes were removed from the jurisdiction of the clergy and transferred to the management of the College of Economy. The state came under the jurisdiction of the estates of churches, monasteries and bishops.

In Ukraine, the secularization of monastic properties was carried out in 1786.

Thus, the clergy became dependent on secular authorities, since they could not carry out independent economic activities.

Catherine obtained from the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth government equalization of the rights of religious minorities - Orthodox and Protestants.

Under Catherine II, persecution stopped Old Believers. The Empress initiated the return of Old Believers, an economically active population, from abroad. They were specially allocated a place in Irgiz (modern Saratov and Samara regions). They were allowed to have priests.

The free resettlement of Germans to Russia led to a significant increase in the number Protestants(mostly Lutherans) in Russia. They were also allowed to build churches, schools, and freely perform religious services. At the end of the 18th century, there were more than 20 thousand Lutherans in St. Petersburg alone.

Behind Jewish religion retained the right to publicly practice faith. Religious matters and disputes were left to the Jewish courts. Jews, depending on the capital they had, were assigned to the appropriate class and could be elected to local government bodies, become judges and other civil servants.

By decree of Catherine II in 1787, in the printing house of the Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg, for the first time in Russia, a complete Arabic text was printed Islamic the holy book of the Koran for free distribution to the “Kyrgyz”. The publication differed significantly from European ones, primarily in that it was Muslim in nature: the text for publication was prepared by Mullah Usman Ibrahim. In St. Petersburg, from 1789 to 1798, 5 editions of the Koran were published. In 1788, a manifesto was issued in which the Empress commanded “to establish in Ufa a spiritual assembly of the Mohammedan law, which has under its authority all the spiritual officials of that law, ... excluding the Tauride region.” Thus, Catherine began to integrate the Muslim community into the system of government of the empire. Muslims received the right to build and restore mosques.

Buddhism also received government support in the regions where he traditionally practiced. In 1764, Catherine established the post of Hambo Lama - the head of the Buddhists of Eastern Siberia and Transbaikalia. In 1766, the Buryat lamas recognized Catherine as the incarnation of the Bodhisattva White Tara for her benevolence towards Buddhism and her humane rule.

Domestic political problems

At the time of Catherine II’s accession to the throne, the former Russian Emperor Ivan VI continued to remain alive and imprisoned in the Shlisselburg Fortress. In 1764, Second Lieutenant V. Ya. Mirovich, who was on guard duty in the Shlisselburg fortress, won over part of the garrison to his side in order to free Ivan. The guards, however, in accordance with the instructions given to them, stabbed the prisoner, and Mirovich himself was arrested and executed.

In 1771, a major plague epidemic occurred in Moscow, complicated by popular unrest in Moscow, called the Plague Riot. The rebels destroyed the Chudov Monastery in the Kremlin. The next day, the crowd took the Donskoy Monastery by storm, killed Archbishop Ambrose, who was hiding there, and began to destroy quarantine outposts and houses of the nobility. Troops under the command of G. G. Orlov were sent to suppress the uprising. After three days of fighting, the riot was suppressed.

Peasant War of 1773-1775

In 1773-1774 there was a peasant uprising led by Emelyan Pugachev. It covered the lands of the Yaik army, the Orenburg province, the Urals, the Kama region, Bashkiria, part of Western Siberia, the Middle and Lower Volga region. During the uprising, the Cossacks were joined by Bashkirs, Tatars, Kazakhs, Ural factory workers and numerous serfs from all the provinces where hostilities took place. After the suppression of the uprising, some liberal reforms were curtailed and conservatism intensified.

Main stages:

• Sep. 1773 - March 1774
• March 1774 - July 1774
• July 1774-1775

17 Sep. 1773 The uprising begins. Near the Yaitsky town, government detachments went over to the side of 200 Cossacks, going to suppress the rebellion. Without taking the town, the rebels go to Orenburg.

March - July 1774 - the rebels seize factories in the Urals and Bashkiria. The rebels are defeated near the Trinity Fortress. On July 12, Kazan was captured. On July 17, they were defeated again and retreated to the right bank of the Volga. 12 Sep. 1774 Pugachev was captured.

Freemasonry, Novikov Case, Radishchev Case

1762-1778 - characterized by the organizational design of Russian Freemasonry and the dominance of the English system (Elagin Freemasonry).

In the 60s and especially in the 70s. XVIII century Freemasonry is becoming increasingly popular among the educated nobility. The number of Masonic lodges increases several times, despite even the skeptical (if not to say semi-hostile) attitude towards Freemasonry of Catherine II. The question naturally arises: why did a significant part of Russian educated society become so interested in Masonic teaching? The main reason In our opinion, a certain part of the noble society began to search for a new ethical ideal, a new meaning of life. Traditional Orthodoxy could not satisfy them for obvious reasons. During Peter's government reforms the church turned into an appendage of the state apparatus, serving it and justifying any, even the most immoral, actions of its representatives.

That is why the order of free masons became so popular, because it offered its adherents brotherly love and sacred wisdom based on the undistorted true values ​​of early Christianity.

And, secondly, in addition to internal self-improvement, many were attracted by the opportunity to master secret mystical knowledge.

And finally, the magnificent rituals, attire, hierarchy, romantic atmosphere of the meetings of Masonic lodges could not fail to attract the attention of Russian nobles as people, especially military people, accustomed to military uniforms and paraphernalia, veneration of rank, etc.

In the 1760s A large number of representatives of the highest noble aristocracy and the emerging noble intelligentsia, who, as a rule, were in opposition to the political regime of Catherine II, entered Freemasonry. It is enough to mention Vice-Chancellor N.I. Panin, his brother General P.I. Panin, their great-nephew A.B. Kurakin (1752–1818), Kurakin’s friend Prince. G. P. Gagarin (1745–1803), Prince N. V. Repnin, future Field Marshal M. I. Golenishchev-Kutuzov, Prince M. M. Shcherbatov, secretary N. I. Panin and the famous playwright D. I. Fonvizin and many others.

As for the organizational structure of Russian Freemasonry of this period, its development proceeded in two directions. Most Russian lodges were part of the system of English or St. John's Freemasonry, which consisted of only 3 traditional degrees with elected leadership. The main goal was declared to be the moral self-improvement of man, mutual assistance and charity. The head of this direction of Russian Freemasonry was Ivan Perfilyevich Elagin, appointed in 1772 by the Grand Lodge of London (Old Masons) as the Grand Provincial Master of Russia. After his name, the entire system is partly called Elagin Freemasonry.

A minority of lodges worked according to various systems Strict Observation, which recognized the highest degrees and emphasized the achievement of higher mystical knowledge (German branch of Freemasonry).

The exact number of lodges in Russia of that period has not yet been established. Of those that are known, the majority entered (albeit on different conditions) into an alliance led by Elagin. However, this union turned out to be extremely short-lived. Elagin himself, despite the fact that he denied the highest degrees, nevertheless reacted with sympathy to the aspirations of many Masons to find the highest Masonic wisdom. It was at his suggestion that Prince A.B. Kurakin, a childhood friend of Tsarevich Pavel Petrovich, under the pretext of announcing to the Swedish royal house about the new wedding of the heir, went to Stockholm in 1776 with a secret mission to establish contacts with Swedish masons, who were rumored to have this higher knowledge.

However, Kurakin’s mission gave rise to another split in Russian Freemasonry.

MATERIALS ABOUT THE PERSECUTION OF NOVIKOV, HIS ARREST AND CONSEQUENCES

Novikov's investigative file includes a huge number of documents - letters and decrees of Catherine, correspondence between Prozorovsky and Sheshkovsky during the investigation - with each other and with Catherine, numerous interrogations of Novikov and his detailed explanations, letters, etc. The main part of the case fell into its own time in the archive and is now stored in the funds of the Central State Archive of Ancient Acts in Moscow (TSGADA, category VIII, case 218). At the same time, a significant number of the most important papers were not included in Novikov’s file, since they remained in the hands of those who led the investigation - Prozorovsky, Sheshkovsky and others. These originals subsequently passed into private ownership and remained forever lost to us. Fortunately, some of them were published in mid-19th centuries, and therefore we know them only from these printed sources.

The publication of materials from the investigation of the Russian educator began in the second half of the 19th century. The first large group of documents was published by the historian Ilovaisky in the Chronicles of Russian Literature, published by Tikhonravov. These documents were taken from a genuine investigative case conducted by Prince Prozorovsky. In those same years, new materials appeared in a number of publications. In 1867, M. Longinov, in his study “Novikov and the Moscow Martinists,” published a number of new documents taken from the “Novikov Case” and reprinted all previously published papers from the investigation case. Thus, Longin’s book contained the first and most complete set of documents, which until today, as a rule, was used by all scientists when studying Novikov’s activities. But this Longinian arch is far from complete. Many essential materials were unknown to Longinov and therefore were not included in the book. A year after the publication of his research - in 1868 - in volume II of the "Collection of the Russian Historical Society" Popov published a number of the most important papers given to him by P. A. Vyazemsky. Apparently, these papers came to Vyazemsky from the archives of the chief executioner of Radishchev and Novikov - Sheshkovsky. From Popov’s publication, for the first time, the questions asked by Sheshkovsky to Novikov became known (Longinov knew only the answers), and objections, apparently written by Sheshkovsky himself. These objections are important for us in that they undoubtedly arose as a result of the comments made by Ekaterina to the answers of Novikov, whose case she was personally involved in. Among the questions asked to Novikov was question No. 21 - about his relationship with the heir Pavel (in the text of the question Pavel’s name was not indicated, and it was about a “person”). Longinov did not know this question and the answer to it, since it was not on the list that Longinov used. Popov was the first to publish both this question and the answer to it.

A year later - in 1869 - Academician Pekarsky published the book “Addition to the history of Freemasons in Russia in the 18th century.” The book contained materials on the history of Freemasonry, among many papers there were also documents related to Novikov’s investigative case. Pekarskaya’s publication is of particular value to us, since it characterizes in detail Novikov’s educational publishing activities. In particular, the papers characterizing the history of Novikov’s relationship with Pokhodyashin deserve special attention; from them we learn about Novikov’s most important activity - organizing assistance to starving peasants. The significance of Novikov's investigative case is extremely great. First of all, it contains abundant biographical material, which, given the general paucity of information about Novikov, is sometimes the only source for studying the life and work of the Russian educator. But the main value of these documents lies elsewhere - a careful study of them clearly convinces us that Novikov was persecuted for a long time and systematically, that he was arrested, having previously destroyed the entire book publishing business, and then secretly and cowardly, without trial, he was imprisoned in a dungeon in the Shlisselburg fortress - not for Freemasonry, but for enormous educational activities independent of the government, which became a major phenomenon in public life in the 80s.

The answers to questions 12 and 21, which speak of "repentance" and place hopes in "royal mercy", must be understood historically correctly by the modern reader, with a clear understanding not only of the era, but also of the circumstances under which these confessions were made. We must also not forget that Novikov was in the hands of the cruel official Sheshkovsky, whom contemporaries called the “domestic executioner” of Catherine II. Questions 12 and 21 concerned matters that Novikov could not deny - he published books, he knew about relations with the “special one” - Pavel. Therefore, he testified that he committed these “crimes” “out of thoughtlessness about the importance of this act,” and pleaded “guilty.” It is worth recalling that in similar conditions Radishchev did exactly the same thing when, forced to admit that he really called on the serfs to revolt or “threatened the kings with the scaffold,” he showed: “I wrote this without consideration” or: “I admit my error,” etc. d.

Appeals to Catherine II were of an officially binding nature. So in Radishchev’s answers to Sheshkovsky we will find appeals to Catherine II, which quite obviously do not express the revolutionary’s actual attitude towards the Russian Empress. The same necessity forced Novikov to “throw himself at the feet of Her Imperial Majesty.” A serious illness, a depressed state of mind from the consciousness that not only his entire life’s work had been destroyed, but also his name had been tarnished by slander - all this, of course, also determined the nature of emotional appeals to the empress.

At the same time, it must be remembered that, despite the courage shown by Novikov during the investigation, his behavior differs from the behavior of the first Russian revolutionary. Radishchev drew the firmness so necessary in such circumstances from the proud consciousness of his historical correctness, based his behavior on the morality of the revolutionary forged by him, which called for openly going towards danger, and if necessary, then death, in the name of the triumph of the great cause of liberation of the people. Radishchev fought, and, sitting in the fortress, he defended himself; Novikov made excuses.

Novikov's investigative case has not yet been subjected to systematic and scientific study. Until now, people have resorted to him only for information. Systematic study was undoubtedly hampered by the following two circumstances: a) the extreme dispersion of documents from publications that have long become a bibliographic rarity, and b) the established tradition of printing documents from Novikov’s investigative case surrounded by abundant materials on the history of Freemasonry. In this sea of ​​Masonic papers, the Novikov case itself was lost, the main thing in it was lost - the increase in Catherine’s persecution of Novikov, and him alone (and not Freemasonry), for book publishing, for educational activities, for writings - persecution that ended not only with the arrest and imprisonment in the fortress of the front line hated by the empress public figure, but also the destruction of the entire educational cause (a decree prohibiting the rental of a university printing house to Novikov, the closure of a bookstore, the confiscation of books, etc.).

Russian foreign policy during the reign of Catherine II

The foreign policy of the Russian state under Catherine was aimed at strengthening Russia's role in the world and expanding its territory. The motto of her diplomacy was as follows: “you need to be on friendly terms with all powers in order to always retain the opportunity to take the side of the weaker... to keep your hands free... not to be dragged behind anyone.”

Expansion of the Russian Empire

The new territorial growth of Russia begins with the accession of Catherine II. After the first Turkish war, Russia acquired in 1774 important points at the mouths of the Dnieper, Don and in the Kerch Strait (Kinburn, Azov, Kerch, Yenikale). Then, in 1783, Balta, Crimea and the Kuban region are annexed. The Second Turkish War ends with the acquisition of the coastal strip between the Bug and the Dniester (1791). Thanks to all these acquisitions, Russia is becoming a firm foot on the Black Sea. At the same time, the Polish sections are given to Russia Western Rus'. According to the first of them, in 1773 Russia received part of Belarus (the provinces of Vitebsk and Mogilev); according to the second partition of Poland (1793), Russia received the regions: Minsk, Volyn and Podolsk; according to the third (1795-1797) - Lithuanian provinces (Vilna, Kovno and Grodno), Black Rus', the upper reaches of Pripyat and the western part of Volyn. Simultaneously with the third partition, the Duchy of Courland was annexed to Russia (the act of abdication of Duke Biron).

Sections of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth

The federal Polish-Lithuanian state of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth included the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

The reason for intervention in the affairs of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was the question of the position of dissidents (that is, the non-Catholic minority - Orthodox and Protestants), so that they were equalized with the rights of Catholics. Ekaterina provided strong pressure to the gentry with the aim of electing his protege Stanislav August Poniatowski to the Polish throne, who was elected. Part of the Polish gentry opposed these decisions and organized an uprising in the Bar Confederation. It was suppressed by Russian troops in alliance with the Polish king. In 1772, Prussia and Austria, fearing the strengthening of Russian influence in Poland and its successes in the war with the Ottoman Empire (Turkey), offered Catherine to carry out a division of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in exchange for ending the war, otherwise threatening war against Russia. Russia, Austria and Prussia sent in their troops.

In 1772 took place 1st section of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Austria received all of Galicia with its districts, Prussia - Western Prussia (Pomerania), Russia - the eastern part of Belarus to Minsk (Vitebsk and Mogilev provinces) and part of the Latvian lands that were previously part of Livonia.

The Polish Sejm was forced to agree to the division and give up claims to the lost territories: Poland lost 380,000 km² with a population of 4 million people.

Polish nobles and industrialists contributed to the adoption of the Constitution of 1791. The conservative part of the population of the Targowica Confederation turned to Russia for help.

In 1793 there took place 2nd section of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, approved at the Grodno Seim. Prussia received Gdansk, Torun, Poznan (part of the lands along the Warta and Vistula rivers), Russia - Central Belarus with Minsk and Right Bank Ukraine.

In March 1794, an uprising began under the leadership of Tadeusz Kosciuszko, the goals of which were to restore territorial integrity, sovereignty and the Constitution on May 3, but in the spring of that year it was suppressed by the Russian army under the command of A.V. Suvorov.

In 1795 took place 3rd partition of Poland. Austria received Southern Poland with Luban and Krakow, Prussia - Central Poland with Warsaw, Russia - Lithuania, Courland, Volyn and Western Belarus.

October 13, 1795 - a conference of the three powers on the fall of the Polish state, it lost statehood and sovereignty.

Russian-Turkish wars. Annexation of Crimea

An important area of ​​Catherine II’s foreign policy also included the territories of Crimea, the Black Sea region and the North Caucasus, which were under Turkish rule.

When the uprising of the Bar Confederation broke out, the Turkish Sultan declared war on Russia ( Russo-Turkish War 1768-1774), using as a pretext the fact that one of the Russian detachments, pursuing the Poles, entered the territory of the Ottoman Empire. Russian troops defeated the Confederates and began to win victories one after another in the south. Having achieved success in a number of land and sea battles (Battle of Kozludzhi, Battle of Ryabaya Mogila, Battle of Kagul, Battle of Larga, Battle of Chesme, etc.), Russia forced Turkey to sign the Kyuchuk-Kainardzhi Treaty, as a result of which Crimean Khanate formally gained independence, but de facto became dependent on Russia. Turkey paid Russia military indemnities in the order of 4.5 million rubles, and also conceded north coast Black Sea along with two important ports.

After the end of the Russian-Turkish War of 1768-1774, Russia's policy towards the Crimean Khanate was aimed at establishing a pro-Russian ruler in it and joining Russia. Under pressure from Russian diplomacy, Shahin Giray was elected khan. The previous khan, Turkey's protege Devlet IV Giray, tried to resist at the beginning of 1777, but it was suppressed by A.V. Suvorov, Devlet IV fled to Turkey. At the same time, the landing of Turkish troops in the Crimea was prevented and thus an attempt to start a new war was prevented, after which Turkey recognized Shahin Giray as khan. In 1782, an uprising broke out against him, which was suppressed by Russian troops introduced into the peninsula, and in 1783, with the manifesto of Catherine II, the Crimean Khanate was annexed to Russia.

After the victory, the Empress, together with the Austrian Emperor Joseph II, made a triumphal tour of the Crimea.

The next war with Turkey occurred in 1787-1792 and was an unsuccessful attempt by the Ottoman Empire to regain the lands that had gone to Russia during the Russian-Turkish War of 1768-1774, including Crimea. Here, too, the Russians won a number of important victories, both land - the Battle of Kinburn, the Battle of Rymnik, the capture of Ochakov, the capture of Izmail, the battle of Focsani, the Turkish campaigns against Bendery and Akkerman were repulsed, etc., and sea - the battle of Fidonisi (1788), Kerch naval battle (1790), Battle of Cape Tendra (1790) and Battle of Kaliakria (1791). As a result, the Ottoman Empire in 1791 was forced to sign the Treaty of Yassy, ​​which assigned Crimea and Ochakov to Russia, and also pushed the border between the two empires to the Dniester.

The wars with Turkey were marked by major military victories of Rumyantsev, Suvorov, Potemkin, Kutuzov, Ushakov, and the establishment of Russia in the Black Sea. As a result, the Northern Black Sea region, Crimea, and the Kuban region went to Russia, and its political positions in the Caucasus and the Balkans, Russia’s authority on the world stage was strengthened.

Relations with Georgia. Treaty of Georgievsk

Under the king of Kartli and Kakheti, Irakli II (1762-1798), the united Kartli-Kakheti state was significantly strengthened, and its influence in Transcaucasia was growing. The Turks are expelled from the country. Georgian culture is being revived, book printing is emerging. Enlightenment is becoming one of the leading trends in social thought. Heraclius turned to Russia for protection from Persia and Turkey. Catherine II, who fought with Turkey, on the one hand, was interested in an ally, on the other hand, did not want to send significant military forces. In 1769-1772, a small Russian detachment under the command of General Totleben fought against Turkey on the side of Georgia. In 1783, Russia and Georgia signed the Treaty of Georgievsk, establishing a Russian protectorate over the kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti in exchange for Russian military protection. In 1795, the Persian Shah Agha Mohammed Khan Qajar invaded Georgia and, after the Battle of Krtsanisi, ravaged Tbilisi.

Relations with Sweden

Taking advantage of the fact that Russia entered into a war with Turkey, Sweden, supported by Prussia, England and Holland, started a war with it for the return of previously lost territories. The troops that entered Russian territory were stopped by General-in-Chief V.P. Musin-Pushkin. After a series of naval battles that did not have a decisive outcome, Russia defeated the Swedish battle fleet in the battle of Vyborg, but due to a storm, it suffered a heavy defeat in the battle of the rowing fleets at Rochensalm. The parties signed the Treaty of Verel in 1790, according to which the border between the countries did not change.

Relations with other countries

In 1764, relations between Russia and Prussia normalized and an alliance treaty was concluded between the countries. This treaty served as the basis for the formation of the Northern System - an alliance of Russia, Prussia, England, Sweden, Denmark and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth against France and Austria. Russian-Prussian-English cooperation continued further.

In the third quarter of the 18th century. There was a struggle of the North American colonies for independence from England - the bourgeois revolution led to the creation of the USA. In 1780, the Russian government adopted the “Declaration of Armed Neutrality”, supported by the majority of European countries (ships of neutral countries had the right of armed defense if they were attacked by the fleet of a warring country).

In European affairs, Russia's role increased during the Austro-Prussian War of 1778-1779, when it acted as a mediator between the warring parties at the Congress of Teschen, where Catherine essentially dictated her terms of reconciliation, restoring balance in Europe. After this, Russia often acted as an arbiter in disputes between German states, which turned directly to Catherine for mediation.

One of Catherine’s grandiose plans in the foreign policy arena was the so-called Greek project - joint plans of Russia and Austria to divide Turkish lands, expel the Turks from Europe, revive the Byzantine Empire and proclaim Catherine’s grandson, Grand Duke Konstantin Pavlovich, as its emperor. According to the plans, a buffer state of Dacia is created in place of Bessarabia, Moldova and Wallachia, and the western part of the Balkan Peninsula is transferred to Austria. The project was developed in the early 1780s, but was not implemented due to the contradictions of the allies and Russia’s independent conquest of significant Turkish territories.

In October 1782, a Treaty of Friendship and Trade with Denmark was signed.

On February 14, 1787, she received the Venezuelan politician Francisco Miranda at the Mariinsky Palace in Kyiv.

After the French Revolution, Catherine was one of the initiators of the anti-French coalition and the establishment of the principle of legitimism. She said: “The weakening of monarchical power in France endangers all other monarchies. For my part, I am ready to resist with all my might. It's time to act and take up arms." However, in reality, she avoided participating in hostilities against France. According to popular opinion, one of the real reasons for the creation of the anti-French coalition was to divert the attention of Prussia and Austria from Polish affairs. At the same time, Catherine abandoned all treaties concluded with France, ordered the expulsion of all those suspected of sympathizing with the French Revolution from Russia, and in 1790 she issued a decree on the return of all Russians from France.

During the reign of Catherine, the Russian Empire acquired the status of a “great power”. As a result of two successful Russian-Turkish wars for Russia, 1768-1774 and 1787-1791. was annexed to Russia Crimean peninsula and the entire territory of the Northern Black Sea region. In 1772-1795. Russia took part in three sections of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, as a result of which it annexed the territories of present-day Belarus, Western Ukraine, Lithuania and Courland. The Russian Empire also included Russian America - Alaska and the West Coast of the North American continent (the current state of California).

Catherine II as a figure of the Age of Enlightenment

The long reign of Catherine II 1762-1796 was filled with significant and highly controversial events and processes. The “Golden Age of the Russian Nobility” was at the same time the age of Pugachevism, the “Nakaz” and the Statutory Commission coexisted with persecution. And yet it was an integral era, which had its own core, its own logic, its own ultimate task. This was a time when the imperial government was trying to implement one of the most thoughtful, consistent and successful reform programs in Russian history. The ideological basis of the reforms was the philosophy of the European Enlightenment, with which the empress was well acquainted. In this sense, her reign is often called the era of enlightened absolutism. Historians argue about what enlightened absolutism was - the utopian teaching of the enlighteners (Voltaire, Diderot, etc.) about the ideal union of kings and philosophers or a political phenomenon that found its real embodiment in Prussia (Frederick II the Great), Austria (Joseph II), Russia (Catherine II), etc. These disputes are not unfounded. They reflect the key contradiction in the theory and practice of enlightened absolutism: between the need to radically change the existing order of things (class system, despotism, lawlessness, etc.) and the inadmissibility of shocks, the need for stability, the inability to infringe on the social force on which this order rests - the nobility . Catherine II, like perhaps no one else, understood the tragic insurmountability of this contradiction: “You,” she blamed the French philosopher D. Diderot, “write on paper that will endure everything, but I, poor empress, write on human skin, so sensitive and painful." Her position on the issue of the serf peasantry is very indicative. There is no doubt about the empress's negative attitude towards serfdom. She thought more than once about ways to cancel it. But things did not go further than cautious reflection. Catherine II clearly realized that the abolition of serfdom would be received with indignation by the nobles. Feudal legislation was expanded: landowners were allowed to exile peasants to hard labor for any period of time, and peasants were forbidden to file complaints against landowners. The most significant transformations in the spirit of enlightened absolutism were:

• convening and activities of the Legislative Commission 1767-1768. The goal was to develop a new set of laws, which was intended to replace the Council Code of 1649. Representatives of the nobility, officials, townspeople, and state peasants worked in the Code Commission. For the opening of the commission, Catherine II wrote the famous “Instruction”, in which she used the works of Voltaire, Montesquieu, Beccaria and other educators. It talked about the presumption of innocence, the eradication of despotism, the spread of education, and public welfare. The commission's activities did not bring the desired result. New vault no laws were developed, the deputies were unable to rise above the narrow interests of the classes and did not show much zeal in developing reforms. In December 1768, the Empress dissolved the Statutory Commission and did not create any more similar institutions;
• reform of the administrative-territorial division of the Russian Empire. The country was divided into 50 provinces (300-400 thousand male souls), each of which consisted of 10-12 districts (20-30 thousand male souls). A uniform system of provincial government was established: a governor appointed by the emperor, a provincial government that exercised executive power, the Treasury Chamber (collection of taxes, their expenditure), the Order of Public Charity (schools, hospitals, shelters, etc.). Courts were created, built on a strictly class principle - for nobles, townspeople, and state peasants. Administrative, financial and judicial functions were thus clearly separated. The provincial division introduced by Catherine II remained until 1917;
• adoption in 1785 Certificate of Complaint the nobility, which secured all the class rights and privileges of the nobles (exemption from corporal punishment, the exclusive right to own peasants, pass them on by inheritance, sell, buy villages, etc.);
• adoption of the Charter to the cities, formalizing the rights and privileges of the “third estate” - the townspeople. The city estate was divided into six categories, received limited rights of self-government, elected the mayor and members of the city Duma;
• the adoption in 1775 of a manifesto on freedom of enterprise, according to which permission from government bodies was not required to open an enterprise;
• reforms 1782-1786 in the field of school education.

Of course, these transformations were limited. Autocratic principle of management, serfdom, the class system remained unshakable. Peasants' War Pugachev (1773-1775), the capture of the Bastille (1789) and the execution of King Louis XVI (1793) did not contribute to the deepening of reforms. They went intermittently in the 90s. and stopped altogether. The persecution of A. N. Radishchev (1790) and the arrest of N. I. Novikov (1792) were not random episodes. They testify to the deep contradictions of enlightened absolutism, the impossibility of unambiguous assessments of the “golden age of Catherine II”.

And yet, it was during this era that the Free Economic Society appeared (1765), free printing houses operated, heated journal debates took place, in which the Empress personally participated, the Hermitage (1764) and the Public Library in St. Petersburg (1795), and the Smolny Institute of Noble Maidens were founded (1764) and pedagogical schools in both capitals. Historians also say that the efforts of Catherine II, aimed at encouraging the social activity of the classes, especially the nobility, laid the foundations of civil society in Russia.

Ekaterina - writer and publisher

Catherine belonged to a small number of monarchs who communicated so intensely and directly with their subjects through the drafting of manifestos, instructions, laws, polemical articles and indirectly in the form of satirical works, historical dramas and pedagogical opuses. In her memoirs, she admitted: “I cannot see a clean pen without feeling the desire to immediately dip it in ink.”

She had an extraordinary talent as a writer, leaving behind a large collection of works - notes, translations, librettos, fables, fairy tales, comedies “Oh, time!”, “Mrs. Vorchalkina’s Name Day,” “The Hall of a Noble Boyar,” “Mrs. Vestnikova with her Family,” "The Invisible Bride" (1771-1772), essays, etc., participated in the weekly satirical magazine“All sorts of things,” published since 1769. The Empress turned to journalism in order to influence public opinion, so the main idea of ​​the magazine was criticism of human vices and weaknesses. Other subjects of irony were the superstitions of the population. Catherine herself called the magazine: “Satire in a smiling spirit.”

Development of culture and art

Catherine considered herself a “philosopher on the throne” and had a favorable attitude toward the Age of Enlightenment, and corresponded with Voltaire, Diderot, and d’Alembert.

During her reign, the Hermitage and the Public Library appeared in St. Petersburg. She patronized various fields of art - architecture, music, painting.

It is impossible not to mention the mass settlement of German families in various regions of modern Russia, Ukraine, as well as the Baltic countries, initiated by Catherine. The goal was the modernization of Russian science and culture.

Features of personal life

Ekaterina was a brunette of average height. She combined high intelligence, education, statesmanship and a commitment to “free love.”

Catherine is known for her connections with numerous lovers, the number of which (according to the list of the authoritative Catherine scholar P. I. Bartenev) reaches 23. The most famous of them were Sergei Saltykov, G. G. Orlov (later count), horse guard lieutenant Vasilchikov, G. A Potemkin (later prince), hussar Zorich, Lanskoy, the last favorite was the cornet Platon Zubov, who became a count of the Russian Empire and a general. According to some sources, Catherine was secretly married to Potemkin (1775, see Wedding of Catherine II and Potemkin). After 1762, she planned a marriage with Orlov, but on the advice of those close to her, she abandoned this idea.

It is worth noting that Catherine’s “debauchery” was not such a scandalous phenomenon against the backdrop of the general debauchery of morals in the 18th century. Most kings (with the possible exception of Frederick the Great, Louis XVI and Charles XII) had numerous mistresses. Catherine's favorites (with the exception of Potemkin, who had state abilities) did not influence politics. Nevertheless, the institution of favoritism had a negative effect on the higher nobility, who sought benefits through flattery to the new favorite, tried to make “their own man” become lovers of the empress, etc.

Catherine had two sons: Pavel Petrovich (1754) (it is suspected that his father was Sergei Saltykov) and Alexei Bobrinsky (1762 - son of Grigory Orlov) and two daughters: Grand Duchess Anna Petrovna (1757-1759, possibly daughter) who died in infancy the future king of Poland Stanislav Poniatovsky) and Elizaveta Grigorievna Tyomkina (1775 - daughter of Potemkin).

Famous figures of Catherine's era

The reign of Catherine II was characterized by the fruitful activities of outstanding Russian scientists, diplomats, military men, statesmen, cultural and artistic figures. In 1873, in St. Petersburg, in the park in front of the Alexandrinsky Theater (now Ostrovsky Square), an impressive multi-figure monument to Catherine was erected, designed by M. O. Mikeshin, sculptors A. M. Opekushin and M. A. Chizhov and architects V. A. Schröter and D.I. Grimm. The foot of the monument consists of a sculptural composition, the characters of which are outstanding personalities of Catherine’s era and associates of the Empress:

• Grigory Aleksandrovich Potemkin-Tavrichesky
• Alexander Vasilievich Suvorov
• Petr Aleksandrovich Rumyantsev
• Alexander Andreevich Bezborodko
• Alexander Alekseevich Vyazemsky
• Ivan Ivanovich Betskoy
• Vasily Yakovlevich Chichagov
• Alexey Grigorievich Orlov
• Gabriel Romanovich Derzhavin
• Ekaterina Romanovna Vorontsova-Dashkova

The events of the last years of the reign of Alexander II - in particular, the Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878 - prevented the implementation of the plan to expand the memorial of the Catherine era. D. I. Grimm developed a project for the construction in the park next to the monument to Catherine II of bronze statues and busts depicting figures of the glorious reign. According to the final list, approved a year before the death of Alexander II, six bronze sculptures and twenty-three busts on granite pedestals were to be placed next to the monument to Catherine.

The following should have been depicted full-length: Count N.I. Panin, Admiral G.A. Spiridov, writer D.I. Fonvizin, Prosecutor General of the Senate Prince A.A. Vyazemsky, Field Marshal Prince N.V. Repnin and General A. I. Bibikov, former chairman of the Code Commission. The busts include publisher and journalist N. I. Novikov, traveler P. S. Pallas, playwright A. P. Sumarokov, historians I. N. Boltin and Prince M. M. Shcherbatov, artists D. G. Levitsky and V. L. Borovikovsky, architect A.F. Kokorinov, favorite of Catherine II Count G.G. Orlov, admirals F.F. Ushakov, S.K. Greig, A.I. Cruz, military leaders: Count Z.G. Chernyshev, Prince V M. Dolgorukov-Krymsky, Count I. E. Ferzen, Count V. A. Zubov; Moscow Governor General Prince M. N. Volkonsky, Novgorod Governor Count Y. E. Sivers, diplomat Ya. I. Bulgakov, pacifier of the “plague riot” of 1771 in Moscow P. D. Eropkin, who suppressed the Pugachev riot Count P. I. Panin and I. I. Mikhelson, the hero of the capture of the Ochakov fortress I. I. Meller-Zakomelsky.

In addition to those listed, such famous figures of the era are noted as:

• Mikhail Vasilievich Lomonosov
• Leonard Euler
• Giacomo Quarenghi
• Vasily Bazhenov
• Jean Baptiste Vallin-Delamott
• N. A. Lvov
• Ivan Kulibin
• Matvey Kazakov

Catherine in art

To the cinema

• “The Best Film 2”, 2009. In the role of Catherine - Mikhail Galustyan
• "Catherine's Musketeers", 2007. In the role of Catherine - Alla Oding
• “The Secret of the Maestro”, 2007. In the role of Catherine - Olesya Zhurakovskaya
• “The Favorite (TV series)”, 2005. In the role of Ekaterina - Natalya Surkova
• “Catherine the Great”, 2005. In the role of Catherine - Emily Brun
• “Emelyan Pugachev (film)”, 1977; “Golden Age”, 2003. In the role of Catherine - Via Artmane
• “Russian Ark”, 2002. In the role of Catherine - Maria Kuznetsova, Natalya Nikulenko
• “Russian Revolt”, 2000. In the role of Catherine - Olga Antonova
• “Countess Sheremeteva”, 1988; “Evenings on a farm near Dikanka”, 2005. In the role of Catherine - Lydia Fedoseeva-Shukshina
• “Catherine the Great”, 1995. Catherine Zeta-Jones plays Catherine
• “Young Catherine” (“Young Catherine”), 1991. In the role of Catherine - Julia Ormond
• “Anecdotiada”, 1993. In the role of Catherine - Irina Muravyova
• “Vivat, midshipmen!”, 1991; “Midshipmen 3 (film)”, 1992. In the role of Catherine - Kristina Orbakaite
• “The Tsar’s Hunt”, 1990. Svetlana Kryuchkova plays the role of Catherine.
• "Dreams about Russia." In the role of Catherine - Marina Vladi
• "Captain's daughter". In the role of Ekaterina - Natalya Gundareva
• “Katharina und ihre wilden hengste”, 1983. Sandra Nova plays the role of Katharina.

black and white movie stars:

• “Great Catherine”, 1968. In the role of Catherine - Jeanne Moreau
• “Evenings on a farm near Dikanka”, 1961. Zoya Vasilkova plays the role of Catherine.
• “John Paul Jones”, 1959. Bette Davis as Catherine
• “Admiral Ushakov”, 1953. In the role of Catherine - Olga Zhizneva.
• “A Royal Scandal”, 1945. Tallulah Bankhead plays Catherine.
• "The Scarlet Empress", 1934. Ch. role - Marlene Dietrich
• “Forbidden Paradise”, 1924. Pola Negri as Catherine

In the theatre

• “Catherine the Great. Musical Chronicles of the Times of the Empire", 2008. In the role of Catherine - People's Artist of Russia Nina Shamber

In literature

• B. Shaw. " Great Catherine»
• V. N. Ivanov. "Empress Fike"
• V. S. Pikul. "Favorite"
• V. S. Pikul. "Pen and Sword"
• Boris Akunin. "Extracurricular reading"
• Vasily Aksenov. "Voltairians and Voltairians"
• A. S. Pushkin. "Captain's daughter"
• Henri Troyat. "Catherine the Great"

In fine arts

Memory

In 1778, Catherine composed the following humorous epitaph for herself (translated from French):
Buried here
Catherine the Second, born in Stettin
April 21, 1729.
She spent 1744 in Russia, and left
There she married Peter III.
Fourteen years old
She made a triple project - like it
To my spouse, Elizabeth I and the people.
She used everything to achieve success in this.
Eighteen years of boredom and solitude forced her to read many books.
Having ascended the Russian throne, she strove for good,
She wanted to bring happiness, freedom and property to her subjects.
She easily forgave and did not hate anyone.
Indulgent, loved ease in life, cheerful by nature, with the soul of a republican
And with a kind heart - she had friends.
The work was easy for her,
In society and verbal sciences she
I found pleasure.

Monuments

• In 1873, a monument to Catherine II was unveiled on Alexandrinskaya Square in St. Petersburg (see section Famous figures of the Catherine era).
• In 1907, a monument to Catherine II was opened in Yekaterinodar (it stood until 1920, and was restored on September 8, 2006).
• In 2002, in Novorzhevo, founded by Catherine II, a monument was unveiled in her honor.
• On October 27, 2007, monuments to Catherine II were unveiled in Odessa and Tiraspol.
• On May 15, 2008, a monument to Catherine II was unveiled in Sevastopol.
• On September 14, 2008, a monument to Catherine II the Great was unveiled in Podolsk. The monument depicts the Empress at the moment of signing the Decree of October 5, 1781, which reads: “... we most graciously command that the economic village of Podol be renamed a city...”.
• In Veliky Novgorod, on the Monument “1000th Anniversary of Russia”, among the 129 figures of the most outstanding personalities in Russian history (as of 1862), there is the figure of Catherine II.
• Catherine made four mistakes in a three-letter word. Instead of “yet” she wrote “ischo”.

At the age of 16, Catherine married her 17-year-old cousin Peter, Elizabeth’s nephew and heir, reigning empress Russia (Elizabeth herself had no children).

Peter was completely abnormal and also impotent. There were days when Catherine even thought about suicide. After ten years of marriage, she gave birth to a son. In all likelihood, the child's father was Sergei Saltykov, a young Russian nobleman, Catherine's first lover. Since Peter became completely insane and increasingly unpopular among the people and at court, Catherine’s chances of inheriting the Russian throne looked completely hopeless. Peter, in addition, began to threaten Catherine with divorce. She decided to organize a coup d'etat. In June 1762, Peter, who by that time had already been emperor for six months, was overcome by another crazy idea. He decided to declare war on Denmark. To prepare for military action, he left the capital. Catherine, guarded by a regiment of the imperial guard, went to St. Petersburg and declared herself empress. Peter, shocked by this news, was immediately arrested and killed. Catherine's main accomplice were her lovers Count Grigory Orlov and his two brothers. All three were officers of the Imperial Guard. During her more than 30-year reign, Catherine significantly weakened the power of the clergy in Russia, suppressed a major peasant revolt, reorganized the apparatus of government, introduced serfdom in Ukraine, and added more than 200,000 square kilometers to Russian territory.

Even before her marriage, Catherine was extremely sensual. So, at night she often masturbated, holding a pillow between her legs. Since Peter was completely impotent and had no interest in sex at all, the bed for him was a place where he could only sleep or play with his favorite toys. At 23, she was still a virgin. One night on an island in the Baltic Sea, Catherine's maid of honor left her alone (perhaps on Catherine's instructions) with Saltykov, a famous young seducer. He promised to give Catherine great pleasure, and she really was not disappointed. Catherine was finally able to give free rein to her sexuality. Soon she was already the mother of two children. Naturally, Peter was considered the father of both children, although one day those close to him heard the following words from him: “I don’t understand how she gets pregnant.” Catherine's second child died shortly after his real father, a young Polish nobleman who worked at the English embassy, ​​was expelled from Russia in disgrace.

Three more children were born to Catherine from Grigory Orlov. Fluffy skirts and lace successfully hid her pregnancy every time. Catherine's first child was born from Orlov during Peter's lifetime. During the birth, not far from the palace, Catherine's faithful servants started a large fire to distract Peter. It was well known to everyone that he was a great lover of such spectacles. The remaining two children were raised in the homes of Catherine's servants and ladies-in-waiting. These maneuvers were necessary for Catherine, since she refused to marry Orlov, as she did not want to put an end to the Romanov dynasty. In response to this refusal, Gregory turned Catherine's court into his harem. However, she remained faithful to him for 14 years and finally abandoned him only when he seduced her 13-year-old cousin.

Ekaterina is already 43 years old. She still remained very attractive, and her sensuality and voluptuousness only increased. One of her loyal supporters, cavalry officer Grigory Potemkin, swore his allegiance to her for the rest of his life and then entered a monastery. He did not return to social life until Catherine promised to appoint him as her official favorite.

For two years, Catherine and her 35-year-old favorite led a stormy love life, filled with quarrels and reconciliations. When Gregory became tired of Catherine, he, wanting to get rid of her without losing his influence at court, managed to convince her that she could change her favorites as easily as any of her other servants. He even swore to her that he would select them himself.

This system worked great until Catherine turned 60. The potential favorite was first examined by personal doctor Catherine, who checked him for any signs of venereal disease. If the favorite candidate was recognized as healthy, he had to pass another test - his masculinity was tested by one of Catherine’s ladies-in-waiting, whom she herself chose for this purpose. The next stage, if the candidate, of course, achieved it, was moving into special apartments in the palace. These apartments were located directly above Catherine's bedroom, and a separate staircase led there, unknown to outsiders. In the apartment, the favorite found a significant amount of money prepared in advance for him. Officially at court, the favorite had the position of Catherine's chief adjutant. When a favorite changed, the outgoing “night emperor,” as they were sometimes called, received some generous gift, for example, a large sum of money or an estate with 4,000 serfs.

Over the 16 years of the existence of this system, Catherine has had 13 favorites. In 1789, 60-year-old Catherine fell in love with 22-year-old officer of the imperial guard Platon Zubov. Zubov remained Catherine's main object of sexual interest until her death at the age of 67. There were rumors among the people that Catherine died while trying to have sexual relations with a stallion. In fact, she died two days after suffering a severe heart attack.

Peter's impotence is probably due to a deformation of his penis, which could be corrected with surgery. Saltykov and his close friends once got Peter drunk and persuaded him to undergo such an operation. This was done so that Catherine’s next pregnancy could be explained. It is not known whether Peter had sexual relations with Catherine after that, but after a while he began to have mistresses.

In 1764, Catherine made the Polish Count Stanislaw Poniatowski, her second lover, who had been expelled from Russia, king of Poland. When Poniatowski was unable to cope with his internal political opponents, and the situation in the country began to get out of his control, Catherine simply erased Poland from the world map, annexing part of this country and giving the rest to Prussia and Austria.

The fate of Catherine's other lovers and favorites turned out differently. Grigory Orlov has gone crazy. Before his death, he always imagined that he was being haunted by the ghost of Peter, although the murder of the emperor was planned by Alexei, the brother of Grigory Orlov. Alexander Lansky, Catherine's favorite, died of diphtheria, having undermined his health with excessive use of aphrodisiacs. Ivan Rimsky-Korsakov, the grandfather of the famous Russian composer, lost his place as favorite after he returned to Countess Bruce, Catherine's maid of honor, for additional "tests". It was Countess Bruce who at that time was the lady-in-waiting who “gave the go-ahead” after the favorite candidate proved to her that he had considerable sexual capabilities and was able to satisfy the empress. The Countess was replaced in this post by a woman of more mature age. The next favorite, Alexander Dmitriev-Mamonov, was allowed to resign from his position and marry a pregnant courtier. Catherine sulked for three days and then gave the newlyweds a luxurious wedding gift.

She was German by nationality. However, history recognizes this woman as one of the greatest Russian leaders, and deservedly so. The biography of Catherine 2 was very eventful: her life took many sharp turns and contained many bright, interesting and very important events for Russian history. It is not surprising that about the fate of this outstanding woman many books have been written and filmed big number films.

Princess Fike

At birth her name was Sophia Frederica Augusta of Anhalt-Zerbst (1729-1796), she was the daughter of Prince Christian of Anhalt-Zerbst, who was in Prussian service. At home, the girl was called Fike (a kind of diminutive of Frederick), she was inquisitive, willing to study, but showed a penchant for boyish games.

A poor and not very noble girl was chosen as a bride to the heir to the Russian throne only for the reason that Empress Elizaveta Petrovna had once been the bride of her uncle. Peter Fedorovich, Elizabeth's nephew (the future Peter 3) and Sophia-Frederica were married in 1745. Before this, the bride converted to Orthodoxy and was baptized in the name of Ekaterina Alekseevna.

Peter was forced to marry Catherine by force, and he immediately disliked his wife. The marriage was extremely unsuccessful - the husband not only neglected his wife, but also clearly mocked and humiliated her. Empress Elizabeth immediately after her birth took away her son from Catherine, as a result of which the relationship between mother and son also did not work out. Of all her relatives, she only got along with her grandchildren, Alexander and Konstantin.

Probably, an unsuccessful marriage led Catherine 2 to a free lifestyle. She had lovers (almost openly) during her husband’s lifetime. Among them there were all sorts, but it is noteworthy that among Catherine’s favorites there were many truly outstanding people. Such a way of life among the monarchs of that time, deprived of the opportunity to choose a life partner according to inclination, was not something special.

Coup d'etat

After the death of Elizabeth (January 1762 according to the new style), Catherine rightly feared for her life - she only interfered with the new sovereign. But
Many influential nobles were also dissatisfied with Peter 3. They united around the empress, and on July 9 (June 28, old style) of the same year, a coup d'état took place.

Peter abdicated the throne, and soon died (the murder has not been proven, but more than likely, it simply had to be planned). Relying on the support of her supporters, Catherine was crowned, and did not become regent under her son Paul.

Catherine the Great

The period of Catherine's reign was then called the "golden age". This is not accurate, but the empress really did a lot for the country.

The territory of the state increased significantly - the lands of modern Southern and Central Ukraine, part of Poland, Finland, and Crimea were annexed. Russia won three wars with Turkey.

Catherine 2 reformed the management system: she carried out a provincial reform, changed the powers of the Senate, and transferred church property under state management. Corruption remained a big problem, but during the time of Catherine II, dignitaries still worked more than took bribes. The empress herself sometimes appointed incapable people to high positions (out of personal sympathy or at the request of someone close to her), but this did not happen regularly.

Enthroned by the nobility, Catherine involuntarily became a hostage of this class. The nobility came first for her:

• she distributed more than 800 thousand state peasants in favor of the landowners;
• noble dignitaries received awards of tens of thousands of acres of land;
• The “Charter Granted to the Nobility” of 1785 endowed the nobles with a host of additional privileges and actually allowed them not to serve the state.

But at the same time, the empress did not forget other classes - in the same year the “Charter of Grant to the Cities” appeared.

Catherine 2 was known as an enlightened monarch. This is true with a stretch - its absolutism and serfdom do not quite correspond to the idea of ​​the Enlightenment. But she was studying literary activity, patronized publishers, D. Diderot was her librarian for some time, during her reign the Academy of Sciences and the Smolny Institute were created, she introduced smallpox vaccination in the country.

But the empress was not a kind mother. Any protest was suppressed mercilessly. Catherine harshly suppressed the uprising, liquidated the Zaporozhye Sich, and the publicist Radishchev quickly found himself behind bars for criticizing the Russian system.

Skilled personnel officer

The main thing is that Catherine 2 knew how to choose people. She was domineering, strong, authoritarian. But her closest aides always felt how much she considered their opinion. It is not surprising that Catherine’s era gave the country such outstanding figures as G. Orlov, G. Potemkin (Tavrichesky), A. Suvorov, E. Dashkova.

The Empress died of a hypertensive crisis in November 1796. Fate - the blow happened in the restroom (this is not uncommon for hypertensive patients), where the throne of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was adapted as a toilet. Catherine was an active destroyer of this state...

Catherine II.F.Rokotov

Facts about the life and reign of one of the most powerful, glorious and controversial monarchs of the Russian Empire, Empress Catherine II

1. During the reign of Catherine the Great from 1762 to 1796, the empire’s possessions expanded significantly. Of the 50 provinces, 11 were acquired during her reign. The amount of government revenue increased from 16 to 68 million rubles. 144 new cities were built (more than 4 cities per year throughout the reign). The army almost doubled, the number of ships in the Russian fleet increased from 20 to 67 battleships, not counting other ships. The army and navy won 78 brilliant victories that strengthened Russia's international authority.

Palace Embankment

Access to the Black and Azov Seas was won, Crimea, Ukraine (except for the Lvov region), Belarus, Eastern Poland, and Kabarda were annexed. The annexation of Georgia to Russia began.

Moreover, during her reign, only one execution was carried out - the leader of the peasant uprising, Emelyan Pugachev.



F. Rokotov

2. The Empress’s daily routine was far from the ordinary people’s idea of royal life. Her day was scheduled by the hour, and its routine remained unchanged throughout her reign. Only the time of sleep changed: if in her mature years Catherine got up at 5, then closer to old age - at 6, and towards the end of her life even at 7 o'clock in the morning. After breakfast, the Empress received high-ranking officials and secretaries of state. The days and hours of reception for each official were constant. The working day ended at four o'clock, and it was time to rest. Hours of work and rest, breakfast, lunch and dinner were also constant. At 10 or 11 pm Catherine finished the day and went to bed.



3. Every day 90 rubles were spent on food for the Empress (for comparison: a soldier’s salary during the reign of Catherine was only 7 rubles a year). The favorite dish was boiled beef with pickles, and currant juice was consumed as a drink. For dessert, preference was given to apples and cherries.



4. After lunch, the empress began to do needlework, and Ivan Ivanovich Betskoy read aloud to her at this time. Ekaterina “masterfully sewed on canvas” and knitted. Having finished reading, she went to the Hermitage, where she sharpened bone, wood, amber, engraved, and played billiards.



View of the Winter Palace

5. Catherine was indifferent to fashion. She didn’t notice her, and sometimes quite deliberately ignored her. On weekdays, the Empress wore a simple dress and did not wear jewelry.



D.Levitsky

6. By her own admission, she did not have a creative mind, but she wrote plays, and even sent some of them to Voltaire for “review.”



7. Catherine came up with a special suit for the six-month-old Tsarevich Alexander, the pattern of which was asked from her for her own children by the Prussian prince and the Swedish king. And for her beloved subjects, the empress came up with the cut of a Russian dress, which they were forced to wear at her court.

8. People who knew Catherine closely note her attractive appearance not only in her youth, but also in her mature years, her exceptionally friendly appearance, and ease of manner. Baroness Elizabeth Dimmesdale, who was first introduced to her along with her husband in Tsarskoye Selo at the end of August 1781, described Catherine as: “a very attractive woman with lovely expressive eyes and an intelligent look.”



View of the Fontanka

9. Catherine was aware that men liked her and she herself was not indifferent to their beauty and masculinity. “I received from nature great sensitivity and appearance, if not beautiful, then at least attractive. I liked the first time and did not use any art or embellishment for this.”

I. Faizullin. Catherine’s visit to Kazan

10. The Empress was quick-tempered, but knew how to control herself, and never made decisions in a fit of anger. She was very polite even with the servants, no one heard a rude word from her, she did not order, but asked to do her will. Her rule, according to Count Segur, was “to praise out loud and scold quietly.”

Oath of the Izmailovsky Regiment to Catherine II

11. Rules hung on the walls of the ballrooms under Catherine II: it was forbidden to stand in front of the empress, even if she approached the guest and spoke to him while standing. It was forbidden to be in a gloomy mood, to insult each other." And on the shield at the entrance to the Hermitage there was an inscription: "The mistress of these places does not tolerate coercion."



scepter

12. Thomas Dimmesdale, an English doctor was called from London to introduce smallpox vaccinations in Russia. Knowing about society's resistance to innovation, Empress Catherine II decided to set a personal example and became one of Dimmesdale's first patients. In 1768, an Englishman inoculated her and Grand Duke Pavel Petrovich with smallpox. The recovery of the empress and her son became a significant event in the life of the Russian court.



Johann the Elder Lampi

13. The Empress was a heavy smoker. The cunning Catherine, not wanting her snow-white gloves to become saturated with a yellow nicotine coating, ordered the tip of each cigar to be wrapped in a ribbon of expensive silk.



Coronation of Catherine II

14. The Empress read and wrote in German, French and Russian, but made many mistakes. Catherine was aware of this and once admitted to one of her secretaries that “she could only learn Russian from books without a teacher,” since “Aunt Elizaveta Petrovna told my chamberlain: it’s enough to teach her, she’s already smart.” As a result, she made four mistakes in a three-letter word: instead of “yet,” she wrote “ischo.”



15. Long before her death, Catherine composed an epitaph for her future tombstone: “Here lies Catherine the Second. She arrived in Russia in 1744 to marry Peter III. At the age of fourteen, she made a threefold decision: to please her husband, Elizabeth and the people She left nothing to be desired in order to achieve success in this regard. Eighteen years of boredom and loneliness prompted her to read many books. Having ascended to the Russian throne, she made every effort to give her subjects happiness, freedom and material well-being. "She forgave easily and did not hate anyone. She was forgiving, loved life, had a cheerful disposition, was a true Republican in her convictions and had a kind heart. She had friends. Work came easy to her. She liked social entertainment and the arts."

Gallery of portraits of Empress Catherine II the Great



Artist Antoine Peng. Christian Augustus of Anhalt-Zerbst, father of Catherine II

Father, Christian August of Anhalt-Zerbst, came from the Zerbst-Dorneburg line of the House of Anhalt and was in the service of the Prussian king, was a regimental commander, commandant, then governor of the city of Stettin, where the future empress was born, ran for duke of Courland, but unsuccessfully , ended his service as a Prussian field marshal.



Artist Antoine Peng. Johanna Elisabeth of Anhalt of Zerbst, mother of Catherine II

Mother - Johanna Elisabeth, from the Gottorp estate, was a cousin of the future Peter III. Johanna Elisabeth's ancestry goes back to Christian I, King of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, first Duke of Schleswig-Holstein and founder of the Oldenburg dynasty.



Grotto Georg-Christophe (Groоth, Groot).1748






Shettin Castle

Georg Groth



Grotto. PORTRAIT OF GRAND DUKE PETER FEDOROVICH AND GRAND DUCHESS EKATERINA ALEXEEVNA. 1760s.



Pietro Antonio Rotari.1760,1761




V.Eriksen.Equestrian portrait of Catherine the Great



Eriksen, Vigilius.1762

I. P. Argunov Portrait of Grand Duchess Ekaterina Alekseevna.1762



Eriksen.Catherine II at the mirror.1762



Ivan Argunov.1762



V.Eriksen.1782

Eriksen.1779



Eriksen.Catherine II at the mirror.1779



Eriksen.1780


Lampi Johann-Batis.1794



R. Brompton. 1782



D.Levitsky.1782

P.D.Levitsky.Portrait of Catherine II .1783

Alexey Antropov

Portrait of Empress Catherine II in a traveling suit. SHIBANOV Mikhail. 1780

V. Borovikovsky. Catherine IIon a walk in Tsarskoye Selo Park.1794

Borovikovsky Vladimir Lukich.Portrait of Catherine II

Favorites of Catherine II

Grigory Potemkin

Perhaps the most important among the favorites, who did not lose his influence even after Catherine began to pay attention to others. He earned the attention of the Empress during the palace coup. She singled him out among other employees of the Horse Guards regiment, he immediately became a chamber cadet at court with an appropriate salary and a gift in the form of 400 peasant souls.Grigory Potemkin is one of the few lovers of Catherine II, who pleased not only her personally, but also did a lot of useful things for the country. He built not only “Potemkin villages”. It was thanks to Potemkin that the active development of Novorossia and Crimea began. Although his actions were partly the reason for the start of the Russian-Turkish war, it ended with another victory for Russian weapons. In 1776, Potemkin ceased to be a favorite, but remained a man whose advice Catherine II listened to until his death. Including choosing new favorites.

Grigory Potemkin and Elizaveta Tiomkina, daughter of the Most Serene Prince and Russian Empress

J. de Velli. Portrait of Counts G. G. and A. G. Orlov

Grigory Orlov

Grigory Orlov grew up in Moscow, but exemplary service and distinction in the Seven Years' War contributed to his transfer to the capital - St. Petersburg. There he gained fame as a reveler and “Don Juan.” Tall, stately, beautiful - the young wife of the future emperor Ekaterina Alekseevna simply could not help but pay attention to him.His appointment as treasurer of the Office of the Main Artillery and Fortification allowed Catherine to use public money to organize a palace coup.Although he was not a major statesman, sometimes he fulfilled the delicate requests of the empress herself. Thus, according to one version, together with his brother Orlov, he took the life of Catherine II’s lawful husband, the deposed Emperor Peter III.

Stanislav August Poniatowski

Polish aristocrat known for his graceful manners ancient family Stanisław August Poniatowski first met Catherine in 1756. He lived in London for many years and ended up in St. Petersburg as part of the English diplomatic mission. Poniatowski was not an official favorite, but he was still considered the empress’s lover, which gave him weight in society. With the ardent support of Catherine II, Poniatowski became the king of Poland. It is possible that Grand Duchess Anna Petrovna, recognized by Peter III, is actually the daughter of Catherine and a handsome Polish man. Peter III lamented: “God knows how my wife gets pregnant; I don’t know for sure whether this child is mine and whether I should recognize him as mine.”

Peter Zavadovsky

This time Catherine was attracted by Zavadovsky, a representative of a famous Cossack family. He was brought to court by Count Pyotr Rumyantsev, a favorite of another empress, Elizabeth Petrovna. A charming man with a pleasant character, Catherine II was once again struck to the heart. In addition, she found him “quieter and more humble” than Potemkin.In 1775 he was appointed cabinet secretary. Zavadovsky received the rank of major general, 4 thousand peasant souls. He even settled in the palace. Such an approach to the empress alarmed Potemkin and, as a result of palace intrigues, Zavadovsky was removed and went to his estate. Despite this, he remained faithful to her and loved her passionately for a long time, marrying only 10 years later. In 1780, he was recalled by the empress back to St. Petersburg, where he held high administrative positions, including becoming the first minister of public education.

Platon Zubov

Platon Zubov began his path to Catherine with service in the Semenovsky regiment. He enjoyed the patronage of Count Nikolai Saltykov, the tutor of the Empress’s grandchildren. Zubov began to command the horse guards, who went to Tsarskoe Selo to stand guard. On June 21, 1789, with the help of state lady Anna Naryshkina, he received an audience with Catherine II and since then spent almost every evening with her. Just a few days later he was promoted to colonel and settled in the palace. He was received coldly at court, but Catherine II was crazy about him. After Potemkin’s death, Zubov played an increasingly important role, and Catherine never had time to be disappointed in him - she died in 1796. Thus, he became the last favorite of the empress. Later, he would take an active part in a conspiracy against Emperor Paul I, as a result of which he was killed, and Zubov’s friend Alexander I became the head of state. Guglielmi, Gregorio. Apotheosis of the reign of Catherine II .1767

Coronation:
Predecessor:
Successor:
Religion:	Orthodoxy
Birth:
Buried:	Peter and Paul Cathedral, St. Petersburg
Dynasty:	Askania (by birth) / Romanov (by marriage)
	Christian Augustus of Anhalt-Zerbst
	Johanna Elisabeth of Holstein-Gottorp
	Pavel I Petrovich
Autograph:

Origin

Domestic policy

Imperial Council and transformation of the Senate

Stacked commission

Provincial reform

Liquidation of the Zaporozhye Sich

Economic policy

Social politics

National politics

Legislation on estates

Religious politics

Domestic political problems

Sections of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth

Relations with Sweden

Relations with other countries

Development of culture and art

Features of personal life

Catherine in art

In literature

In fine arts

Monuments

Catherine on coins and banknotes

Interesting Facts

(Ekaterina Alekseevna; at birth Sophia Frederica Augusta of Anhalt-Zerbst, German Sophie Auguste Friederike von Anhalt-Zerbst-Dornburg) - April 21 (May 2), 1729, Stettin, Prussia - November 6 (17), 1796, Winter Palace, St. Petersburg) - Empress of All Russia (1762-1796). The period of her reign is often considered the golden age of the Russian Empire.

Origin

Sophia Frederika Augusta of Anhalt-Zerbst was born on April 21 (May 2), 1729 in the German Pomeranian city of Stettin (now Szczecin in Poland). Father, Christian August of Anhalt-Zerbst, came from the Zerbst-Dorneburg line of the Anhalt house and was in the service of the Prussian king, was a regimental commander, commandant, then governor of the city of Stettin, where the future empress was born, ran for duke of Courland, but unsuccessfully , ended his service as a Prussian field marshal. Mother - Johanna Elisabeth, from the Holstein-Gottorp family, was a cousin of the future Peter III. Maternal uncle Adolf Friedrich (Adolf Fredrik) was King of Sweden from 1751 (elected heir in 1743). The ancestry of Catherine II's mother goes back to Christian I, King of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, first Duke of Schleswig-Holstein and founder of the Oldenburg dynasty.

Childhood, education and upbringing

The Duke of Zerbst's family was not rich; Catherine was educated at home. She studied German and French, dance, music, the basics of history, geography, and theology. She was brought up in strictness. She grew up a playful, inquisitive, playful and even troublesome girl, she loved to play pranks and flaunt her courage in front of the boys, with whom she easily played on the streets of Stetin. Her parents did not burden her with her upbringing and did not stand on ceremony when expressing their displeasure. Her mother called her Ficken as a child. Figchen- comes from the name Frederica, that is, “little Frederica”).

In 1744, the Russian Empress Elizaveta Petrovna and her mother were invited to Russia for subsequent marriage with the heir to the throne, Grand Duke Peter Fedorovich, the future Emperor Peter III and her second cousin. Immediately after arriving in Russia, she began to study the Russian language, history, Orthodoxy, and Russian traditions, as she sought to become more fully acquainted with Russia, which she perceived as a new homeland. Among her teachers are the famous preacher Simon Todorsky (teacher of Orthodoxy), the author of the first Russian grammar Vasily Adadurov (teacher of the Russian language) and choreographer Lange (dance teacher). Soon she fell ill with pneumonia, and her condition was so serious that her mother suggested bringing a Lutheran pastor. Sofia, however, refused and sent for Simon of Todor. This circumstance added to her popularity at the Russian court. On June 28 (July 9), 1744, Sofia Frederica Augusta converted from Lutheranism to Orthodoxy and received the name Ekaterina Alekseevna (the same name and patronymic as Elizabeth’s mother, Catherine I), and the next day she was engaged to the future emperor.

Marriage to the heir to the Russian throne

On August 21 (September 1), 1745, at the age of sixteen, Catherine was married to Pyotr Fedorovich, who was 17 years old and who was her second cousin. During the first years of their marriage, Peter was not at all interested in his wife, and there was no marital relationship between them. Catherine will later write about this:

I saw very well that the Grand Duke did not love me at all; two weeks after the wedding, he told me that he was in love with the maiden Carr, the maid of honor of the empress. He told Count Divier, his chamberlain, that there was no comparison between this girl and me. Divier argued the opposite, and he became angry with him; this scene took place almost in my presence, and I saw this quarrel. To tell the truth, I told myself that with this man I would certainly be very unhappy if I succumbed to the feeling of love for him, for which they paid so poorly, and that there would be no reason to die of jealousy without any benefit for anyone. So, out of pride, I tried to force myself not to be jealous of a person who does not love me, but in order not to be jealous of him, there was no choice but not to love him. If he wanted to be loved, it would not be difficult for me: I was naturally inclined and accustomed to fulfilling my duties, but for this I would need to have a husband with common sense, and mine did not have this.

Ekaterina continues to educate herself. She reads books on history, philosophy, jurisprudence, works by Voltaire, Montesquieu, Tacitus, Bayle, and a large amount of other literature. The main entertainment for her was hunting, horse riding, dancing and masquerades. The absence of marital relations with the Grand Duke contributed to the appearance of lovers for Catherine. Meanwhile, Empress Elizabeth expressed dissatisfaction with the lack of children of the spouses.

Finally, after two unsuccessful pregnancies, on September 20 (October 1), 1754, Catherine gave birth to a son, who was immediately taken away from her by the will of the reigning Empress Elizabeth Petrovna, they call him Pavel (the future Emperor Paul I) and are deprived of the opportunity to raise him, allowing him to be seen only occasionally. A number of sources claim that Paul’s true father was Catherine’s lover S.V. Saltykov (there is no direct statement about this in the “Notes” of Catherine II, but they are also often interpreted this way). Others say that such rumors are unfounded, and that Peter underwent an operation that eliminated a defect that made conception impossible. The question of paternity also aroused interest among society.

After the birth of Pavel, relations with Peter and Elizaveta Petrovna completely deteriorated. Peter called his wife “spare madam” and openly took mistresses, however, without preventing Catherine from doing the same, who during this period developed a relationship with Stanislav Poniatowski, the future king of Poland, which arose thanks to the efforts of the English ambassador Sir Charles Hanbury Williams. On December 9 (20), 1758, Catherine gave birth to her daughter Anna, which caused strong dissatisfaction with Peter, who said at the news of a new pregnancy: “God knows why my wife became pregnant again! I’m not at all sure if this child is from me and whether I should take it personally.” At this time, Elizaveta Petrovna’s condition worsened. All this made the prospect of Catherine’s expulsion from Russia or her imprisonment in a monastery real. The situation was aggravated by the fact that Catherine’s secret correspondence with the disgraced Field Marshal Apraksin and the British Ambassador Williams, dedicated to political issues, was revealed. Her previous favorites were removed, but a circle of new ones began to form: Grigory Orlov and Dashkova.

The death of Elizabeth Petrovna (December 25, 1761 (January 5, 1762)) and the accession to the throne of Peter Fedorovich under the name of Peter III further alienated the spouses. Peter III began to live openly with his mistress Elizaveta Vorontsova, settling his wife at the other end of the Winter Palace. When Catherine became pregnant from Orlov, this could no longer be explained by an accidental conception from her husband, since communication between the spouses had stopped completely by that time. Catherine hid her pregnancy, and when the time came to give birth, her devoted valet Vasily Grigorievich Shkurin set fire to his house. A lover of such spectacles, Peter and his court left the palace to look at the fire; At this time, Catherine gave birth safely. This is how Alexey Bobrinsky was born, to whom his brother Pavel I subsequently awarded the title of count.

Coup of June 28, 1762

Having ascended the throne, Peter III carried out a number of actions that caused a negative attitude towards him from the officer corps. Thus, he concluded an unfavorable agreement for Russia with Prussia, while Russia won a number of victories over it during the Seven Years' War and returned the lands captured by the Russians to it. At the same time, he intended, in alliance with Prussia, to oppose Denmark (Russia’s ally), in order to return Schleswig, which it had taken from Holstein, and he himself intended to go on a campaign at the head of the guard. Peter announced the sequestration of the property of the Russian Church, the abolition of monastic land ownership, and shared with those around him plans for the reform of church rituals. Supporters of the coup also accused Peter III of ignorance, dementia, dislike for Russia, and complete inability to rule. Against his background, Catherine looked favorably - an intelligent, well-read, pious and benevolent wife, subjected to persecution by her husband.

After the relationship with her husband completely deteriorated, and dissatisfaction with the emperor on the part of the guard intensified, Catherine decided to participate in the coup. Her comrades-in-arms, the main of whom were the Orlov brothers, Potemkin and Khitrovo, began campaigning in the guards units and won them over to their side. The immediate cause of the start of the coup was rumors about the arrest of Catherine and the discovery and arrest of one of the participants in the conspiracy, Lieutenant Passek.

Early in the morning of June 28 (July 9), 1762, while Peter III was in Oranienbaum, Catherine, accompanied by Alexei and Grigory Orlov, arrived from Peterhof to St. Petersburg, where the guards units swore allegiance to her. Peter III, seeing the hopelessness of resistance, abdicated the throne the next day, was taken into custody and died in early July under unclear circumstances.

After her husband's abdication, Ekaterina Alekseevna ascended the throne as reigning empress with the name of Catherine II, publishing a manifesto in which the grounds for the removal of Peter were indicated as an attempt to change the state religion and peace with Prussia. To justify her own rights to the throne (and not the heir to Paul), Catherine referred to “the desire of all Our loyal subjects, obvious and unfeigned.” On September 22 (October 3), 1762, she was crowned in Moscow.

The reign of Catherine II: general information

In her memoirs, Catherine characterized the state of Russia at the beginning of her reign as follows:

The Empress formulated the tasks facing the Russian monarch as follows:

1. The nation that is to be governed must be enlightened.
2. It is necessary to introduce good order in the state, support society and force it to comply with the laws.
3. It is necessary to establish a good and accurate police force in the state.
4. It is necessary to promote the flourishing of the state and make it abundant.
5. It is necessary to make the state formidable in itself and inspiring respect among its neighbors.

The policy of Catherine II was characterized by progressive development, without sharp fluctuations. Upon her accession to the throne, she carried out a number of reforms - judicial, administrative, provincial, etc. The territory of the Russian state increased significantly due to the annexation of fertile southern lands - Crimea, the Black Sea region, as well as the eastern part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, etc. The population increased from 23.2 million ( in 1763) to 37.4 million (in 1796), Russia became the most populous European country (it accounted for 20% of the European population). Catherine II formed 29 new provinces and built about 144 cities. As Klyuchevsky wrote:

The Russian economy continued to remain agricultural. The share of the urban population in 1796 was 6.3%. At the same time, a number of cities were founded (Tiraspol, Grigoriopol, etc.), iron smelting more than doubled (for which Russia took 1st place in the world), and the number of sailing and linen manufactories increased. In total, by the end of the 18th century. there were 1,200 large enterprises in the country (in 1767 there were 663). The export of Russian goods to other European countries has increased significantly, including through the established Black Sea ports.

Catherine II established a loan bank and introduced paper money into circulation.

Domestic policy

Catherine’s commitment to the ideas of the Enlightenment determined the nature of her domestic policy and the direction of reforming various institutions of the Russian state. The term “enlightened absolutism” is often used to characterize the domestic policy of Catherine’s time. According to Catherine, based on the works of the French philosopher Montesquieu, the vast Russian spaces and the severity of the climate determine the pattern and necessity of autocracy in Russia. Based on this, under Catherine, the autocracy was strengthened, the bureaucratic apparatus was strengthened, the country was centralized and the management system was unified. Their main idea was a critique of the outgoing feudal society. They defended the idea that every person is born free, and advocated the elimination of medieval forms of exploitation and oppressive forms of government.

Soon after the coup, statesman N.I. Panin proposed creating an Imperial Council: 6 or 8 senior dignitaries rule together with the monarch (as was the case in 1730). Catherine rejected this project.

According to another Panin project, the Senate was transformed - December 15. 1763 It was divided into 6 departments, headed by chief prosecutors, and the prosecutor general became its head. Each department had certain powers. The general powers of the Senate were reduced; in particular, it lost legislative initiative and became a body for monitoring the activities of the state apparatus and the highest court. The center of legislative activity moved directly to Catherine and her office with secretaries of state.

Stacked commission

An attempt was made to convene the Statutory Commission, which would systematize the laws. The main goal is to clarify the people's needs to carry out comprehensive reforms.

More than 600 deputies took part in the commission, 33% of them were elected from the nobility, 36% from the townspeople, which also included nobles, 20% from the rural population (state peasants). The interests of the Orthodox clergy were represented by a deputy from the Synod.

As a guiding document for the 1767 Commission, the Empress prepared the “Nakaz” - a theoretical justification for enlightened absolutism.

The first meeting was held in the Faceted Chamber in Moscow

Due to the conservatism of the deputies, the Commission had to be dissolved.

Provincial reform

7 Nov In 1775, the “Institution for the management of the provinces of the All-Russian Empire” was adopted. Instead of a three-tier administrative division - province, province, district, a two-tier administrative division began to operate - province, district (which was based on the principle of the size of the tax-paying population). From the previous 23 provinces, 50 were formed, each of which was home to 300-400 thousand people. The provinces were divided into 10-12 districts, each with 20-30 thousand d.m.p.

Governor-General (viceroy) - kept order in local centers and 2-3 provinces united under his authority were subordinate to him. He had extensive administrative, financial and judicial powers; all military units and commands located in the provinces were subordinate to him.

Governor - stood at the head of the province. They reported directly to the emperor. Governors were appointed by the Senate. The provincial prosecutor was subordinate to the governors. Finances in the province were handled by the Treasury Chamber, headed by the vice-governor. The provincial land surveyor was in charge of land management. The executive body of the governor was the provincial board, which exercised general supervision over the activities of institutions and officials. The Order of Public Charity was in charge of schools, hospitals and shelters (social functions), as well as class judicial institutions: the Upper Zemstvo Court for nobles, the Provincial Magistrate, which considered litigation between townspeople, and the Upper Justice for the trial of state peasants. The criminal and civil chambers judged all classes and were the highest judicial bodies in the provinces.

Captain police officer - stood at the head of the district, leader of the nobility, elected by him for three years. He was the executive body of the provincial government. In counties, as in provinces, there are class institutions: for nobles (district court), for townspeople (city magistrate) and for state peasants (lower reprisal). There was a county treasurer and a county surveyor. Representatives of the estates sat in the courts.

A conscientious court is called upon to stop strife and reconcile those who argue and quarrel. This trial was classless. The Senate becomes the highest judicial body in the country.

Since there were clearly not enough cities and district centers. Catherine II renamed many large rural settlements as cities, making them administrative centers. Thus, 216 new cities appeared. The population of the cities began to be called bourgeois and merchants.

The city was made a separate administrative unit. Instead of the governor, a mayor was placed at its head, endowed with all rights and powers. Strict police control was introduced in cities. The city was divided into parts (districts) under the supervision of a private bailiff, and the parts were divided into quarters controlled by a quarterly overseer.

Liquidation of the Zaporozhye Sich

Carrying out provincial reform in Left Bank Ukraine in 1783-1785. led to a change in the regimental structure (former regiments and hundreds) to the administrative division common to the Russian Empire into provinces and districts, the final establishment of serfdom and the equalization of the rights of the Cossack elders with the Russian nobility. With the conclusion of the Kuchuk-Kainardzhi Treaty (1774), Russia gained access to the Black Sea and Crimea. In the west, the weakened Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was on the verge of partition.

Thus, there was no further need to maintain the presence of Zaporozhye Cossacks in their historical homeland to protect the southern Russian borders. At the same time, their traditional way of life often led to conflicts with the Russian authorities. After repeated pogroms of Serbian settlers, as well as in connection with the Cossacks’ support for the Pugachev uprising, Catherine II ordered the disbandment of the Zaporozhye Sich, which was carried out by order of Grigory Potemkin to pacify the Zaporozhye Cossacks by General Peter Tekeli in June 1775.

The Sich was disbanded, and then the fortress itself was destroyed. Most of the Cossacks were disbanded, but after 15 years they were remembered and the Army of the Faithful Cossacks was created, later the Black Sea Cossack Army, and in 1792 Catherine signed a manifesto that gave them Kuban for eternal use, where the Cossacks moved, founding the city of Ekaterinodar.

Reforms on the Don created a military civil government modeled on the provincial administrations of central Russia.

Beginning of the annexation of the Kalmyk Khanate

As a result of general administrative reforms of the 70s aimed at strengthening the state, a decision was made to annex the Kalmyk Khanate to the Russian Empire.

By her decree of 1771, Catherine abolished the Kalmyk Khanate, thereby beginning the process of annexing the Kalmyk state, which previously had vassalage relations with the Russian state, to Russia. The affairs of the Kalmyks began to be supervised by a special Expedition of Kalmyk Affairs, established under the office of the Astrakhan governor. Under the rulers of the uluses, bailiffs were appointed from among Russian officials. In 1772, during the Expedition of Kalmyk Affairs, a Kalmyk court was established - Zargo, consisting of three members - one representative each from the three main uluses: Torgouts, Derbets and Khoshouts.

This decision of Catherine was preceded by the empress’s consistent policy of limiting the khan’s power in the Kalmyk Khanate. Thus, in the 60s, crisis phenomena intensified in the Khanate associated with the colonization of Kalmyk lands by Russian landowners and peasants, the reduction of pasture lands, the infringement of the rights of the local feudal elite, and the intervention of tsarist officials in Kalmyk affairs. After the construction of the fortified Tsaritsyn Line, thousands of families of Don Cossacks began to settle in the area of ​​​​the main Kalmyk nomads, and cities and fortresses began to be built throughout the Lower Volga. The best pasture lands were allocated for arable land and hayfields. The nomadic area was constantly narrowing, in turn this aggravated internal relations in the Khanate. The local feudal elite was also dissatisfied with the missionary activities of the Russian Orthodox Church in Christianizing nomads, as well as with the outflow of people from the uluses to the cities and villages to earn money. Under these conditions, among the Kalmyk noyons and zaisangs, with the support of the Buddhist church, a conspiracy matured with the aim of leaving the people to their historical homeland - Dzungaria.

On January 5, 1771, the Kalmyk feudal lords, dissatisfied with the policy of the empress, raised the uluses, which were roaming along the left bank of the Volga, and set off on a dangerous journey to Central Asia. Back in November 1770, an army was gathered on the left bank under the pretext of repelling the raids of the Kazakhs of the Younger Zhuz. The bulk of the Kalmyk population lived at that time on the meadow side of the Volga. Many Noyons and Zaisangs, realizing the disastrous nature of the campaign, wanted to stay with their uluses, but the army coming from behind drove everyone forward. This tragic campaign turned into a terrible disaster for the people. The small Kalmyk ethnic group lost about 100,000 people along the way, killed in battles, from wounds, cold, hunger, disease, as well as prisoners, and lost almost all their livestock - the main wealth of the people.

These tragic events in the history of the Kalmyk people are reflected in Sergei Yesenin’s poem “Pugachev”.

Regional reform in Estland and Livonia

The Baltic states as a result of the regional reform in 1782-1783. was divided into 2 provinces - Riga and Revel - with institutions that already existed in other provinces of Russia. In Estland and Livonia, the special Baltic order was eliminated, which provided for more extensive rights of local nobles to work and the personality of the peasant than those of Russian landowners.

Provincial reform in Siberia and the Middle Volga region

Siberia was divided into three provinces: Tobolsk, Kolyvan and Irkutsk.

The reform was carried out by the government without taking into account the ethnic composition of the population: the territory of Mordovia was divided between 4 provinces: Penza, Simbirsk, Tambov and Nizhny Novgorod.

Economic policy

The reign of Catherine II was characterized by the development of the economy and trade. By a decree of 1775, factories and industrial plants were recognized as property, the disposal of which does not require special permission from their superiors. In 1763, the free exchange of copper money for silver was prohibited, so as not to provoke the development of inflation. The development and revival of trade was facilitated by the emergence of new credit institutions (state bank and loan office) and the expansion of banking operations (acceptance of deposits for safekeeping was introduced in 1770). A state bank was established and the issue of paper money - banknotes - was established for the first time.

Of great importance was the state regulation of prices for salt introduced by the empress, which was one of the most vital goods in the country. The Senate legislatively set the price of salt at 30 kopecks per pood (instead of 50 kopecks) and 10 kopecks per pood in regions where fish are mass-salted. Without introducing a state monopoly on the salt trade, Catherine hoped for increased competition and, ultimately, an improvement in the quality of the product.

Russia's role in the global economy has increased - Russian sailing fabric began to be exported in large quantities to England, and the export of cast iron and iron to other European countries increased (consumption of cast iron on the domestic Russian market also increased significantly).

Under the new protectionist tariff of 1767, the import of those goods that were or could be produced inside Russia was completely prohibited. Duties of 100 to 200% were imposed on luxury goods, wine, grain, toys... Export duties amounted to 10-23% of the value of exported goods.

In 1773, Russia exported goods worth 12 million rubles, which was 2.7 million rubles more than imports. In 1781, exports already amounted to 23.7 million rubles against 17.9 million rubles of imports. Russian merchant ships began to sail in the Mediterranean Sea. Thanks to the policy of protectionism in 1786, the country's exports amounted to 67.7 million rubles, and imports - 41.9 million rubles.

At the same time, Russia under Catherine experienced a series of financial crises and was forced to make external loans, the size of which by the end of the Empress’s reign exceeded 200 million silver rubles.

Social politics

In 1768, a network of city schools was created, based on a class-lesson system. Schools began to open actively. Under Catherine, the systematic development of women's education began; in 1764, the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens and the Educational Society for Noble Maidens were opened. The Academy of Sciences has become one of the leading scientific bases in Europe. An observatory, a physics laboratory, an anatomical theater, a botanical garden, instrumental workshops, a printing house, a library, and an archive were founded. The Russian Academy was founded in 1783.

In the provinces there were orders for public charity. In Moscow and St. Petersburg there are educational homes for street children (currently the building of the Moscow Orphanage is occupied by the Peter the Great Military Academy), where they received education and upbringing. To help widows, the Widow's Treasury was created.

Compulsory smallpox vaccination was introduced, and Catherine was the first to receive such a vaccination. Under Catherine II, the fight against epidemics in Russia began to acquire the character of state measures that were directly included in the responsibilities of the Imperial Council and the Senate. By decree of Catherine, outposts were created, located not only on the borders, but also on the roads leading to the center of Russia. The “Border and Port Quarantine Charter” was created.

New areas of medicine for Russia developed: hospitals for the treatment of syphilis, psychiatric hospitals and shelters were opened. A number of fundamental works on medical issues have been published.

National politics

After the annexation of lands that had previously been part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth to the Russian Empire, about a million Jews ended up in Russia - a people with a different religion, culture, way of life and way of life. To prevent their resettlement in the central regions of Russia and attachment to their communities for the convenience of collecting state taxes, Catherine II in 1791 established the Pale of Settlement, beyond which Jews had no right to live. The Pale of Settlement was established in the same place where Jews had lived before - on the lands annexed as a result of the three partitions of Poland, as well as in the steppe regions near the Black Sea and sparsely populated areas east of the Dnieper. The conversion of Jews to Orthodoxy lifted all restrictions on residence. It is noted that the Pale of Settlement contributed to the preservation of Jewish national identity and the formation of a special Jewish identity within the Russian Empire.

In 1762-1764, Catherine published two manifestos. The first - “On the permission of all foreigners entering Russia to settle in whichever provinces they wish and the rights granted to them” - called on foreign citizens to move to Russia, the second defined a list of benefits and privileges for immigrants. Soon the first German settlements arose in the Volga region, reserved for settlers. The influx of German colonists was so great that already in 1766 it was necessary to temporarily suspend the reception of new settlers until those who had already arrived were settled. The creation of colonies on the Volga was increasing: in 1765 - 12 colonies, in 1766 - 21, in 1767 - 67. According to the census of colonists in 1769, 6.5 thousand families lived in 105 colonies on the Volga, which amounted to 23.2 thousand people. In the future, the German community will play a significant role in the life of Russia.

By 1786, the country included the Northern Black Sea region, the Azov region, Crimea, Right Bank Ukraine, the lands between the Dniester and the Bug, Belarus, Courland and Lithuania.

The population of Russia in 1747 was 18 million people, by the end of the century - 36 million people.

In 1726 there were 336 cities in the country, by the beginning. XIX century - 634 cities. In con. In the 18th century, about 10% of the population lived in cities. In rural areas, 54% are privately owned and 40% are state-owned

Legislation on estates

21 Apr In 1785, two charters were issued: “Charter on the rights, liberties and advantages of the noble nobility” and “Charter granted to cities.”

Both charters regulated legislation on the rights and duties of estates.

Letter of grant to the nobility:

• Already existing rights were confirmed.
• the nobility were exempt from the poll tax
• from the quartering of military units and commands
• from corporal punishment
• from compulsory service
• the right to unlimited disposal of the estate was confirmed
• the right to own houses in cities
• the right to establish enterprises on estates and engage in trade
• ownership of the subsoil of the earth
• the right to have their own class institutions
• The name of the 1st estate changed: not “nobility”, but “noble nobility”.
• it was forbidden to confiscate the estates of nobles for criminal offenses; the estates were to be transferred to the legal heirs.
• nobles have the exclusive right of ownership of land, but the Charter does not say a word about the monopoly right to have serfs.
• Ukrainian elders were given equal rights with Russian nobles.
• a nobleman who did not have an officer rank was deprived of the right to vote.
• Only nobles whose income from estates exceeded 100 rubles could hold elected positions.

Certificate of rights and benefits to cities of the Russian Empire:

• the right of the elite merchant class not to pay the poll tax was confirmed.
• replacement of conscription with a cash contribution.

Division of the urban population into 6 categories:

1. nobles, officials and clergy (“real city dwellers”) - can have houses and land in cities without engaging in trade.
2. merchants of all three guilds (the lowest amount of capital for merchants of the 3rd guild is 1000 rubles)
3. artisans registered in workshops.
4. foreign and out-of-town merchants.
5. eminent citizens - merchants with a capital of over 50 thousand rubles, rich bankers (at least 100 thousand rubles), as well as the city intelligentsia: architects, painters, composers, scientists.
6. townspeople, who “support themselves by fishing, handicrafts and work” (who do not have real estate in the city).

Representatives of the 3rd and 6th categories were called “philistines” (the word came from the Polish language through Ukraine and Belarus, originally meaning “city dweller” or “citizen”, from the word “place” - city and “shtetl” - town).

Merchants of the 1st and 2nd guilds and eminent citizens were exempt from corporal punishment. Representatives of the 3rd generation of eminent citizens were allowed to file a petition for conferment of nobility.

Serf peasantry:

• The decree of 1763 entrusted the maintenance of military commands sent to suppress peasant uprisings to the peasants themselves.
• According to the decree of 1765, for open disobedience, the landowner could send the peasant not only to exile, but also to hard labor, and the period of hard labor was set by him; The landowners also had the right to return those exiled from hard labor at any time.
• A decree of 1767 prohibited peasants from complaining about their master; those who disobeyed were threatened with exile to Nerchinsk (but they could go to court),
• The peasants could not take an oath, take farm-outs or contracts.
• Trade by peasants reached wide proportions: they were sold in markets, in advertisements on the pages of newspapers; they were lost at cards, exchanged, given as gifts, and forced into marriage.
• The decree of May 3, 1783 prohibited the peasants of Left-Bank Ukraine and Sloboda Ukraine from passing from one owner to another.

The widespread idea of ​​Catherine distributing state peasants to landowners, as has now been proven, is a myth (peasants from lands acquired during the partitions of Poland, as well as palace peasants, were used for distribution). The zone of serfdom under Catherine extended to Ukraine. At the same time, the situation of the monastic peasants was alleviated, who were transferred to the jurisdiction of the College of Economy along with the lands. All their duties were replaced by monetary rent, which gave the peasants more independence and developed their economic initiative. As a result, the unrest of the monastery peasants ceased.

Clergy lost its autonomous existence due to the secularization of church lands (1764), which made it possible to exist without the help of the state and independently of it. After the reform, the clergy became dependent on the state that financed them.

Religious politics

In general, a policy of religious tolerance was pursued in Russia under Catherine II. Representatives of all traditional religions did not experience pressure or oppression. Thus, in 1773, a law on tolerance of all faiths was issued, prohibiting the Orthodox clergy from interfering in the affairs of other faiths; secular authorities reserve the right to decide on the establishment of churches of any faith.

Having ascended the throne, Catherine canceled the decree of Peter III on the secularization of lands from the church. But already in February. In 1764 she again issued a decree depriving the Church of land property. Monastic peasants numbering about 2 million people. of both sexes were removed from the jurisdiction of the clergy and transferred to the management of the College of Economy. The state came under the jurisdiction of the estates of churches, monasteries and bishops.

In Ukraine, the secularization of monastic properties was carried out in 1786.

Thus, the clergy became dependent on secular authorities, since they could not carry out independent economic activities.

Catherine obtained from the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth government equalization of the rights of religious minorities - Orthodox and Protestants.

Under Catherine II, persecution stopped Old Believers. The Empress initiated the return of Old Believers, an economically active population, from abroad. They were specially allocated a place in Irgiz (modern Saratov and Samara regions). They were allowed to have priests.

The free resettlement of Germans to Russia led to a significant increase in the number Protestants(mostly Lutherans) in Russia. They were also allowed to build churches, schools, and freely perform religious services. At the end of the 18th century, there were more than 20 thousand Lutherans in St. Petersburg alone.

Behind Jewish religion retained the right to publicly practice faith. Religious matters and disputes were left to the Jewish courts. Jews, depending on the capital they had, were assigned to the appropriate class and could be elected to local government bodies, become judges and other civil servants.

By decree of Catherine II in 1787, in the printing house of the Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg, for the first time in Russia, a complete Arabic text was printed Islamic the holy book of the Koran for free distribution to the “Kyrgyz”. The publication differed significantly from European ones, primarily in that it was Muslim in nature: the text for publication was prepared by Mullah Usman Ibrahim. In St. Petersburg, from 1789 to 1798, 5 editions of the Koran were published. In 1788, a manifesto was issued in which the Empress commanded “to establish in Ufa a spiritual assembly of the Mohammedan law, which has under its authority all the spiritual officials of that law, ... excluding the Tauride region.” Thus, Catherine began to integrate the Muslim community into the system of government of the empire. Muslims received the right to build and restore mosques.

Buddhism also received government support in the regions where he traditionally practiced. In 1764, Catherine established the post of Hambo Lama - the head of the Buddhists of Eastern Siberia and Transbaikalia. In 1766, the Buryat lamas recognized Catherine as the incarnation of the Bodhisattva White Tara for her benevolence towards Buddhism and her humane rule.

Domestic political problems

At the time of Catherine II’s accession to the throne, the former Russian Emperor Ivan VI continued to remain alive and imprisoned in the Shlisselburg Fortress. In 1764, Second Lieutenant V. Ya. Mirovich, who was on guard duty in the Shlisselburg fortress, won over part of the garrison to his side in order to free Ivan. The guards, however, in accordance with the instructions given to them, stabbed the prisoner, and Mirovich himself was arrested and executed.

In 1771, a major plague epidemic occurred in Moscow, complicated by popular unrest in Moscow, called the Plague Riot. The rebels destroyed the Chudov Monastery in the Kremlin. The next day, the crowd took the Donskoy Monastery by storm, killed Archbishop Ambrose, who was hiding there, and began to destroy quarantine outposts and houses of the nobility. Troops under the command of G. G. Orlov were sent to suppress the uprising. After three days of fighting, the riot was suppressed.

Peasant War of 1773-1775

In 1773-1774 there was a peasant uprising led by Emelyan Pugachev. It covered the lands of the Yaik army, the Orenburg province, the Urals, the Kama region, Bashkiria, part of Western Siberia, the Middle and Lower Volga region. During the uprising, the Cossacks were joined by Bashkirs, Tatars, Kazakhs, Ural factory workers and numerous serfs from all the provinces where hostilities took place. After the suppression of the uprising, some liberal reforms were curtailed and conservatism intensified.

Main stages:

• Sep. 1773 - March 1774
• March 1774 - July 1774
• July 1774-1775

17 Sep. 1773 The uprising begins. Near the Yaitsky town, government detachments went over to the side of 200 Cossacks, going to suppress the rebellion. Without taking the town, the rebels go to Orenburg.

March - July 1774 - the rebels seize factories in the Urals and Bashkiria. The rebels are defeated near the Trinity Fortress. On July 12, Kazan was captured. On July 17, they were defeated again and retreated to the right bank of the Volga. 12 Sep. 1774 Pugachev was captured.

Freemasonry, Novikov Case, Radishchev Case

1762-1778 - characterized by the organizational design of Russian Freemasonry and the dominance of the English system (Elagin Freemasonry).

In the 60s and especially in the 70s. XVIII century Freemasonry is becoming increasingly popular among the educated nobility. The number of Masonic lodges increases several times, despite even the skeptical (if not to say semi-hostile) attitude towards Freemasonry of Catherine II. The question naturally arises: why did a significant part of Russian educated society become so interested in Masonic teaching? The main reason, in our opinion, was the search by a certain part of the noble society for a new ethical ideal, a new meaning of life. Traditional Orthodoxy could not satisfy them for obvious reasons. During Peter's state reforms, the church turned into an appendage of the state apparatus, serving it and justifying any, even the most immoral, actions of its representatives.

That is why the order of free masons became so popular, because it offered its adherents brotherly love and sacred wisdom based on the undistorted true values ​​of early Christianity.

And, secondly, in addition to internal self-improvement, many were attracted by the opportunity to master secret mystical knowledge.

And finally, the magnificent rituals, attire, hierarchy, romantic atmosphere of the meetings of Masonic lodges could not fail to attract the attention of Russian nobles as people, especially military people, accustomed to military uniforms and paraphernalia, veneration of rank, etc.

In the 1760s A large number of representatives of the highest noble aristocracy and the emerging noble intelligentsia, who, as a rule, were in opposition to the political regime of Catherine II, entered Freemasonry. It is enough to mention Vice-Chancellor N.I. Panin, his brother General P.I. Panin, their great-nephew A.B. Kurakin (1752–1818), Kurakin’s friend Prince. G. P. Gagarin (1745–1803), Prince N. V. Repnin, future Field Marshal M. I. Golenishchev-Kutuzov, Prince M. M. Shcherbatov, secretary N. I. Panin and the famous playwright D. I. Fonvizin and many others.

As for the organizational structure of Russian Freemasonry of this period, its development proceeded in two directions. Most Russian lodges were part of the system of English or St. John's Freemasonry, which consisted of only 3 traditional degrees with elected leadership. The main goal was declared to be the moral self-improvement of man, mutual assistance and charity. The head of this direction of Russian Freemasonry was Ivan Perfilyevich Elagin, appointed in 1772 by the Grand Lodge of London (Old Masons) as the Grand Provincial Master of Russia. After his name, the entire system is partly called Elagin Freemasonry.

A minority of lodges operated under various systems of Strict Observation, which recognized higher degrees and emphasized the achievement of higher mystical knowledge (German branch of Freemasonry).

The exact number of lodges in Russia of that period has not yet been established. Of those that are known, the majority entered (albeit on different conditions) into an alliance led by Elagin. However, this union turned out to be extremely short-lived. Elagin himself, despite the fact that he denied the highest degrees, nevertheless reacted with sympathy to the aspirations of many Masons to find the highest Masonic wisdom. It was at his suggestion that Prince A.B. Kurakin, a childhood friend of Tsarevich Pavel Petrovich, under the pretext of announcing to the Swedish royal house about the new wedding of the heir, went to Stockholm in 1776 with a secret mission to establish contacts with Swedish masons, who were rumored to have this higher knowledge.

However, Kurakin’s mission gave rise to another split in Russian Freemasonry.

MATERIALS ABOUT THE PERSECUTION OF NOVIKOV, HIS ARREST AND CONSEQUENCES

Novikov's investigative file includes a huge number of documents - letters and decrees of Catherine, correspondence between Prozorovsky and Sheshkovsky during the investigation - with each other and with Catherine, numerous interrogations of Novikov and his detailed explanations, letters, etc. The main part of the case fell into its own time in the archive and is now stored in the funds of the Central State Archive of Ancient Acts in Moscow (TSGADA, category VIII, case 218). At the same time, a significant number of the most important papers were not included in Novikov’s file, since they remained in the hands of those who led the investigation - Prozorovsky, Sheshkovsky and others. These originals subsequently passed into private ownership and remained forever lost to us. Fortunately, some of them turned out to be published in the middle of the 19th century, and therefore we know them only from these printed sources.

The publication of materials from the investigation of the Russian educator began in the second half of the 19th century. The first large group of documents was published by the historian Ilovaisky in the Chronicles of Russian Literature, published by Tikhonravov. These documents were taken from a genuine investigative case conducted by Prince Prozorovsky. In those same years, new materials appeared in a number of publications. In 1867, M. Longinov, in his study “Novikov and the Moscow Martinists,” published a number of new documents taken from the “Novikov Case” and reprinted all previously published papers from the investigation case. Thus, Longin’s book contained the first and most complete set of documents, which until today, as a rule, was used by all scientists when studying Novikov’s activities. But this Longinian arch is far from complete. Many of the most important materials were unknown to Longinov and therefore were not included in the book. A year after the publication of his research - in 1868 - in volume II of the "Collection of the Russian Historical Society" Popov published a number of the most important papers given to him by P. A. Vyazemsky. Apparently, these papers came to Vyazemsky from the archives of the chief executioner of Radishchev and Novikov - Sheshkovsky. From Popov’s publication, for the first time, the questions asked by Sheshkovsky to Novikov became known (Longinov knew only the answers), and objections, apparently written by Sheshkovsky himself. These objections are important for us in that they undoubtedly arose as a result of the comments made by Ekaterina to the answers of Novikov, whose case she was personally involved in. Among the questions asked to Novikov was question No. 21 - about his relationship with the heir Pavel (in the text of the question Pavel’s name was not indicated, and it was about a “person”). Longinov did not know this question and the answer to it, since it was not on the list that Longinov used. Popov was the first to publish both this question and the answer to it.

A year later - in 1869 - Academician Pekarsky published the book “Addition to the history of Freemasons in Russia in the 18th century.” The book contained materials on the history of Freemasonry, among many papers there were also documents related to Novikov’s investigative case. Pekarskaya’s publication is of particular value to us, since it characterizes in detail Novikov’s educational publishing activities. In particular, the papers characterizing the history of Novikov’s relationship with Pokhodyashin deserve special attention; from them we learn about Novikov’s most important activity - organizing assistance to starving peasants. The significance of Novikov's investigative case is extremely great. First of all, it contains abundant biographical material, which, given the general paucity of information about Novikov, is sometimes the only source for studying the life and work of the Russian educator. But the main value of these documents lies elsewhere - a careful study of them clearly convinces us that Novikov was persecuted for a long time and systematically, that he was arrested, having previously destroyed the entire book publishing business, and then secretly and cowardly, without trial, he was imprisoned in a dungeon in the Shlisselburg fortress - not for Freemasonry, but for enormous educational activities independent of the government, which became a major phenomenon in public life in the 80s.

The answers to questions 12 and 21, which speak of "repentance" and place hopes in "royal mercy", must be understood historically correctly by the modern reader, with a clear understanding not only of the era, but also of the circumstances under which these confessions were made. We must also not forget that Novikov was in the hands of the cruel official Sheshkovsky, whom contemporaries called the “domestic executioner” of Catherine II. Questions 12 and 21 concerned matters that Novikov could not deny - he published books, he knew about relations with the “special one” - Pavel. Therefore, he testified that he committed these “crimes” “out of thoughtlessness about the importance of this act,” and pleaded “guilty.” It is worth recalling that in similar conditions Radishchev did exactly the same thing when, forced to admit that he really called on the serfs to revolt or “threatened the kings with the scaffold,” he showed: “I wrote this without consideration” or: “I admit my error,” etc. d.

Appeals to Catherine II were of an officially binding nature. So in Radishchev’s answers to Sheshkovsky we will find appeals to Catherine II, which quite obviously do not express the revolutionary’s actual attitude towards the Russian Empress. The same necessity forced Novikov to “throw himself at the feet of Her Imperial Majesty.” A serious illness, a depressed state of mind from the consciousness that not only his entire life’s work had been destroyed, but also his name had been tarnished by slander - all this, of course, also determined the nature of emotional appeals to the empress.

At the same time, it must be remembered that, despite the courage shown by Novikov during the investigation, his behavior differs from the behavior of the first Russian revolutionary. Radishchev drew the firmness so necessary in such circumstances from the proud consciousness of his historical correctness, based his behavior on the morality of the revolutionary forged by him, which called for openly going towards danger, and if necessary, then death, in the name of the triumph of the great cause of liberation of the people. Radishchev fought, and, sitting in the fortress, he defended himself; Novikov made excuses.

Novikov's investigative case has not yet been subjected to systematic and scientific study. Until now, people have resorted to him only for information. Systematic study was undoubtedly hampered by the following two circumstances: a) the extreme dispersion of documents from publications that have long become a bibliographic rarity, and b) the established tradition of printing documents from Novikov’s investigative case surrounded by abundant materials on the history of Freemasonry. In this sea of ​​Masonic papers, the Novikov case itself was lost, the main thing in it was lost - the increase in Catherine’s persecution of Novikov, and him alone (and not Freemasonry), for book publishing, for educational activities, for writings - persecution that ended not only with the arrest and imprisonment in the fortress of a leading public figure hated by the empress, but also the destruction of the entire educational cause (a decree prohibiting the rental of a university printing house to Novikov, the closure of a bookstore, the confiscation of books, etc.).

Russian foreign policy during the reign of Catherine II

The foreign policy of the Russian state under Catherine was aimed at strengthening Russia's role in the world and expanding its territory. The motto of her diplomacy was as follows: “you need to be on friendly terms with all powers in order to always retain the opportunity to take the side of the weaker... to keep your hands free... not to be dragged behind anyone.”

Expansion of the Russian Empire

The new territorial growth of Russia begins with the accession of Catherine II. After the first Turkish war, Russia acquired in 1774 important points at the mouths of the Dnieper, Don and in the Kerch Strait (Kinburn, Azov, Kerch, Yenikale). Then, in 1783, Balta, Crimea and the Kuban region are annexed. The Second Turkish War ends with the acquisition of the coastal strip between the Bug and the Dniester (1791). Thanks to all these acquisitions, Russia is becoming a firm foot on the Black Sea. At the same time, the Polish partitions give Western Rus' to Russia. According to the first of them, in 1773 Russia received part of Belarus (the provinces of Vitebsk and Mogilev); according to the second partition of Poland (1793), Russia received the regions: Minsk, Volyn and Podolsk; according to the third (1795-1797) - Lithuanian provinces (Vilna, Kovno and Grodno), Black Rus', the upper reaches of Pripyat and the western part of Volyn. Simultaneously with the third partition, the Duchy of Courland was annexed to Russia (the act of abdication of Duke Biron).

Sections of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth

The federal Polish-Lithuanian state of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth included the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

The reason for intervention in the affairs of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was the question of the position of dissidents (that is, the non-Catholic minority - Orthodox and Protestants), so that they were equalized with the rights of Catholics. Catherine put strong pressure on the gentry to elect her protege Stanislav August Poniatowski to the Polish throne, who was elected. Part of the Polish gentry opposed these decisions and organized an uprising in the Bar Confederation. It was suppressed by Russian troops in alliance with the Polish king. In 1772, Prussia and Austria, fearing the strengthening of Russian influence in Poland and its successes in the war with the Ottoman Empire (Turkey), offered Catherine to carry out a division of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in exchange for ending the war, otherwise threatening war against Russia. Russia, Austria and Prussia sent in their troops.

In 1772 took place 1st section of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Austria received all of Galicia with its districts, Prussia - Western Prussia (Pomerania), Russia - the eastern part of Belarus to Minsk (Vitebsk and Mogilev provinces) and part of the Latvian lands that were previously part of Livonia.

The Polish Sejm was forced to agree to the division and give up claims to the lost territories: Poland lost 380,000 km² with a population of 4 million people.

Polish nobles and industrialists contributed to the adoption of the Constitution of 1791. The conservative part of the population of the Targowica Confederation turned to Russia for help.

In 1793 there took place 2nd section of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, approved at the Grodno Seim. Prussia received Gdansk, Torun, Poznan (part of the lands along the Warta and Vistula rivers), Russia - Central Belarus with Minsk and Right Bank Ukraine.

In March 1794, an uprising began under the leadership of Tadeusz Kosciuszko, the goals of which were to restore territorial integrity, sovereignty and the Constitution on May 3, but in the spring of that year it was suppressed by the Russian army under the command of A.V. Suvorov.

In 1795 took place 3rd partition of Poland. Austria received Southern Poland with Luban and Krakow, Prussia - Central Poland with Warsaw, Russia - Lithuania, Courland, Volyn and Western Belarus.

October 13, 1795 - a conference of the three powers on the fall of the Polish state, it lost statehood and sovereignty.

Russian-Turkish wars. Annexation of Crimea

An important area of ​​Catherine II’s foreign policy also included the territories of Crimea, the Black Sea region and the North Caucasus, which were under Turkish rule.

When the uprising of the Bar Confederation broke out, the Turkish Sultan declared war on Russia (Russian-Turkish War 1768-1774), using as a pretext the fact that one of the Russian troops, pursuing the Poles, entered the territory of the Ottoman Empire. Russian troops defeated the Confederates and began to win victories one after another in the south. Having achieved success in a number of land and sea battles (the Battle of Kozludzhi, the battle of Ryabaya Mogila, the Battle of Kagul, the Battle of Larga, the Battle of Chesme, etc.), Russia forced Turkey to sign the Kuchuk-Kainardzhi Treaty, as a result of which the Crimean Khanate formally gained independence, but de facto became dependent on Russia. Turkey paid Russia military indemnities in the order of 4.5 million rubles, and also ceded the northern coast of the Black Sea along with two important ports.

After the end of the Russian-Turkish War of 1768-1774, Russia's policy towards the Crimean Khanate was aimed at establishing a pro-Russian ruler in it and joining Russia. Under pressure from Russian diplomacy, Shahin Giray was elected khan. The previous khan, Turkey's protege Devlet IV Giray, tried to resist at the beginning of 1777, but it was suppressed by A.V. Suvorov, Devlet IV fled to Turkey. At the same time, the landing of Turkish troops in the Crimea was prevented and thus an attempt to start a new war was prevented, after which Turkey recognized Shahin Giray as khan. In 1782, an uprising broke out against him, which was suppressed by Russian troops introduced into the peninsula, and in 1783, with the manifesto of Catherine II, the Crimean Khanate was annexed to Russia.

After the victory, the Empress, together with the Austrian Emperor Joseph II, made a triumphal tour of the Crimea.

The next war with Turkey occurred in 1787-1792 and was an unsuccessful attempt by the Ottoman Empire to regain the lands that had gone to Russia during the Russian-Turkish War of 1768-1774, including Crimea. Here, too, the Russians won a number of important victories, both land - the Battle of Kinburn, the Battle of Rymnik, the capture of Ochakov, the capture of Izmail, the battle of Focsani, the Turkish campaigns against Bendery and Akkerman were repulsed, etc., and sea - the battle of Fidonisi (1788), Kerch naval battle (1790), Battle of Cape Tendra (1790) and Battle of Kaliakria (1791). As a result, the Ottoman Empire in 1791 was forced to sign the Treaty of Yassy, ​​which assigned Crimea and Ochakov to Russia, and also pushed the border between the two empires to the Dniester.

The wars with Turkey were marked by major military victories of Rumyantsev, Suvorov, Potemkin, Kutuzov, Ushakov, and the establishment of Russia in the Black Sea. As a result, the Northern Black Sea region, Crimea, and the Kuban region went to Russia, its political positions in the Caucasus and Balkans strengthened, and Russia’s authority on the world stage was strengthened.

Relations with Georgia. Treaty of Georgievsk

Under the king of Kartli and Kakheti, Irakli II (1762-1798), the united Kartli-Kakheti state was significantly strengthened, and its influence in Transcaucasia was growing. The Turks are expelled from the country. Georgian culture is being revived, book printing is emerging. Enlightenment is becoming one of the leading trends in social thought. Heraclius turned to Russia for protection from Persia and Turkey. Catherine II, who fought with Turkey, on the one hand, was interested in an ally, on the other hand, did not want to send significant military forces to Georgia. In 1769-1772, a small Russian detachment under the command of General Totleben fought against Turkey on the side of Georgia. In 1783, Russia and Georgia signed the Treaty of Georgievsk, establishing a Russian protectorate over the kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti in exchange for Russian military protection. In 1795, the Persian Shah Agha Mohammed Khan Qajar invaded Georgia and, after the Battle of Krtsanisi, ravaged Tbilisi.

Relations with Sweden

Taking advantage of the fact that Russia entered into a war with Turkey, Sweden, supported by Prussia, England and Holland, started a war with it for the return of previously lost territories. The troops that entered Russian territory were stopped by General-in-Chief V.P. Musin-Pushkin. After a series of naval battles that did not have a decisive outcome, Russia defeated the Swedish battle fleet in the battle of Vyborg, but due to a storm, it suffered a heavy defeat in the battle of the rowing fleets at Rochensalm. The parties signed the Treaty of Verel in 1790, according to which the border between the countries did not change.

Relations with other countries

In 1764, relations between Russia and Prussia normalized and an alliance treaty was concluded between the countries. This treaty served as the basis for the formation of the Northern System - an alliance of Russia, Prussia, England, Sweden, Denmark and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth against France and Austria. Russian-Prussian-English cooperation continued further.

In the third quarter of the 18th century. There was a struggle of the North American colonies for independence from England - the bourgeois revolution led to the creation of the USA. In 1780, the Russian government adopted the “Declaration of Armed Neutrality”, supported by the majority of European countries (ships of neutral countries had the right of armed defense if they were attacked by the fleet of a warring country).

In European affairs, Russia's role increased during the Austro-Prussian War of 1778-1779, when it acted as a mediator between the warring parties at the Congress of Teschen, where Catherine essentially dictated her terms of reconciliation, restoring balance in Europe. After this, Russia often acted as an arbiter in disputes between German states, which turned directly to Catherine for mediation.

One of Catherine’s grandiose plans in the foreign policy arena was the so-called Greek project - joint plans of Russia and Austria to divide Turkish lands, expel the Turks from Europe, revive the Byzantine Empire and proclaim Catherine’s grandson, Grand Duke Konstantin Pavlovich, as its emperor. According to the plans, a buffer state of Dacia is created in place of Bessarabia, Moldova and Wallachia, and the western part of the Balkan Peninsula is transferred to Austria. The project was developed in the early 1780s, but was not implemented due to the contradictions of the allies and Russia’s independent conquest of significant Turkish territories.

In October 1782, a Treaty of Friendship and Trade with Denmark was signed.

On February 14, 1787, she received the Venezuelan politician Francisco Miranda at the Mariinsky Palace in Kyiv.

After the French Revolution, Catherine was one of the initiators of the anti-French coalition and the establishment of the principle of legitimism. She said: “The weakening of monarchical power in France endangers all other monarchies. For my part, I am ready to resist with all my might. It's time to act and take up arms." However, in reality, she avoided participating in hostilities against France. According to popular opinion, one of the real reasons for the creation of the anti-French coalition was to divert the attention of Prussia and Austria from Polish affairs. At the same time, Catherine abandoned all treaties concluded with France, ordered the expulsion of all those suspected of sympathizing with the French Revolution from Russia, and in 1790 she issued a decree on the return of all Russians from France.

During the reign of Catherine, the Russian Empire acquired the status of a “great power”. As a result of two successful Russian-Turkish wars for Russia, 1768-1774 and 1787-1791. The Crimean Peninsula and the entire territory of the Northern Black Sea region were annexed to Russia. In 1772-1795. Russia took part in three sections of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, as a result of which it annexed the territories of present-day Belarus, Western Ukraine, Lithuania and Courland. The Russian Empire also included Russian America - Alaska and the West Coast of the North American continent (the current state of California).

Catherine II as a figure of the Age of Enlightenment

The long reign of Catherine II 1762-1796 was filled with significant and highly controversial events and processes. The “Golden Age of the Russian Nobility” was at the same time the age of Pugachevism, the “Nakaz” and the Statutory Commission coexisted with persecution. And yet it was an integral era, which had its own core, its own logic, its own ultimate task. This was a time when the imperial government was trying to implement one of the most thoughtful, consistent and successful reform programs in Russian history. The ideological basis of the reforms was the philosophy of the European Enlightenment, with which the empress was well acquainted. In this sense, her reign is often called the era of enlightened absolutism. Historians argue about what enlightened absolutism was - the utopian teaching of the enlighteners (Voltaire, Diderot, etc.) about the ideal union of kings and philosophers or a political phenomenon that found its real embodiment in Prussia (Frederick II the Great), Austria (Joseph II), Russia (Catherine II), etc. These disputes are not unfounded. They reflect the key contradiction in the theory and practice of enlightened absolutism: between the need to radically change the existing order of things (class system, despotism, lawlessness, etc.) and the inadmissibility of shocks, the need for stability, the inability to infringe on the social force on which this order rests - the nobility . Catherine II, like perhaps no one else, understood the tragic insurmountability of this contradiction: “You,” she blamed the French philosopher D. Diderot, “write on paper that will endure everything, but I, poor empress, write on human skin, so sensitive and painful." Her position on the issue of the serf peasantry is very indicative. There is no doubt about the empress's negative attitude towards serfdom. She thought more than once about ways to cancel it. But things did not go further than cautious reflection. Catherine II clearly realized that the abolition of serfdom would be received with indignation by the nobles. Feudal legislation was expanded: landowners were allowed to exile peasants to hard labor for any period of time, and peasants were forbidden to file complaints against landowners. The most significant transformations in the spirit of enlightened absolutism were:

• convening and activities of the Legislative Commission 1767-1768. The goal was to develop a new set of laws, which was intended to replace the Council Code of 1649. Representatives of the nobility, officials, townspeople, and state peasants worked in the Code Commission. For the opening of the commission, Catherine II wrote the famous “Instruction”, in which she used the works of Voltaire, Montesquieu, Beccaria and other educators. It talked about the presumption of innocence, the eradication of despotism, the spread of education, and public welfare. The commission's activities did not bring the desired result. A new set of laws was not developed, the deputies were unable to rise above the narrow interests of the classes and did not show much zeal in developing reforms. In December 1768, the Empress dissolved the Statutory Commission and did not create any more similar institutions;
• reform of the administrative-territorial division of the Russian Empire. The country was divided into 50 provinces (300-400 thousand male souls), each of which consisted of 10-12 districts (20-30 thousand male souls). A uniform system of provincial government was established: a governor appointed by the emperor, a provincial government that exercised executive power, the Treasury Chamber (collection of taxes, their expenditure), the Order of Public Charity (schools, hospitals, shelters, etc.). Courts were created, built on a strictly class principle - for nobles, townspeople, and state peasants. Administrative, financial and judicial functions were thus clearly separated. The provincial division introduced by Catherine II remained until 1917;
• the adoption in 1785 of the Charter of the Nobility, which secured all the class rights and privileges of the nobles (exemption from corporal punishment, the exclusive right to own peasants, pass them on by inheritance, sell, buy villages, etc.);
• adoption of the Charter to the cities, formalizing the rights and privileges of the “third estate” - the townspeople. The city estate was divided into six categories, received limited rights of self-government, elected the mayor and members of the city Duma;
• the adoption in 1775 of a manifesto on freedom of enterprise, according to which permission from government bodies was not required to open an enterprise;
• reforms 1782-1786 in the field of school education.

Of course, these transformations were limited. The autocratic principle of governance, serfdom, and the class system remained unshakable. Pugachev's Peasant War (1773-1775), the capture of the Bastille (1789) and the execution of King Louis XVI (1793) did not contribute to the deepening of reforms. They went intermittently in the 90s. and stopped altogether. The persecution of A. N. Radishchev (1790) and the arrest of N. I. Novikov (1792) were not random episodes. They testify to the deep contradictions of enlightened absolutism, the impossibility of unambiguous assessments of the “golden age of Catherine II”.

And yet, it was during this era that the Free Economic Society appeared (1765), free printing houses operated, heated journal debates took place, in which the Empress personally participated, the Hermitage (1764) and the Public Library in St. Petersburg (1795), and the Smolny Institute of Noble Maidens were founded (1764) and pedagogical schools in both capitals. Historians also say that the efforts of Catherine II, aimed at encouraging the social activity of the classes, especially the nobility, laid the foundations of civil society in Russia.

Ekaterina - writer and publisher

Catherine belonged to a small number of monarchs who communicated so intensely and directly with their subjects through the drafting of manifestos, instructions, laws, polemical articles and indirectly in the form of satirical works, historical dramas and pedagogical opuses. In her memoirs, she admitted: “I cannot see a clean pen without feeling the desire to immediately dip it in ink.”

She had an extraordinary talent as a writer, leaving behind a large collection of works - notes, translations, librettos, fables, fairy tales, comedies “Oh, time!”, “Mrs. Vorchalkina’s Name Day,” “The Hall of a Noble Boyar,” “Mrs. Vestnikova with her Family,” “The Invisible Bride” (1771-1772), essays, etc., participated in the weekly satirical magazine “All sorts of things,” published since 1769. The Empress turned to journalism in order to influence public opinion, so the main idea of ​​the magazine was criticism of human vices and weaknesses. Other subjects of irony were the superstitions of the population. Catherine herself called the magazine: “Satire in a smiling spirit.”

Development of culture and art

Catherine considered herself a “philosopher on the throne” and had a favorable attitude toward the Age of Enlightenment, and corresponded with Voltaire, Diderot, and d’Alembert.

During her reign, the Hermitage and the Public Library appeared in St. Petersburg. She patronized various fields of art - architecture, music, painting.

It is impossible not to mention the mass settlement of German families in various regions of modern Russia, Ukraine, as well as the Baltic countries, initiated by Catherine. The goal was the modernization of Russian science and culture.

Features of personal life

Ekaterina was a brunette of average height. She combined high intelligence, education, statesmanship and a commitment to “free love.”

Catherine is known for her connections with numerous lovers, the number of which (according to the list of the authoritative Catherine scholar P. I. Bartenev) reaches 23. The most famous of them were Sergei Saltykov, G. G. Orlov (later count), horse guard lieutenant Vasilchikov, G. A Potemkin (later prince), hussar Zorich, Lanskoy, the last favorite was the cornet Platon Zubov, who became a count of the Russian Empire and a general. According to some sources, Catherine was secretly married to Potemkin (1775, see Wedding of Catherine II and Potemkin). After 1762, she planned a marriage with Orlov, but on the advice of those close to her, she abandoned this idea.

It is worth noting that Catherine’s “debauchery” was not such a scandalous phenomenon against the backdrop of the general debauchery of morals in the 18th century. Most kings (with the possible exception of Frederick the Great, Louis XVI and Charles XII) had numerous mistresses. Catherine's favorites (with the exception of Potemkin, who had state abilities) did not influence politics. Nevertheless, the institution of favoritism had a negative effect on the higher nobility, who sought benefits through flattery to the new favorite, tried to make “their own man” become lovers of the empress, etc.

Catherine had two sons: Pavel Petrovich (1754) (it is suspected that his father was Sergei Saltykov) and Alexei Bobrinsky (1762 - son of Grigory Orlov) and two daughters: Grand Duchess Anna Petrovna (1757-1759, possibly daughter) who died in infancy the future king of Poland Stanislav Poniatovsky) and Elizaveta Grigorievna Tyomkina (1775 - daughter of Potemkin).

Famous figures of Catherine's era

The reign of Catherine II was characterized by the fruitful activities of outstanding Russian scientists, diplomats, military men, statesmen, cultural and artistic figures. In 1873, in St. Petersburg, in the park in front of the Alexandrinsky Theater (now Ostrovsky Square), an impressive multi-figure monument to Catherine was erected, designed by M. O. Mikeshin, sculptors A. M. Opekushin and M. A. Chizhov and architects V. A. Schröter and D.I. Grimm. The foot of the monument consists of a sculptural composition, the characters of which are outstanding personalities of Catherine’s era and associates of the Empress:

• Grigory Aleksandrovich Potemkin-Tavrichesky
• Alexander Vasilievich Suvorov
• Petr Aleksandrovich Rumyantsev
• Alexander Andreevich Bezborodko
• Alexander Alekseevich Vyazemsky
• Ivan Ivanovich Betskoy
• Vasily Yakovlevich Chichagov
• Alexey Grigorievich Orlov
• Gabriel Romanovich Derzhavin
• Ekaterina Romanovna Vorontsova-Dashkova

The events of the last years of the reign of Alexander II - in particular, the Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878 - prevented the implementation of the plan to expand the memorial of the Catherine era. D. I. Grimm developed a project for the construction in the park next to the monument to Catherine II of bronze statues and busts depicting figures of the glorious reign. According to the final list, approved a year before the death of Alexander II, six bronze sculptures and twenty-three busts on granite pedestals were to be placed next to the monument to Catherine.

The following should have been depicted full-length: Count N.I. Panin, Admiral G.A. Spiridov, writer D.I. Fonvizin, Prosecutor General of the Senate Prince A.A. Vyazemsky, Field Marshal Prince N.V. Repnin and General A. I. Bibikov, former chairman of the Code Commission. The busts include publisher and journalist N. I. Novikov, traveler P. S. Pallas, playwright A. P. Sumarokov, historians I. N. Boltin and Prince M. M. Shcherbatov, artists D. G. Levitsky and V. L. Borovikovsky, architect A.F. Kokorinov, favorite of Catherine II Count G.G. Orlov, admirals F.F. Ushakov, S.K. Greig, A.I. Cruz, military leaders: Count Z.G. Chernyshev, Prince V M. Dolgorukov-Krymsky, Count I. E. Ferzen, Count V. A. Zubov; Moscow Governor General Prince M. N. Volkonsky, Novgorod Governor Count Y. E. Sivers, diplomat Ya. I. Bulgakov, pacifier of the “plague riot” of 1771 in Moscow P. D. Eropkin, who suppressed the Pugachev riot Count P. I. Panin and I. I. Mikhelson, the hero of the capture of the Ochakov fortress I. I. Meller-Zakomelsky.

In addition to those listed, such famous figures of the era are noted as:

• Mikhail Vasilievich Lomonosov
• Leonard Euler
• Giacomo Quarenghi
• Vasily Bazhenov
• Jean Baptiste Vallin-Delamott
• N. A. Lvov
• Ivan Kulibin
• Matvey Kazakov

Catherine in art

To the cinema

• “The Best Film 2”, 2009. In the role of Catherine - Mikhail Galustyan
• "Catherine's Musketeers", 2007. In the role of Catherine - Alla Oding
• “The Secret of the Maestro”, 2007. In the role of Catherine - Olesya Zhurakovskaya
• “The Favorite (TV series)”, 2005. In the role of Ekaterina - Natalya Surkova
• “Catherine the Great”, 2005. In the role of Catherine - Emily Brun
• “Emelyan Pugachev (film)”, 1977; “Golden Age”, 2003. In the role of Catherine - Via Artmane
• “Russian Ark”, 2002. In the role of Catherine - Maria Kuznetsova, Natalya Nikulenko
• “Russian Revolt”, 2000. In the role of Catherine - Olga Antonova
• “Countess Sheremeteva”, 1988; “Evenings on a farm near Dikanka”, 2005. In the role of Catherine - Lydia Fedoseeva-Shukshina
• “Catherine the Great”, 1995. Catherine Zeta-Jones plays Catherine
• “Young Catherine” (“Young Catherine”), 1991. In the role of Catherine - Julia Ormond
• “Anecdotiada”, 1993. In the role of Catherine - Irina Muravyova
• “Vivat, midshipmen!”, 1991; “Midshipmen 3 (film)”, 1992. In the role of Catherine - Kristina Orbakaite
• “The Tsar’s Hunt”, 1990. Svetlana Kryuchkova plays the role of Catherine.
• "Dreams about Russia." In the role of Catherine - Marina Vladi
• "Captain's daughter". In the role of Ekaterina - Natalya Gundareva
• “Katharina und ihre wilden hengste”, 1983. Sandra Nova plays the role of Katharina.

black and white movie stars:

• “Great Catherine”, 1968. In the role of Catherine - Jeanne Moreau
• “Evenings on a farm near Dikanka”, 1961. Zoya Vasilkova plays the role of Catherine.
• “John Paul Jones”, 1959. Bette Davis as Catherine
• “Admiral Ushakov”, 1953. In the role of Catherine - Olga Zhizneva.
• “A Royal Scandal”, 1945. Tallulah Bankhead plays Catherine.
• "The Scarlet Empress", 1934. Ch. role - Marlene Dietrich
• “Forbidden Paradise”, 1924. Pola Negri as Catherine

In the theatre

• “Catherine the Great. Musical Chronicles of the Times of the Empire", 2008. In the role of Catherine - People's Artist of Russia Nina Shamber

In literature

• B. Shaw. "Great Catherine"
• V. N. Ivanov. "Empress Fike"
• V. S. Pikul. "Favorite"
• V. S. Pikul. "Pen and Sword"
• Boris Akunin. "Extracurricular reading"
• Vasily Aksenov. "Voltairians and Voltairians"
• A. S. Pushkin. "Captain's daughter"
• Henri Troyat. "Catherine the Great"

In fine arts

Memory

In 1778, Catherine composed the following humorous epitaph for herself (translated from French):
Buried here
Catherine the Second, born in Stettin
April 21, 1729.
She spent 1744 in Russia, and left
There she married Peter III.
Fourteen years old
She made a triple project - like it
To my spouse, Elizabeth I and the people.
She used everything to achieve success in this.
Eighteen years of boredom and solitude forced her to read many books.
Having ascended the Russian throne, she strove for good,
She wanted to bring happiness, freedom and property to her subjects.
She easily forgave and did not hate anyone.
Indulgent, loved ease in life, cheerful by nature, with the soul of a republican
And with a kind heart - she had friends.
The work was easy for her,
In society and verbal sciences she
I found pleasure.

Monuments

• In 1873, a monument to Catherine II was unveiled on Alexandrinskaya Square in St. Petersburg (see section Famous figures of the Catherine era).
• In 1907, a monument to Catherine II was opened in Yekaterinodar (it stood until 1920, and was restored on September 8, 2006).
• In 2002, in Novorzhevo, founded by Catherine II, a monument was unveiled in her honor.
• On October 27, 2007, monuments to Catherine II were unveiled in Odessa and Tiraspol.
• On May 15, 2008, a monument to Catherine II was unveiled in Sevastopol.
• On September 14, 2008, a monument to Catherine II the Great was unveiled in Podolsk. The monument depicts the Empress at the moment of signing the Decree of October 5, 1781, which reads: “... we most graciously command that the economic village of Podol be renamed a city...”.
• In Veliky Novgorod, on the Monument “1000th Anniversary of Russia”, among the 129 figures of the most outstanding personalities in Russian history (as of 1862), there is the figure of Catherine II.
• Catherine made four mistakes in a three-letter word. Instead of “yet” she wrote “ischo”.