“LANGUAGE MEANS OF EXPRESSING THE COMMUNICATIVE INTENTION OF A NON-INTERPRETER...”

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Language means of expression

communicative intention of the translator

Russian State Library

Charychanskaya, Irina Vsevolodovna

Linguistic means of expressing communicative

translator's intentions: [Electronic resource]: Dis. ...

Ph.D. Philol. sciences

: 02/10/19. Voronezh: RSL, 2005 (From the collections of the Russian State Library) Philological sciences. Fiction Russia Russian literature con. 19 start 20th century (from ser.

90s 19th century 1917) Personalities of writers Anton Pavlovich Chekhov (1860-1904) writer The writer’s work The connection of the writer’s work with folklore, with domestic and foreign literature.

Innovation of the writer Creativity of the writer and other national literatures Research on translations of the writer's works Philological sciences. Fiction Literary criticism Theory of literature Literary translation Philological sciences. Fiction. Particular philologies. Textology Textology Theory of language The text is reproduced from a copy located in the RSL collection:

Charychanskaya, Irina Vsevolodovna Linguistic means of expressing the communicative intention of the translator Voronezh Russian State Library, 2006 (electronic text)

VORONEZH STATE UNIVERSITY

/i

As a manuscript

CHARYCHANSKAYA IRINA VSEVOLODOVNA

LANGUAGE MEANS OF EXPRESSION

OF THE COMMUNICATIVE INTENTION OF THE NON-INTERPRETER

Specialty 02/10/19 - theory of language

THESIS

for the second degree of candidate of philological sciences

CHAPTER 1 THEORETICAL BASIS FOR UNDERSTANDING TRANSLATION

1.1 Literary translation as a special case of performing 1.2.1 Reasons for the multiplicity of interpretations of a literary text and 1.2.2 The concept of adequacy and equivalence of translation. Norms

CHAPTER 2 QUALITATIVE ASPECTS OF IDENTIFICATION TECHNIQUES

COMMUNICATIVE INTENTION OF THE TRANSLATOR

2.1 Back translation as a tool for comparison and analysis of texts 2.2 Classification of linguistic means of expressing communicative intent 2.2.1 Lexical means of expressing communicative intent 2.2.2 Grammatical means of expressing communicative intent 2.2.2.1 Morphological means of expressing communicative intent 2.2.2.2 Syntactic means of expressing communicative intent 2.2.2.3 Morphological-syntactic means of expressing communicative 2.2.3 Sound-letter means of expressing communicative intention 2.2.4 Punctuation means of expressing communicative intention

CHAPTER 3 QUANTITATIVE ASPECTS OF THE METHODOLOGY

IDENTIFYING COMMUNICATIVE INTENTION

INTRODUCTION

In the process of translation, in addition to the sender and the recipient, the translator claims the role of another interpreter - the third participant in communication, who is traditionally considered as a communication mediator. Despite the fact that many linguists (R. Yakobson, O. Kade, V.Z. Demyankov, Yu.A. Sorokin, V.N.) mentioned the creative nature of literary translation and the development of the translator factor in their works. Bazylev, N.M. Toper, A.D. Schweitzer, I. Levy, K.I. Chukovsky, V.S. Vinogradov, G. Gachechiladze, etc.), the fact that the translation text inevitably bears the imprint of the translator’s creative personality, not only is not generally accepted, but is still denied, while any manifestations of the translator’s individuality in the translation text are perceived as deviations and are considered a consequence of poor-quality, dishonest work.

Relevance The study of this problem is determined by the fact that in recent studies there has been a revival of interest in understanding translation as a process and result of interpretation of the original. In this regard, the translator, as an interpreter of the original and co-author of the translation text, seems relevant. The insufficient development of this issue in modern linguistics also determines the relevance of our research;

translator, whose identification will be carried out using a comparative linguistic analysis of the original texts and the translation texts of the work of art.

The research material was the text of the story by A.P. Chekhov's "The Lady with the Dog", 31,017 characters, and four translations of this story (three translations into English and one translation into French).

Subject of study- lexical, grammatical, stylistic discrepancies between the texts of the original and the non-reproduction, which are the cause of semantic and emotional shifts.

The purpose of this dissertation is to explore the linguistic means of expressing the communicative intention of a non-interpreter.

1. Identify the distinctive features of translation, based on 2. Develop a methodology for identifying communicative intention of the translator, which implies:

used as research material;

b) conducting a quantitative comparative linguistic analysis of the original and reverse translation texts;

d) creation of dynamic computer cognitive graphic images (CCG images) of the translator’s communicative intention.

communicative intention of the translator.

The study is based on the following hypothesis:

literary translation is a type of performing art; the efficiency of translation lies in the presence of a communicative intention on the part of the translator, as the author of a work of performing art, which is necessarily identical to the communicative intention of the author of the original text; the communicative intention of the translator is expressed in the linguistic means used by the translator.

The following methods, techniques and techniques were used in the work:

comparative, descriptive, confrontational method, methodology for identifying the communicative intention of the translator, interpretive analysis, reverse translation technique, quantitative analysis, visualization of quantitative dependencies, technique for creating QCG images.

Submitted for defense the following main provisions:

The similarity of the development of artistic ideas in the performing arts and in translation indicates that literary translation belongs to the types of performing arts.

Just as the author of a work of art has a communicative intention, which represents the motive and purpose of artistic creativity, so the translator, being the author of a work of performing art (translation), has a communicative intention.

The translator's commercial intention, which arises on the basis of the translator's interpretation of the original, as well as his own non-understanding of the described reality, conditioned by the translator's personal life position, is reflected in the translator's choice of linguistic means.

When identifying the communicative intention of the translator, which is different from the communicative intention of the author, the greatest clarity is provided by the reverse translation method, i.e. secondary translation of text from the target language into the original language.

- The impossibility of applying the concept of “equivalence” to the sphere of language

in the mathematical meaning of this word, presupposes the presence of certain semantic shifts that arise in the translation text as a result of translation transformations. Despite the fact that these semantic shifts are inevitable from the very beginning, they are not chaotic, but are subject to a certain principle - their nature is determined by the communicative intention of the translator, who chooses one or another linguistic means from a number of possible options. This choice is not necessarily conscious, but tendentious, as long as it is dictated by the translator's understanding of the original text and its constituent parts;

The communicative intention of the translator is manifested, among other things, in the translator’s mistakes caused by an erroneous interpretation of the original.

Scientific novelty The work is to prove the presence of a communicative intention of a translator of literary texts, studied using the methodology of identifying the communicative intention of a translator.

Theoretical significance The research consists of developing a methodology for identifying the communicative intention of the translator (based on a comparison of the back translation with the original), as well as creating a classification of linguistic means of expressing the communicative intention of the translator.

Practical value The work lies in the fact that its results can be used in lecture courses on the theory of translation and intercultural communication, general linguistics, stylistics and text interpretation, and the data can be useful in practical courses in written translation, English language, and, in particular, practical and theoretical courses in literary translation.

Approbation of work. Research results presented at regional and international scientific-practical, scientific-methodological and scientific conferences at Voronezh State University:

conferences “Translation: Language and Culture” (2001), “International Communication and National Identity” (2002), “Translation: Language and Culture” (2003), scientific session of VSU (2005); conferences and school seminars of Tambov State University. G.R. Derzhavina:

“Compositional semantics” (2002), “Philology and culture” (2003), as well as at a conference at the Institute of Linguistics of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow: “Languages ​​and transnational problems” (2004). 10 works have been published based on the dissertation materials.

The structure of the work is determined by the goals and objectives of the study.

The dissertation consists of an introduction, three chapters, a conclusion, a bibliography, and an appendix.

CHAPTER 1. THEORETICAL BASIS FOR UNDERSTANDING TRANSLATION

AS A RESULT OF THE INTERPRETATION PROCESS

1.1 Literary translation as a special case Today, no one will be surprised by the statement that literary translation is a special type of translation activity. The answer to the question, what is literary translation - art or science, seems obvious and does not cause controversy, similar to the discussions of the early 50s, when translation theorists tried to determine by what laws the process of literary translation proceeds - science or art? Recognizing the inherent nature of literary translation would be tantamount to recognizing the existence, at least hypothetically, of one best and most accurate solution. While classifying literary translation as the sphere of art would indicate that there is no single correct solution, since it depends on the creative flair of each translator.

A.V. Fedorov noted that the specificity of literary translation lies in the fact that fiction is art (Fedorov, 1983). In this case, the author proceeds from the definition of art “as thinking in images” (Fedorov, 1983: 248). P.M. Toper, agreeing with the statement of A.V. Fedorova, notes that “literary translation is creativity not simply because the translator makes an unregulated choice of linguistic means (this happens in any translation process), but in the sense that he re-creates a work of art in different linguistic, national, social, historical, etc. Literary translation is the creation of new cultural values, and its laws lie in the sphere of art” (Toper, 2000: 29-30). At the same time, literary translation is a “strange art,” as Robert Wechsler calls it, it is similar to the work of copyists, and “copyists are not artists, but students.

forgers, ambitious dreamers or swindlers. But still, literary translation is an art. Its strangeness lies in the fact that physically the non-translator does exactly the same thing as the author.”

(Wechsier, 1998: 3). Despite the fact that a non-translator of fiction does not invent either the plot or the characters - all this is done by the author, the translator has to re-create the original, since “the art of words is so inextricably linked with the elements of the native language that “take out”

“artistic reality” from the linguistic environment in which it was created, and it is impossible to simply “transplant” it to another home, since in this case those subtle associative connections that are involved in the creation of a concrete sensory image are broken, and new ones inevitably arise, characteristic of the language into which the translation is being made"

(Topper, 2000: 28).

In this regard, it is worth mentioning writers who created their works in several languages ​​(V. Nabokov, V. Bykov and others).

V. Bykov noted that, in essence, he did not translate himself, but, as it were, wrote the novel anew, “trying it out” for a new reader.

Deviations of translation from the original are inevitable. These deviations may be due to linguistic factors (differences in languages) and extralinguistic (content of the translated message) (Toper, 2000). The difficulty of translating works of art is that the translator must recreate the figurative world of the work of art in translation. According to Yu.A. Sorokin, “a translated literary text is nothing more than a series of projections, the structure and quality of which depends on the psychotypical characteristics of the translator, associated, of course, with his conscious attitudes (in particular, with an attitude toward competitiveness” (Sorokin, 2002: 154).

Many linguists have mentioned the confrontation between the translator and the author, as two artists of the word. Often in the works of translation theorists there are comparisons of the translator with Jacob, who entered into single combat with an angel in the desert and became lame. A. Schlegel compared the author and translator to duelists, one of whom must inevitably die.

Literary translation differs from original creativity in its secondary nature, its dependence on the object of translation. If the author consolidates his idea of ​​the surrounding reality in an artistic image, then the translator consolidates in the translation text the figurative embodiment of the reality “restored” in the imagination. Translation theorists often compare the translation and the original to twins, who are infinitely similar to each other, but still different.

However, of all the comparisons in translation literature, the most common is the comparison of a translator with an actor or pianist. K.I. Chukovsky emphasizes the creative nature of the translator’s work, noting that the original text serves as material for the translator’s creativity. “A translator is, first of all, a talent. In order to translate Balzac, he needs to at least partly reincarnate into Balzac, assimilate his temperament, become infected with his pathos, his poetic sense of life" (Chukovsky, 1968:

9). “Just as the highest achievement of acting is not in deviation from the will of the playwright, but in merging with it, in complete submission to it, so the art of a translator, in its highest achievements, lies in merging with the will of the author” (ibid.: 51). However, not everyone is ready to agree with such a comparison. In particular, F. D. Batyushkov denied the possibility of likening a translator to an actor, since the presence of many possibilities in one author’s plan allows the actor to choose one of these possibilities and create on the canvas of the author’s plan. The translator, according to F.D. Batyushkova does not have the right to such freedom when recreating the text. Unlike an actor, who can discover something new, a translator learns what is known (Batyushkov, 1920).

K.I. Chukovsky notes the inconsistency of this objection, pointing out the presence of more than forty translations of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign,” which “reflected the creative personality of the translator with all its individual qualities to the same extent as the creative personality of the actor is reflected in each role” (Chukovsky, 1968 : 52). According to K.I. Chukovsky, differences in translations of the same work and differences in the performance of the same role are due to the same reasons: the temperament, talent, and cultural “equipment” of each translator and actor (ibid.). Thus, in the words of V. Levik, translation has “similarities with any performing art, since this is also creativity on a different material.” True, Levik added: “The similarity is limited to this” (Levik, 1987:360). It is difficult to agree with the last clarification, since, in our opinion, there are many more grounds for classifying literary translation as a type of performing art.

performing arts. The monograph by G.I. is devoted to a detailed study of the specifics and functions of performing art. Gilburd "Performing arts - the sphere of manifestation of artistic ideas"

(Gilburd, 1984). G.I. Gilburd points out the conventionality of the division of art: performance is an integral part of the creative process. In general, the author divides performing activities into three main types: 1) performance within the framework of fine arts, where the author himself is the performer; 2) performance associated with productive, associated with the creation of a model of a monumental structure, where the performer is the author himself, and non-creative, reproductive, monumental forms; 3) performance within the framework of a special kind of art, where the creator of a work of art and its performer are two different artists (or one in two different guises, if the author is also the performer of his works). Art of this kind, which cannot exist without performing activities (music, choreography, dramatic art), is called performing art.

The main difference between performing art and other types of art is that in performing art the processes of creating and performing artistic works do not coincide and go beyond the author’s control; the creation and recreation of a work is carried out by different artists, sometimes having different worldviews, intellectual, emotional levels, etc. .d. In addition, these processes are sometimes separated from one another in time. And even in the case when the author of the work and the performer are combined in one person, the artistic idea does not remain unchanged, but is transformed from the creator to the performer (ibid.).

In another work devoted to the problems of performing arts, the author is E.G. Gurenko, noting that performing activity is a special case of artistic activity, classifies the latter in order to determine the position of performing activity in the paradigm of artistic activity.

According to E. Gurenko, artistic activity, in general, can be divided into four types: 1) primary independent, 2) primary independent and 4) secondary dependent. The first and fourth have nothing to do with the performing arts, since in the first the figure is exclusively the author (painting, sculpture, graphics), and the fourth has a non-creative (reproductive) nature.

The second type is also carried out by the author, however, in addition, it involves the creative activity of the performer, namely the third type of artistic activity, which includes all types of performing arts (Gurenko, 1982). Thus, performing art “is a secondary, relatively independent artistic activity, which includes the process of concretizing the product of primary artistic activity” (ibid.: 39). The incompleteness of creative activity in the artistic activity of the performer, whose role is the performing arts. Thus, literary translation has much in common with music - the most obvious example of performing art, so in the future in our work we will more than once resort to comparing translation with the art of music.

art, we rely on a number of distinctive features characteristic of all performing arts, including translation.

the relationship between the object (work of art) and the subject (performer). They are layered on top of each other, since an aesthetic object necessarily presupposes and includes a certain attitude of the subject towards itself. Therefore, the object of artistic activity should be considered not just the process toward which “the evaluative-cognitive-transformative activity of the creator is directed, but also the artist’s special emotional and personal vision of it” (Gilburd, 1984: 69). In the performing arts, the object is a work written by a composer or playwright, which reflects objective reality only indirectly (through the author’s vision) and needs to be rethought and embodied in a work of performing art (i.e. the author creates a work that reflects his vision of the world around him , and then this work is perceived and reinterpreted by the interpreter-performer (musician-interpreter or translator-interpreter)).

Another distinctive feature of performing art is the peculiarities of the functioning of the artistic idea in it.

in the performing arts there are two levels of embodiment of an artistic idea: within the framework of primary artistic activity and the activity of the performer.

Thus, in music, primary artistic activity is the process of translating an idea into the structure of an artistic text - musical notation, in literature - into the text of a work of art.

The activity of performers is to decode the musical notation, the original text, its interpretation and objectification (into sound material or translation text). In this case, the process of creating a work by the author includes three stages: 1) the formation of a plan, the main idea of ​​the work in the mind of the author. This is a key stage in the creative process, because... this is the stage of concentration in the artist’s mind of social, political, aesthetic, ethical, philosophical and other problems, as well as the stage of an artistic idea that always arises either as a statement of a certain question, or as an answer to this question; 2) embodiment (into musical notation or original text). By objectifying a work of art into the system of images, the artistic idea enters a new stage of its development.

This time the carrier of information is not the consciousness of the artist, but a symbolic object - a work of art; 3) verification, evaluation of an artistic idea. At this stage, the author evaluates the final work in his mind.

The process of primary subjectification of an artistic idea by the performer and the process of secondary subjectification by its author (verification) functionally coincide. The formation of a performing plan is the first link in performing activities. The next link is the process of translating the idea into sounding musical material, i.e.

creating a work of performing art. In this process, the performer embodies associations into musical matter. And finally, the last stage in creating a work of performing art is its evaluation by the performer. A work of performing art is also improved in the process of performing activity, when the interpreter returns to this or that work many times during his life. Secondary subjectification of the artistic global secondary subjectification of the artistic idea, now of the entire work, by the perceiving public.

Schematically G.I. Gilburd presents the dynamics of an artistic idea as follows (Gilburd, 1984: 80):

C - subjectification; O - objectification ABC - secondary subjectivation of the author IS - subjectivation of the performer: IO - objectification of the perceiver of the performer and in e - secondary subjectivation of the performer BC - subjectivation of the perceiver The process of translation of works of art also fits into this scheme. Moreover, it is possible to “overlap” schemes reflecting A.D. Schweitzer.

Scheme by I. Levy (Levy, 1974: 49).

S TEXT

According to I. Levoy’s scheme, the author of a work of art, as a result of perception and interpretation of the surrounding reality (the stage of “selection” in I. Levoy, the stage of “primary subjectification” in G.I. Gilburd) performs the action of transforming this idea into a material object (text) (stage of “expression” by I. Levoy, stage of “objectification” by G.I. Gilburd), then the translator, as a result of perception and interpretation of the original text (“reading” by I. Levoy, “subjectivization of the performer”

At G.I. Gilburd) creates, on the basis of the original, his own material object - a sounding text in musical art and a translated text in translation (this process corresponds to the stage of “expression” in I. Levy and “objectification of the performer” in G.I. Gilburd), and, finally, the reader or perceive it” - from G.I. Gilburd).

Left, does not at all indicate their absence in the translation process.

Therefore, we believe it is necessary to add these stages to the general scheme of performing arts.

Scheme A.D. Schweitzer (Schweitzer, 1988) reflects the pragmatic relations that characterize translation as a process of interlingual and intercultural communication. Highlighting the main links of the translation process, the communication chain is its two-tiered nature: “acts of primary and secondary communication form two tiers: secondary communication G.I. Gilburd, is also typical for the performing arts.

Communication scheme A.D. Schweitzer (ibid.: 146).

o - sender P - recipient characteristic of arts related to primary independent artistic activity, in which the only mediator of communication between the sender (author) and the recipient (viewer, reader) is the text.

carried out in translation, but also in any other form of performing arts. Thus, in the art of music, the composer will act as the sender (O); as text (T) - musical notation; the recipient of the original text (P^) - the performer-musician at the stage of perception of the original text (the stage of “reading” by I. Levoy or the stage of “subjectivization of the performer” by G.I. Gilburd); as the sender of the secondary text (O^) - again a musician-performer, but at the stage of “expression”

(I. Levy) or “objectification of the performer” (G.I. Gilburd); the secondary text (T^) in musical art is the sounding matter of the text, and, finally, the perceiver of the secondary text (P^) is the listener.

characterizing the dynamics of artistic ideas in the performing arts, and the schemes of I. Levy and A.D. Schweitzer show that all three schemes can be applicable both to describe the process of communication in translation and in the performing arts, which confirms our assumption that non-translation belongs to the performing arts.

It seems logical to present the results of this comparison in the form of a unified diagram reflecting the process of communication in the performing arts, formed as a result of the “superposition”

schemes reflecting the process of communication in translation, onto a diagram of the dynamics of the development of an artistic idea in the performing arts.

O - sender P - recipient T - text S-subjectivation BC - subjectivation of the perceiver It is worth especially noting that the development scheme of an artistic idea in translation, as in any other form of performing arts, has a cyclical nature: an artistic idea, first objectified in the text of the perceiver, interpreter this text in accordance with one’s own idea of ​​the world, and make significant changes in the formation of a new artistic concept. “The communicative connection, describing a complete closed communicative cycle, ultimately “sort of” returns to the primary addressee (the author of the work), and this last “point” of return (to the addressee) is at the same time the beginning of a new communicative act, perhaps at a higher level http://www.rasscomm.ru/rca_biblio/e/elmaO1.shtml).

Thus, “an artistic idea... is both knowledge about reality and a project, a model of a new reality.

It... is an intermediate moment between the material world on the basis of which it was born... and the reality into which it is called upon to be embodied by changing it" (Gilburd, 1984: 62). “An artistic idea “can contribute to the progressive transformation of reality”

(ibid.: 62).

literary translation and determining the special position of the latter in the system of performing arts.

One of these features is the internationality of the language of other types of art and the limitation of the art of fiction within the framework of one language. M. Lozinsky, points out that in poetry “the universal content of humanity is revealed only for one people, for that people who knows this foreign language. And while other great arts - the plastic arts and music - do not know national, linguistic boundaries, the most ancient and, perhaps, the most powerful - noesia - becomes mute in a foreign land" (Lozinsky, 1987: 92).

He called this feature “the tragedy of poetic creativity”

(of course, this metaphor is equally applicable to other genres of fiction).

However, the statement about the absolute universal accessibility of works of musical art cannot be considered true, since in most cases the composer’s plan is recorded in a material object - musical notation (the exception is an audio recording of a work performed in an international language of sounds. A special case is represented by works of instruments that are difficult to access in modern times. In such a situation it is necessary to create transcriptions for other instruments, *ITO is A LOT reminiscent of the process of translation from one language to another.

is a higher rate of aging of works of verbal art and their translations compared to works of other types of art. “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” was translated into Russian immediately after the discovery of the manuscript; Shakespeare has long been translated into modern English. At the same time, translations age even faster than the originals, which is explained, among other things, by their secondary nature.

Some researchers see the specificity of the performing arts in the fact that the author, while creating the basis of a work of art, leaves it unfinished. And only in the activity of the performer the work finds its completion.

is that in the arts of primary types the work is exhibited in the form in which the author completed it. In the performing perceiver, the stage of comprehension and processing by the performer goes through.

art lies in the fact that the works created by the authors are initially intended for performance, i.e. communication between the author and the reader or listener always occurs indirectly.

However, speaking about literary translation as a type of performing arts, what distinguishes it from other types of performing arts. If they are intended for performance, the presentation of the original by a mediator of communication, then works of art within the framework of the system of one interpret this work in accordance with their own worldview. Therefore, getting acquainted with works of other types of cinema and drama, and to a lesser extent - musical art), the recipient realizes that this work is an interpretation, for example, of a director, director (it is not without reason that when presenting a film or play, the name of the screenwriter is not indicated first, and the director). As for translated works, they are still considered the works of the author, and the translator is deprived of the right to innovation. Moreover, recently, during the book boom, the name of the translator is often not mentioned at all, thus, responsibility for all the absurdities and illogicalities of the translation falls on the shoulders of the innocent author.

To summarize, it is worth noting that, despite a number of features of the performing arts (the initial limitations of literary works of art, the original focus of the original directly on the reader of the original culture), we consider it possible to classify literary translation as a type of performing arts on the basis that the development of an artistic idea in literary translation and other types of performing arts proceeds according to the same principle.

1.2 Problems of interpretation of a literary text 1.2.1 Reasons for the multiplicity of interpretations of a literary text and the basis for the rational interpretation of meaning in translation The concept of interpretation today is widespread in philosophy, art criticism, language studies, and translation studies. In the last decade of the last century, a statement was formed in philosophy about the existence, along with “reasonable man”, “cognitive man”, “interpretive man”. “A person is sentenced to interpretation - this is a new twist in discussions about interpretation” (Ishchenko, 2002: 216). In “interpretationism, (synonyms; interpretative approach, interpretivism), the main thesis of which is: “Meanings are calculated by the interpreter and are not contained in linguistic form”” (Demyankov, 1999: 6).

In translation studies, interpretation plays a significant role. This statement is also confirmed by the fact that the concept of interpretation is found (or implied) in many definitions of translation: R.

Jakobson - “Translation is the interpretation of verbal signs through any language” (Jakobson, 1978: 17); K. Raie - “Translation is a version in the receiving language in which a text taken from the giving language is written, with the main desire to convey the original text in the target language according to the type of text, its intralingual instructions and the effective extralinguistic determinants that become effective in them” (cited. from: Toper, 2000:

189), F.M. Rener defines translation as “ars interpretandi” (cited in: Toper, 2000: 48). P. Ricoeur distinguished two meanings of the word translation in the narrow sense of “translation of a verbal message from one language into another” and in the broad sense as “a synonym for an attempt to comprehend and interpret a text within the same native language.” At the same time, noting that “internal translation (that is, the interpretation of a text within one language) is a simple addition to external translation, that is, translation from one language to another” (Ricoeur, 1998: http://belpaese2000.narod.ru /Trad/ricoeur.htm).

However, the very concept of interpretation is not always interpreted clearly and unambiguously. It is mainly used in the sense of explanation, interpretation, clarification. Informally, the concept of interpretation is used “to denote that which can be extracted from any object under consideration and does not coincide with this object fundamentally, i.e. not identical to it either in form (the case of literal paraphrase, while preserving the meaning), or in content (the case of interpretation associated with the involvement of “side”, i.e., individual, not purely linguistic knowledge of the interpreter)” (Demyankov, 1985: 24) .

One of the features of the concept of interpretation is that interpretation is both a process and the result of this process. However, although they are inseparable from each other, they do not dissolve into each other. Moreover, they often do not even coincide in time. The creative process of finding an acceptable interpretation option, seemingly directly reflected in the product of interpretation, does not completely coincide with the product of this process. The interpreter, like the author, “reproduces and implements into material flesh only the result of past interpretative activity” (Gilburd, 1984: 147). At the same time, the process of interpretation is often not recorded in the mind of the interpreter. “Just as the pain of the word when creating a literary work is not remembered by the author in the form of a sequence of mental elementary operations (although, perhaps, it can emerge in memory in the form of a change of major episodes in the reconstruction of the literary work in the course of its creation), so are the “pains of interpretation” (if they were generally accessible to a specific interpreter: after all, the thoroughness in interpretation varies greatly from person to person) can be perceived rather as individual episodes of misunderstanding, tied to one or another detail of recognition” (Demyankov, 1989, a: 43).

classification of interpretation by type. In particular, V.Z. Demyankov, referring to Z. Schmidt, points out that the following types of interpretation can be distinguished: 1) interpretation used in everyday speech, presentation - similar to “musical interpretation” - and this type of interpretation has subjectivity” (ibid.: 40).

A distinctive feature of the interpretation of the second type is its dependence on the norms prevailing in a particular era, while one or another type of interpretation can be assessed depending on its proximity to the original “from “literal adherence to the author”, through the intermediate stage of “non-literal , but close in spirit" - to "innovative" and "original" performance (up to such an assessment as "gag" "(ibid.: 40); 3) the third type of interpretation is applicable in linguistics and logic, where, "in the opinion Schmidt, we are talking in this case about what is allowed as “interpretations” for this symbol” (ibid.: 40).

interpretation (Gurenko, 1982). E.V. Volkova speaks about the existence within the framework of art of artistic, scientific and spectator interpretations (in this case, the artistic one indicates the degree of mastery of the work and its assessment by the artist-interpreter, the scientific one is manifested in the judgments of the scientist and critic about the work, the spectator one represents the assessment and understanding of the work by the public) (Volkova , 1979).

I.D. Kuznetsova, again turning exclusively to the sphere of art, distinguishes two types of interpretation: non-productive (consumer interpretation of viewers, listeners, etc.) and artistic (performers) (Kuznetsova, 1980).

All these classifications have something in common. All of them reveal the productive and creative moment of artistic interpretation, as a result of which new value is created.

Any artistic activity is not possible without interpretation.

interpretation, which, according to Steiner, "gives language a life beyond the time and place of immediate utterance and writing"

(Steiner, 1992: 28). V.Z. Demyankov notes that interpretation is “not so much the “art of consideration” as the art of “construction”; so, in the words of S. Fish, “interpreters do not decode poems:

they create them” (Demyankov, 1989, a: 51). The author also quotes W.

Eco, according to whom, “a text is “a machine for producing possible worlds, each of which consists of a plot, characters involved in the plot, and a reader standing outside the plot” (ibid.: 51). M.Yu Lotman noted that the text is an independent universe that does not express the ideas embedded in it, but generates and includes them. (Lotman, 1996). The role of the interpreter, the influence he has on the process and result of interpretation is great. Since the thesis that “the process of perception and processing of information is built on past experience” (Kolodina, 2004), is recognized by all researchers, and therefore, completely identical perception and interpretation of the same text by different interpreters is impossible. The basis for differences in interpretations is, firstly, the ability of signs to have multiple meanings, and, secondly, differences in worldviews and personal qualities of the author of the text and its interpreters.

In connection with the issue of text interpretation, a completely justified question arises: what is primary - the meaning that determines the interpretation, or the interpretation that forms the meaning? At the same time, some researchers take extreme positions: Peirce’s statement about the intersubjectivity of meaning (language meanings do not exist outside of their use) ultimately led to the “death of the author” thesis.

(compensated by the birth of the reader") and to the problem of hyperinterpretation, that is, to the situation when the meaning of the text depends only on the interpreter"

(Usmanova, 2000: 123), J. Engelkamp, ​​believes that “meaning is a fiction, only interpretation as purposeful behavior is real” (cited from: Demyankov, 1989, a: 54). However, as V.Z. rightly notes. Demyankov, if this provision is adopted, it remains unclear how any understanding between people is possible at all. P. Ricoeur called this question the main mystery of humanity, more mysterious than the very existence of the diversity of languages ​​(Ricoeur, 1998: http://belpaese2000.narod.ru/Trad/ricoeur.htm).

Many students associated differences in perception and understanding with the concept of internal form. In particular, W. von Humboldt noted that “to the very act of designating a concept, a special work of the spirit is added, transferring the concept into a certain category of thinking or speech, and the full meaning of the word is determined simultaneously by the conceptual expression and the mentioned modifying designation. But both of these elements lie in completely different spheres” (Humboldt, 1984: 118-119). From this statement arises Humboldt’s antinomy of understanding and misunderstanding, according to which a word acquires its final meaning only in the speech of an individual. The speaker and the listener attach different meanings to the same perceived object. Thus, every act of understanding the speaker is also an act of misunderstanding.

A.A. Potebnya, developing the concept of W. von Humboldt, noted that the process of understanding the speaker by the listener is determined by the internal form: “the internal form of the word pronounced by the speaker gives the latter, gives only the way of developing meanings in it, without assigning limits to his understanding of the word. The word belongs equally to both the speaker and the listener, and therefore its meaning lies not in the fact that it has a specific meaning for the speaker, but in the fact that it is capable of having meaning in general. Only due to the fact that the content of a word is capable of growing, a word can be a means of understanding another” (Potebnya, 1862: 180).

Thus, in accordance with the theory of A.A. Potebny meanings are introduced into the text not only by the speaker, but also by the listener.

understanding between people, it is necessary to take into account the presence of the so-called common cultural memory between the addresser and the addressee, the absence of which makes the text incorporated into it, “enters into certain relationships with the cultural memory (tradition) deposited in the minds of the audience. As a result, the text regains semantic life” (Bazylev, Sorokin, 2000: 10).

The central issue of interpretation becomes the identification of the meaning to be oriented by translators, according to theorists of the interpretive theory of translation, “arises as a result of the synthesis of actualized meanings of words and extralinguistic factors” (Bodrova-Gozhenmos, 2002: 75). In a similar way - as a result of the interaction of “linguistic forms included in its composition and non-verbal moments of the situation”, M.M. defines the concept of the meaning of a statement. Bakhtin (Bakhtin, 2000:

434). Differences in interpretations are explained by the fact that texts have, in addition to linguistic meanings formed as a result of established associations, speech meanings, formative statements and conceptual content" (Bodrova-Gozhenmos, 2002:

76). Thus, “the interpretation of a text is not a simple pairing of semantic signs. Interpretation is also a process of concretization, semantic meanings” (Latyshchev, Semenov, 2003: 84). “The meanings of linguistic signs contain only part of the social experience necessary for a corresponding assessment of everything that the author put into it. Another part of life experience necessary for an adequate interpretation of the text lies in the non-linguistic or partially non-linguistic knowledge, skills and habits of the addressee” (ibid.: 67). “Words, phrases and their combinations in a literary text, forming a semblance of a message, at the same time have a certain fictional worlds similar to the real ones; they build both relationships within the world and analogies with the real world. And since processes in reality are multidimensional and multivalent, then http://www.textology.ru/public/mterpr.html#R2). This feature of vision allows us to interpret the character’s actions based on our own experience.

The instability of associations on the basis of which speech meanings are formed provides the possibility of multiple interpretations. Since interpretation is one of the mandatory stages of translation, especially the translation of literary works, multiplicity becomes a natural attribute of artistic translation associated with the concept of a creative personality. A work of art as a work of art is inexhaustible, and therefore, according to P.M. Toper, the presence of some kind of “absolute translation” is impossible.

One of the consequences of this inexhaustibility is “the possibility of its repeated translations (interpretations)” (ibid.: 44). The translator, as an interpreter, may be fully aware of this multiplicity of interpretations, however, due to linguistic differences, “he is forced to sacrifice the meaning itself, which turns out to be accessible only to him alone.

The translator in this case is like an oracle who knows the truth, but cannot directly express it, so he turns to a symbolic statement...” (Olshansky, 2002: 158). In addition to the impossibility of fully reproducing the meaning in the target language, the difference between the original and the variants, the interpreter of the text “turns to the text based on his own information needs, and strives to find the information that he considers useful for himself” (Latyshchev, Semenov, 2003: 47). As a result, extralinguistic knowledge may develop associations and images that were not intended by the author. The embodiment of the translator's own understanding of the original in the translation leads to a discrepancy between the fields of potential interpretations that arise when reading the original and the translation. In connection with this phenomenon, scientific works have repeatedly mentioned stories about how translators in a chain translated the same work from one language to another until it was translated again into the original language (FL) and about transformations. Many see in these stories evidence of the translators' dishonesty, however, we are inclined to agree that the literary text is inevitable. Moreover, such changes are not always condemned by the original authors. G.G. Márquez claimed that G. Rabasset's English translation of his book was superior to the original (Márquez, 1987). Similar cases are known in other types of performing arts.

Marguerite Long recalls that “Liszt, having once performed his Mephistovals, said to the performer: “Your playing helped me understand what it should be like” (Long, 1981: 82). However, it is worth noting that, despite the emergence of a new understanding by the author of his own work, the author did not need to change his text, since “it already contained the prerequisites for this interpretation, as well as many others; the author's text, as Paul Valery says, is “only a check issued for the talent of the proposed artist” (ibid.: 82). I would like to add that it is important that the translator, as the performer and primary recipient of the text, does not use this check solely in his own interests, devaluing it in the eyes of the reader.

Due to the inevitability of changes in the original in translation, the question of translatability arises. Proponents of the theory of untranslatability, following W. von Humboldt, having put forward the thesis that the language of the people reflects the spirit of the people, and therefore translation is an attempt to achieve the impossible (Humboldt, 1984), point to the impossibility of transferring into the target language (TL) those cases when equality of the communicative effect is impossible due to the differences in cultures and communication habits of speakers of a foreign language and a native language. In particular, W. Quine and B. Whorf deny the possibility of full translation due to the divergence of expressive means of different languages ​​(Quine, 1960; Whorf, 1956). W. Quine also puts forward a hypothesis about the admissibility of interpretations of the original in particularly difficult cases, concluding that translation is uncertain, since the translator as an interpreter, due to the ambiguity of the semantic content, will always interpret and, consequently, translate the text differently.

interpretation of the meaning in a statement seems illogical to us.

Otherwise, any understanding between people would be impossible.

However, the question then arises: if a rational interpretation of meaning is possible, how is it accomplished? In this regard, the approach of N.A. is of particular interest. Fenenko towards a rational interpretation of meaning in translation. Referring to the theorists of the interpretive theory of translation, who claim that the process of perceiving meaning is instantaneous and intuitive, and the meaning of a statement is not equal to the sum of the linguistic meanings of its constituent signs, N.A. Fenenko explains this phenomenon by the fact of the interaction of signs in a statement, during which the meanings of the signs overlap, “strengthening or, conversely, neutralizing each other” (Fenenko, 2001: 92). In this case, the amount of significance of a word in a statement is determined by the amount of duplicated information. In terms of the content of a lexical-semantic variant or an unambiguous word, highlighting “the meaning (asserted), equal to the dictionary definition... and the presupposition (implied), which is usually not included in the dictionary definition, but contains information about the mandatory aspects of the situation denoted by this word” (ibid.:

94), as well as using the technique of explicating seme presuppositions, N.A.

Fenenko considers it possible to implement a rational, and not an intuitive (like the theorists of the interpretive theory of translation) “transition from the original text to the meaning, and from the meaning to the translation text” (ibid.: 104).

Any work of art as a work of art is inexhaustible in breadth (due to an infinite number of interpretations) and in depth (in historical terms, due to the change of generations of interpreters). This multiplicity of interpretations is explained by two main reasons: the ability of signs to have a multiplicity of meanings, which are formed as a result of the overlapping of linguistic meanings (assigned in dictionaries) and speech meanings/presuppositions, as well as differences in worldviews and personal qualities of the author of the text and its interpreters. However, this does not exclude the possibility of a rational approach to interpreting the meaning of the text, while “the freedom of interpretation and personal associations must be restrained by the meaningful program of the original text” (Galeeva, 1997: 40).

Thus, the problem of interpretation of the original text and its relationship with the translation text from the position of adequacy and equivalence, in our opinion, is determined by three main factors: 1) differences in the linguistic structure of the TL and the FL; 2) the potential variability of text interpretations inherent in the content of the text; 3) differences in the personalities of translators and interpreters. These provisions determine the structure of our work: we consider it necessary to devote the next three parts of this chapter to the problem of adequacy and equivalence in translation, the problem of the communicative intention of the author and the communicative intention of the translator.

1.2.2 The concept of adequacy and equivalence of translation. Measures of equivalence and limits of variation in the translation of B.C. Vinogradov, discussing the problem of equivalence, noted that the equivalence of a translation to the original is perceived in translation studies like a doctor’s diagnosis. The translation can be considered equivalent to the original in the mathematical meaning of the word, exactly to the extent that one can consider a “practically healthy patient”, suffering from many diseases, but capable, despite this, of working (Vinogradov, http://lmguistic.ru/index .php?id=86&op=content). A translation can only “infinitely get closer to the original. And no more. Because literary translation has its own creator, its own linguistic material and its own language in a linguistic, literary and social environment that differs from the environment of the original. Literary translation is generated by the original, depends on it, but at the same time has relative independence, since it becomes a fact of the translating language” (ibid.).

M. Halliday, who considered translation studies as a special case of comparative linguistics, noted that the concept of equivalence is central both in translation studies and in comparative “contextual, not related to the use of any grammatical or lexical phenomena, and therefore it cannot be measured . It follows that it is impossible to determine the threshold of equivalence and it is impossible to give a strict definition of this concept” (Quoted from: Komissarov, http://schyuri.narod.ra/traiisltn/koniisar3/01.htm).

relative to the original text. Initially, the term equivalence was used exclusively in relation to machine translation, and its mention in connection with other types of translation was found for the first time in the article by R. Jacobson “On the linguistic aspects of translation” (1959). Yu. Naida proposed using a (“functional equivalent” - later from other authors) in contrast to the “formal equivalent” (Toper, 2000:

In modern translation studies, the term “equivalence” is sometimes used to equate units of language or speech to each other, but not by texts (V.N. Komissarov). In this regard, V. N. Komissarov develops the concept of equivalence levels. In particular, V.N. Komissarov identifies several levels of content plan, namely, the level of linguistic signs, the level of utterance, the level of message structure, the level of description of the situation and the level of the purpose of communication. In the process of translation, it is possible to establish equivalence at any of these levels, while achieving equivalence at a higher level implies achieving equivalence at a lower level, but not vice versa (Komissarov, 1973).

The idea of ​​the presence of different levels of equivalence is also presented in the theory of M. Halliday, who distinguishes several stages in the translation process, each of which corresponds to the selection of an equivalent at various language levels, starting from the level of morphemes. At the same time, at each higher level, a rethinking of this choice occurs. As a result, “there are two stages in the translation process: 1) selection of the most likely equivalent for each category or unit; 2) modification of this choice at the level of a larger unit based on either foreign language data, reflected in this model, as rightly noted by V.I. Komissarov, “equivalence can sometimes be established directly between units of higher levels” (ibid.).

B.C. Vinogradov, 2001; OK. Latyshev, 2003, A.L. Semenov, 2003).

equivalence. B.C. Vinogradov, distinguishing between these terms, says that equivalence is usually “understood as something equivalent, equivalent to something, adequacy - as something completely equal, and identity - as something that has a complete coincidence, similarity with something” (Vinogradov, Internet ).

A.V. Fedorov uses the term “completeness” to evaluate a translation, which “means an exhaustive functional and stylistic correspondence to it” (Fedorov, 1983: 127). In our opinion, the relationship between the concepts of “equivalence” and “adequacy” A, D is presented more clearly and logically. Schweitzer, who connects the concept of equivalence with the final result of translation activity, and the concept of adequacy with “the conditions for the flow of an interlingual communicative act” (Schweitzer, 1988: 95). A translation can be adequate even if there is equivalence between texts at only one of the semiotic levels. Moreover, such cases of adequate translation with partial equivalence are very common in literary translation. * In addition, equivalence and adequacy are relative concepts, depending on the translation school, translation norm and literary tradition. In particular, P.M. Toner refers to an article by Maria Calzada-Perez (1993), in which the author argues that equivalent is a subjective concept, depending solely on the personality of the translator, and therefore “no translation can receive unanimous approval, different translations should not be opposed to each other, “ on the contrary, they should be considered as complementary to each other, for the more often a book is translated, the better it can be understood within the framework of another culture. There is no such thing as a perfect translation, but the translator must try to achieve the goal as far as possible” (Topper, 2000:182).

In connection with the concept of equivalence, the question arises about the limits of variation in translation, which are often determined by translation norms characteristic of a particular historical period.

The methods of translation, as well as the literary tradition, did not remain unchanged. At the same time, the requirements for translation were often in a relationship of contradiction in relation to each other. These are formulated by T. Savory in the form of “paradoxes of translation” (Savory, 1952:

Each era is characterized by its own set of translation tools. How deviations from the author’s text were allowed in dramaturgy (permissible corresponded to modern requirements. For example, “James Howard changed the ending of Romeo and Juliet as follows (1661-1662):

the sleeping pills that the heroine took acted just before the moment when Romeo appeared in the crypt. The lovers were happily united, and the play ended with a wedding. Nahum Tate in his adaptation of King Lear

(1681) saves Cordelia from death and she marries Edgar. These changes, which now seem blasphemous to us, had serious fundamental reasons. The noetics of the drama of classicism introduced the principle of poetic justice as one of the indispensable requirements...” (Anikst, 1960: 602-603)), and the indisputability of the original was not always recognized in the translation. In the Middle Ages, translators considered the text as their property. “They changed at their own discretion not only the language features of the texts, but also their content” (Topper, 2000: 51). During the period of Russian classicism, it was believed that the task of the translator was to provide the reader with a good work, “and questions about what the primary author wanted to give in his work, or about how many people participated in the gradual creation of the work and to what extent their efforts were coordinated ", did not seem significant (Gukovsky, 1928: 144). Karamzin, who opposed alterations and changes to the originals, considered it necessary to preserve the author’s thoughts (Karamzin, 1964: 82). In the 19th century One of the most important trends that dominated the practice of translation was the struggle for “truthfulness”

translation. An artistically correct translation did not imply a mechanical sum of the individual elements of the original, but the reproduction of an ideological and artistic whole, the elements of which perform their specific function in relation to it. A truthful translation required both a departure from the letter of the original and a constant approach to its inner meaning.

At the end of the 19th century. The study of the specifics of language, the discovery of its unique, inimitable structure, the peculiarities of the grammatical structure and vocabulary of each individual language, which distinguishes it from other languages, which has been the focus of linguistics, gives rise to the theory of “untranslatability”. The originality of each language, its national “spirit”

assumed the fundamental impossibility of identity of two texts written in different languages. And since it was believed that the translation should exhaustively reproduce the original, the translation was fundamentally impossible for purely linguistic reasons, not to mention the possibility of reproducing the unique originality of the creative manner of an outstanding writer.

However, we consider statements about fundamental untranslatability to be nothing more than the translator’s capitulation to the problem that has arisen.

The theory of untranslatability is refuted by practice. In this regard, P. Ricoeur noted that “although theoretically translation seems impossible, it is still feasible in practice; however, for this loyalty/infidelity http://belpaese2000.narod.ru/Trad/ricoeur.htm).

L.S. Barkhudarov notes that by means of another language all meanings of linguistic signs can be reproduced, albeit with slight losses (Barkhudarov, 1975: 25-26).

In the modern understanding, the impossibility of accurately reproducing the original in the target language, as well as its social necessity, lead to the understanding of “literary translation as forced by necessity” (Toper, 2000: 35).

The impossibility of achieving complete, formal equivalence in translation. Depending on what is meant by the defining principle, literary translation in most cases fluctuates between two extreme principles: a word-for-word accurate, but artistically inferior translation, and an artistically complete, but far from the original, free translation. These two principles are reflected in two main points of view: linguistic and literary.

In general, in modern translation studies, the defining principle of text equivalence is traditionally considered to be pragmatic or commercial-functional equivalence, which lies in the original and translated texts. In particular, L.K. Latyshev and A.L. Semenov believe that the translation text can be considered equivalent to the requirements:

The source text (IS) and the target text (TT) have “(relatively) equal communicative and functional properties”;

equivalence);

- “with all compensating deviations between IT and PT,” “semantic-structural discrepancies” do not arise (Latyshev, 2003: 57).

In this case, the equality of the communicative-functional properties of the translation and original texts is fundamental. V.N. Komissarov, in his theory of equivalence levels, considers the level of communication goal to be the highest level of equivalence (Komissarov, 1973).

communicative-functional equivalence does not take into account the personality of the translator and his influence on the non-translation text. It is believed that “ideally, the translator himself should not introduce into the text of the message an element of his own perception, different from the perception of this message by the recipient to whom it was addressed” (Vinogradov, Internet).

However, the translator's perception cannot be equal to the perception of any of the readers due to personal, cultural and social reasons.

The position about the inexhaustibility of meanings in a literary text, and also about the subjectivity of translation interpretation, raises the question of the existence of limits of variation in translation. If understanding a text is always subjective, then on what basis can one judge the equality of the communicative effect produced by a work of art? The fact is that “the text is a place where the irreducible polysemy of meanings is essentially reduced, since in the text the symbols are tied to the context)^) (Usmanova, 2000: 31). According to U. Eco, syntagmatically, or textually, are open only to vague, but not endless interpretations allowed by the context" (Usmanova, 2000:

31-32). In addition, in individual mental spaces there are some “common zones,” which is explained by the presence in the “conceptual system of a linguistic personality of a body of everyday knowledge about objects and phenomena of the world” (Fesenko, 2001: 45). “Invariance, universality of basic meanings and ideas guarantees invariance of understanding” (Galeeva, 1997, p. 16).

Despite the potential diversity of interpretations, we can talk about the presence of boundaries of interpretation, i.e. about the existence of “uniformity” of interpretations, which is explained by the unity of the material world, namely the unity of the object of interpretation, as well as uniformity “in the structure and mechanism of spiritual instruments”

(Demyankov, 1989, a: 111), which include global knowledge, local knowledge and interpretation strategies.

Thus, despite the fact that in literary translation we can only talk about the relative equivalence of the original texts and extralinguistic factors, in our opinion, there is a limit to the interpretation of the meanings of signs by the context, as well as the presence in the minds of the author, translator and potential readers of the text of some general, universal fund of knowledge about objects and phenomena of the surrounding world.

1.2.3 Semantic stratification in a literary text In a literary text, the concept of content is much more intense, the ability to influence not only the mind, but also the feelings of the reader. K. Raie classifies fiction as “texts in which the main thing is form,” because in it, what is more important is not the informative content (what is said), but the way of speaking (the way it is said) (cited from: Toper, 2000: 153).

A.V. Fedorov talks about the semantic capacity of works of art, calling this quality one of the distinctive features of fiction (Fedorov 1983). Yu.A. Sorokin notes that art has diplastic and, therefore, multidimensional integrity” (Sorokin, 2003: 38). ON THE. Rubakin, the founder of bibliopsychology, pointed to the subject who perceives the book. Reading, according to N.A. Rubakin, the creative process, a deeper understanding of the literary text is possible by acting as a reader (Rubakin, 1977).

subjectivity, dependence of the content of the text on the reader who perceives it. At the same time, the source of subjectivity of perception is both the reader and the text itself. In order to determine what exactly in the content of the text determines the variability of interpretations, we consider it necessary to turn to the problem of semantic stratification of the content of the text.

Today, no one has any objection to the statement that “the direct object of translation activity is not the text itself, as an ordered set of linguistic units, but its meaning, which, as we know, is not equal to the totality of the meanings of these units”

(Chernyakhovskaya, 1988: 17). According to V.N. Komissarov, “the content of the text is determined by how it is interpreted by the communicants (understood by them), i.e. what information they associate with this text (extract from it) based on their linguistic and cognitive knowledge, as well as the conditions of the act of communication. Therefore, the equivalence of the content of two texts implies a commonality of their understanding, i.e. a certain degree of generality of information (information, communicated thoughts) that can be extracted from each text by persons who speak the language in which the text is written” (Komissarov, 1988: 7). V.P. Komissarov notes that the semantic structure of the text is a complex information complex, “which is identical only to itself” (ibid.: 7). Global content contains two semantic layers: linguistic content (“superficial”, verbal content, depending entirely on a set of linguistic means) and specific contextual meaning (specification of content in the context of the utterance). However, the linguistic content of an utterance has the ability to convey additional meaning implicitly associated with it. This is explained by the fact that language means are “carriers of the “bricks of meaning”, and in each utterance they are selected and organized in such a way that, by interpreting their meanings in relation to each other and the reality they denote, other communicants who have the necessary linguistic and background knowledge can to extract the transmitted information from the utterance.

This information cannot be reduced to a simple sum of the “bricks of meaning” that make up the utterance” (ibid.: 9).

It is worth especially noting that the semantic and structural elements of the text are perceived differently by the recipient. Some of them are recorded by consciousness, others pass by unnoticed. OK. Latyshev and A.L. Semenov refers to the content of the text only those elements of its semantics and structure that are “fixed by the recipient of the text and are directly involved in the formation of the communicative effect”

(Latppev, Semenov, 2003: 77). According to the authors of this definition of the content of the text, this approach will allow us to separate what is subject to translation and what does not need to be translated. At the same time, the content of the text is not reduced to one plot, but includes such text elements as rhyme, rhythm, alliteration, etc. In addition, the authors clarify that the same element of the text, depending on the situation, may or may not relate to the content of the text. Thus, content is a variable quantity, consisting of heterogeneous elements of the text.

In accordance with the relationships that a sign enters into with denotation, signification, other signs of an utterance and other signs of the language system (outside the framework of the utterance), L.K. Latppev and A.L. Semenov distinguishes the following types of content: denotative, significative, content at the interpreter level, intralingual content and structural content.

In this case, denotative content means only an explicitly expressed, non-interpretable meaning, reflecting the objective properties of the objects and phenomena designated by the sign.

Significant content is always subjective. Since “the connection between an image and what is reflected is not a connection between two objects (systems, sets) standing in an identical relationship to each other, their relationship reproduces the polarization of any life process, at one pole there is an active (“biased”) subject, at the other an indifferent” object to the subject” (Leontyev, 1975: 55), denotative content can be represented from the side of the object, and significative content from the side of the subject. Thus, the significative meaning “includes, in addition to the objective properties of the denotation, a whole series of meaningful ones that indicate the subject’s biased attitude towards the object (Latyshev, Semenov, 2003:80).

the tendency of people to speak in hints. For an adequate interpretation of the text, there is a lack of information in the semantic part of its content. The largest share of content at the interpreter level is typical for poetic texts.

Intralingual content is intertwined with other types of content. As an example, the authors cite a poem by G. Heine, in F.tfiiOpoM the intralingual content is created by the opposition of two genders, feminine and masculine (der Fichtenbaum - die Palme) and affects the reader through the content at the level of the interpreter.

OK. Latppev and A.L. Semyonov, i.e. what is to be reproduced in translation) can lead to a significant distortion of the artistic idea of ​​the work. This is confirmed by the often cited example of the translation of M.Yu. Lermontov of the already mentioned poem by M.Yu. Lermontov’s “Pine” and comparing it with the original, pointed out that male unsatisfied love for a distant, and therefore inaccessible woman” turns “strong male love into beautiful-souled dreams” (Shcherba, 1957: 99).

implementation of emotional and aesthetic impact on the reader. Structural content includes rhythm, repetition, parallelism, poetic meter, etc.

The share of participation of various elements of text content in achieving a communicative effect is not the same. As extreme indicators of the significance of elements in the text, the authors identify the functional dominant of the content - the meaningful element of the text necessary to achieve a given communicative effect, and “empty elements”

text that does not affect the perception and understanding of the content.

Thus, as follows from the theory of L.K. Latyshev and A.L. Semenov, the variability of interpretations inherent in the content of the text is explained by the ability of linguistic units to have not only denotative, but also significative, intralingual, structural content and content at the level of the interpreter.

Another approach to stratification of content in a text is offered by the theory of I.R. Galperin, who considered text as the main unit of communication and considered the concept of information as applied to the language code. He identified and described in detail three types of information in the text (Galperin, 1981):

SFI develops linearly and unfolds the content of the work, constituting its material basis. All the means that form the SFI, the inexperienced reader is often limited to removing only this information layer lying on the surface, which impoverishes and distorts the true meaning of the work, because Despite all the extensiveness and clarity of the SFI, despite the fact that it is in this nlast that the development of the plot and, therefore, the reader’s attention is concentrated, the SFI is not a goal, but a means of forming a deeper nlast - SKI. If there is a parallel between the theory of I.R. Galnerin and the approach to content stratification by L.K. Latyshev and A.L. Semenov, it can be noted that the SFI, in general, is formed on the basis of denotative content.

Regardless of the plot of the work developed within the framework of SFI, the author always subordinates it to the expression of the main artistic idea of ​​the work, for the embodiment of which it exists. Collapsing the SFI will lead to the formulation of the theme of the work, collapsing the SFI will lead to its ideas.

In relation to fiction, we can say that there are works without a plot, without an easily identified theme, but there are no works without a concept. According to I.R. Galperin, the basis of the creative process is the embodiment by artistic means of a social, moral, aesthetic idea - a concept. Therefore, the necessarily presence of a concept - the conceptuality of a literary text - can be considered its fundamental category. It is worth noting that the understanding of I.R. Galperin’s term “concept” of a work corresponds to the concept of an artistic idea, the dynamics of development of which in the performing arts we examined in the first chapter. The concept of the work is formed gradually. Everything that is introduced into the text and functions in it, including other text categories, serves one purpose - the formation of a concept.

A. Mol noted that the effect that a work of art has on a person is based on the fact that it always conveys to the recipient a certain excess of information, an excess of originality, which creates the impression of “perceptual richness” of the work of art (Mol, 1973: 158). ON THE. Zmievskaya suggests that this “excess of originality” can arise in a literary text due to “an aesthetically complex form, many facets of which may remain unnoticed upon first reading, and will have an impact on the recipient upon repeated readings” (Zmievskaya, 1986: 23). At the same time, the complexity of the form of a literary text means the use of linguistic units not only in their direct dictionary meanings, but also their acquisition of figurative, associative and other meanings, the emergence of implications and ambiguity.

SKI is sensitive to any manifestation of linguistic form, that is, all additional meanings and meanings that arise as a result of a special combination of linguistic means in a literary text contribute to the formation of SKI. There is a hierarchy of interaction between different segments of information that can arise at different levels of a literary text. In general, it can be presented as follows: the lowest level of this hierarchical informative structure of the text includes SFI segments. Segments of information at a higher level of structure are formed from various additional meanings, meanings and shades of meaning of linguistic forms in the text, which at the next higher level will form such semantic categories as modality, implication or subtext, functioning as an informative structure of the text represented by the SCI. Of course, elements of a higher level, as in any structure, are not a mechanical sum of elements of a lower level. Thus, ultimately, SKI is the result of taking into account and rethinking all segments of information in a literary text.

SKI is not always expressed verbally, and its understanding often requires special analysis. In addition, different segments of information may have varying degrees of influence on the process of implementation of the SKI, so the SKI turns out to be more or less clearly defined and outlined.

“The most “defined” in this sense are usually the segments of information conveyed by the so-called actualized elements of the linguistic form, in particular various kinds of stylistic devices that are implemented in large sections of text or in the macrotext of the entire work (distant and end-to-end repetitions, extended metaphors and comparisons, powerful convergence of techniques)"

(Zmievskaya, 1986: 25). This article deals with structural content in the terminology of L.K. Latyshev and A.L. Semenova.. It is the information transmitted by such linguistic means in the text that easily forms the modality and subtext that directly represent the SKI of a literary text, and either partially forms part of it or largely determines its interpretation. In the presence of a “through” technique in the text, the interpretation of the SCS is usually facilitated, since it is fundamental in the formation of the SCS.

SEN is that type of information in a literary text that is “capable of expansion and updating with each new, repeated perception of the text. This ability is realized precisely due to the reserve of redundancy” (Zmievskaya, 1986: 24). If the SFI is unambiguous and unchanging, then expansion and updating makes this type of information the most valuable in a literary text; the actual perception of a literary text is aimed at revealing precisely this type of information” (ibid.: 24).

SCI develops gradually and irregularly. Some fragments of the text provide more for its formation, are conceptually important, C1SI here can come to the surface - for example, in the form of open declarations by the author, as was often the case in the prose of the last century;

others, on the contrary, act as a multi-page illustration to one of the author’s provisions. Thus, it is possible to identify different ways of interaction between SFI and SCI and different degrees of explicit expression of the latter. In this regard, a third informative layer is identified - implicit, subtextual (ISP).

The SFI is an invisible text expressed between the lines, extracted from the SFI through analysis. SPI is formed on the basis of significative and intralingual content, as well as content at the interpreter level. This information is created on the basis of the hidden associative thinking of the author and the interpreter, as well as thanks to the ability of text units to add meaning in interaction with each other. Subtext expands the possibilities of the text, making it voluminous.

SPI is always implicit and is not present in all genres. It is contained to a lesser extent in scientific texts, where the content must be expressed with utmost precision, excluding any ambiguity, and to a greater extent in fiction and noesy.

I.R. Halperin notes that the basis of subtext is a person’s ability to simultaneously perceive reality on several levels at once. It is this ability of our thinking that determines the essence of the aesthetic perception of a work of art, expressed through language (Galperin, 1981).

It should be especially emphasized that the subtext is realized in the context of the whole work or significant sections of it, linking together the various threads of the narrative. SPI together with SFI are components of SCI. Consequently, insufficiently complete or deep perception of the entirety of subtextual information can lead to an incomplete, inaccurate and inadequate understanding of the entire text.

To avoid this, it is necessary to imagine on what basis the subtext arises. Obviously, one of such mechanisms for the emergence of subtext is implication - an integral part of the semantic structure of the statement. It is often difficult to make a clear distinction between subtext and implication: they are closely related to each other in the text.

However, implication is also a means of creating subtext.

seems possible, since the status of subtext and implication in language is different. If the implication “is realized in a microcontext and reflects the setting of a specific communicative act, act or action,” then the subtext is realized in a macrotext” (Mzfavyeva, 1986: 142).

Implication is understood as an “additional” implied meaning that arises in the microcontext and follows from the relationship of juxtaposed text units” (Arnold, 1983: 5). “The implication is not given directly to communicators, who will form this additional meaning in different ways, and sometimes interpret it differently and even sometimes not be aware of it at all. The textual implication is located at a significant semantic “depth”, and its perception requires not linguistic knowledge, but analytical perception, emotional sensitivity and artistic flair” (Komissarov, 1988: 12).

message. Often, the correct interpretation of the implication contributes to the events or phenomena being described, especially in cases where the text does not contain “open” comments on the events by the author. “The role of implication in some works is so great that the entire work is built on subtext, and contextual information is almost entirely based on subtextual information”

(Muravyova 1986: 143).

Thus, the variability of interpretation is due not only to the difference in the readers who perceive the text, but also to the content of the text.

The multi-layered semantic structure of the text, which includes, in addition to SFI, based on the denotative meaning of language units, SKI and SPI, arises due to the ability of language units to increase meanings in interaction with each other." As a result of such interaction, "the text turns out to be a bottomless funnel, drawing in not layers from the fund of cultural memory limited neither in volume nor in their original properties"

(Gasparov, 1996: 334). And, accordingly, each reader will draw information from this “funnel” in volume and quality, depending on his reflective abilities, emotional sensitivity and artistic flair. But even these qualities may not be enough for the correct identification of implicit meanings. This also requires sufficient background knowledge. Background knowledge acquires particular importance during the interaction of cultures, a special case of which is translation. ON THE. Fenenko and A.A. Kretov suggests, by analogy with the term “textual implication” (I.V. Arnold, V.N. Komissarov), to call implications, the understanding of which is carried out not only on the basis of textual information, but also background knowledge, “cultural implications” (Kretov, Fenenko, 2002).

The significance of the problem of transmitting cultural implications is explained by the fact that “it is directly related to the main task of translation - to open, with the help of the PT text, the connection between one’s culture and someone else’s, to enrich one’s culture through someone else’s (“one’s own” through “another’s”) (Kretov, Fenenko, 2002: 136).

In addition, since the reader’s understanding of the text depends, among other things, on his ability to express implicative meanings, including those formed on the basis of background information, we consider it necessary to consider the concept of background information in more detail.

1.2.3.2 Background information in the literary translation by E.M. Vereshchagin and V.G. Kostomarov define background knowledge as “knowledge common to participants in a communicative act” (Vereshchagin, Kostomarov, 1973: 126). In other words, background information is information known to both the sender and the recipient, which ensures their mutual understanding when communicating. Stating the heterogeneity of background knowledge, E.M. Vereshchagin and V.G. Kostomarov distinguishes three types of background knowledge, classifying them according to their degree of prevalence:

general human background knowledge, regional and regional studies.

In addition to these three main categories, one can also distinguish social knowledge characteristic of certain social communities.

However, when considering the difficulties that arise in the translation process, it seems more logical to pay special attention to the analysis of regional background knowledge. According to E.M. Vereshchagin and V.G.

Kostomarov, regional knowledge is “that information that is available to all members of a certain ethnic and linguistic community” (ibid.: 126). It must be remembered that background knowledge is not “something established once and for all”; over time, some of it may be lost, but basically it has a “tendency to constant expansion” (Feienko, 2001: 48). In connection with this situation, E.M. Vereshchagin and V.G. Kostomarov distinguishes between “actual background knowledge and background knowledge of cultural heritage” (Vereshchagin, Kostomarov, 1973: 134).

In addition, the authors point to the presence of so-called “weighted background knowledge” - that part of regional background knowledge that is most widespread within a given ethnic group and nationality. The importance of balanced regional geographic background knowledge is explained by the fact that they are found in the works of writers and journalists who, focusing on some average reader, constantly appeal to them.

(Vinogradov, 1978). The author also emphasizes the need to distinguish between “individual and social knowledge” (ibid.: 86), in contrast to E.M. Vereshchagin and V.G. Kostomarov, who classify as background knowledge any knowledge “worth at least for two persons” (Vereshchagin, Kostomarov, 1973: 170), B.C. Vinogradov draws attention to the coincidence in the theory of E.M. Vereshchagin and V.G. Kostomarov concepts of background knowledge and thesaurus, which is a unique part of culture, varieties of thesaurus: global, international, regional, national, group and individual. And only that volume of national thesauri is the property of a certain national community, in contrast to other national communities, should, according to B.C. Vinogradov, call it background knowledge.

Additionally, B.C. Vinogradov suggests using the term “background information,” which is a narrower concept in relation to the concept of background knowledge. “Background information is sociocultural information characteristic only of a certain nation and nationality, mastered by the mass of their representatives and reflected in the language of a given national community” (Vinogradov, 1978: 87).

The role of background information in relation to translation problems, its role, especially in the translation of fiction, is very significant.

The translator, as a mediator of communication, must not only be proficient in two languages, but also in two languages ​​(1e traducteur, bilingue, est aussi bi-culturel) (Lederer, 1994: 123). With the help of a translator, the reader can quickly replenish his information baggage with new, previously missing knowledge" (Fenenko, 2001:49).

Differences in the background information of two cultures, in particular the culture of the original and the translation, can lead to the appearance of gaps in the translation text. V.N. Komissarov understands a lacuna as “a certain fragment of text in which there is something incomprehensible, strange, erroneous (something that can be assessed on the scales “incomprehensible\clear”, “unusual\usual”, “unfamiliar\familiar”, “erroneous\true” ( Komissarov, 1988: 77).The meaning of the lacuna is specified in the works of Yu.A. Sorokin and I.Yu. Markovina (Markovina, Sorokin, 1988), who give the lacuna the following definition:

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Communicative intent may be revealed in the choice of word, grammatical form, or type of syntactic construction. The wrong choice of word or grammatical structure can misrepresent the intention of the speaker or writer and lead to communication failure (see below). Intention is realized through the intent of speech, while the communicative intention can be hidden or implicit. The communicative goal is the general orientation of the participants in communication to transmit information and understand the meaning of the message. The purpose of speech is the image of its result. The goals of speech must be correlated with the goals and nature of communication, the characteristics of the information presented, and the methods of its presentation. The initial communicative intention and the final intention may not coincide for various reasons. For example, due to limitations in the use of linguistic means to express all shades of meaning, or due to a discrepancy between the knowledge and experience of the interlocutors. The purpose of speech is part of the speech intent and is formed on the basis of communicative intention as a tool for its implementation. The result of the speech is determined by the achievement or failure to achieve the goal. I just can’t forget your “call” thrown to me from the step of the tram. For a stranger, such a “call” is permission to continue acquaintance. For me, who knows you, this “call” is just “goodbye,” and “goodbye,” unfortunately, does not hint at any date. If you said “call”, it would be not only your permission, but also your desire. Two letters. What's the difference. “Call” is not said on the first day of dating. (A. Rybakov. Fear).

The main cases of discrepancy between the goal and the result of speech are as follows:

The addressee incorrectly determined the communicative purpose of the heard statement;

The addressee has correctly identified the goal, but cannot or does not want to respond in accordance with the addresser's intention;

The statement has an unplanned side effect on the addressee.

The effectiveness of speech is assessed not only by achieving the goal, but also by what means it was achieved.

So, three questions when analyzing the speech of our interlocutor will help us correctly evaluate the statement: What did the speaker want to say? What did he really say? What did you say unintentionally?

There are oral and written forms of communication.

http://studopedia.ru/7_2832_kommunikativnoe-namerenie.html

Communicative intention

Communicative intention

The concept of communicative intention

Intention (from Latin intentio - desire) is an intention, goal, direction or orientation of consciousness, will, feeling towards any object.

Communicative intention is the intention to carry out a speech act to solve a communicative task.

Illocution is one of the components of a speech act, the performance of an action through speech: motivation (request, order), question, doubt, statement, promise. (Big Encyclopedic Dictionary)

Locution is one of the components of a speech act - one’s own speaking, characterized by diction, speed of speech, its correctness, etc., without taking into account the intentions of the speaker and the effect achieved. (Big Encyclopedic Dictionary)

Perlocution is one of the components of a speech act, the effect achieved as a result of illocution. (Big Encyclopedic Dictionary)

E. Koschmider correlates intention as “the conceivable, contained in thought” with the signified, thus contrasting it with the designator. O.S. Akhmanova gives a definition according to which intention is understood as the potential or virtual content of a statement. In this definition, intention is contrasted with actual or expressed content.

In the psychology of speech, intention is understood as the first stage of generating a statement (A.A. Leontiev, A.M. Shakhnarovich). It is followed by motive, internal pronunciation and implementation.

Communicative intention (communicative intention) correlates with the expression of various intentional states of consciousness and, as a result, paradoxically covers a wider range of phenomena than the expression of intention (intention) in the psychological sense - as one of such intentional states. Thus, J. Searle, following the philosophical tradition, understands by intentional states a wide range of mental states associated with the turning of consciousness outward, and not towards oneself. J. Searle distinguishes between intention and intentionality, noting: “the intention to do something is only one of the forms of intentionality, along with faith, hope, fear, desire, etc.” J. Searle implements this distinction in his classification of illocutionary acts: “Intention unites promises, oaths, threats and guarantees. Desire or need covers requests, orders, commands, entreaties, intercessions, petitions and entreaties.” However, all the corresponding verbs, such as promise, swear, threaten, vouch, and ask, order, intercede, etc. can, along with the designation of a speech act, name the communicative intention of the speaker.

To name intentions, not only verbs (primarily verbs of speech actions) can be used, but also nouns expressing identification, objection, greeting, time, refusal, attempt, coercion, offer, etc.

A syllogism is a special form of inference from the general to the particular. A syllogism is a conclusion following from two premises containing statements about the relationship between the volumes of two classes or about the belonging of a certain element to a certain class. (Big Encyclopedic Dictionary)

Based on the generalization of “elementary” intentions realized in individual speech acts, it is possible to identify generalized system-linguistic intentional formations - intentional fields. These intentional fields combine the means used by language to express a certain intention. It is also said about the intentionality or non-intentionality of structural grammatical means of language in the sense of their participation or non-participation in the implementation of the speaker’s intentions (A.V. Bondarko).

These studies, in addition to the theory of speech acts, are also based on an earlier Russian tradition - the teaching of V.V. Vinogradov on the image of the author and the teaching of K.A. Sünneberg on oratorical intention. The first emphasizes the relationship between the target setting and the content of the text with the linguistic means used to express thoughts (V.V. Odintsov). The second offers a detailed classification of “types of speech” with an emphasis on the speaker’s intention in order of increasing intensity of the volitional principle (L.K. Graudina).

Communicative intention (speech intention) is the speaker’s intention to express a certain communicatively significant meaning using speech means, that is, to carry out a speech act to solve a communicative task. (Linguistic encyclopedic dictionary)

A communicative task arises during joint speech activity, when it is necessary to transmit or receive information. Its solution is possible both by speech (verbal) and non-speech (non-verbal) actions. (Linguistic encyclopedic dictionary)

The communicative task is implemented in four main areas of communication:

4. Professional and educational-professional (educational and scientific, sphere of major disciplines).

Communicative intention, intention not only determines the role of interlocutors as direct participants in the act of communication, but also acts as a kind of regulator of the verbal behavior of partners.

http://vuzlit.ru/927033/kommunikativnaya_intentsiya

desire to enter into communication with another person.

TO psychological structural components act of speech communication, one should first of all include the communicative intention, plan and goal, that is, the motivational component that determines what, why and why the author of the statement wants to say, as well as the understanding of the message, that is, the cognitive component.

Communicative intent(or communicative intention) is the desire to enter into communication with another person. Thus, the intention to have dinner and the intention to invite someone to have dinner together differ in the absence or presence of communicative intention.

Message intent- this is information in its original form that one partner intends to convey to the other, the deep level of generating a message, at which there is only a vague draft of the upcoming utterance.

In verbal communication there are usually two types: goals, which the speaker may be pursuing - nearest target, that is, directly expressed by the speaker, and more distant, long-term. The main types of immediate goals of communication are:

• intellectual goal: obtaining information, including evaluation information; clarification of positions; opinion support; theme development; clarification; criticism;
• goal related to establishing the nature of the relationship: development or cessation of communication, support or rejection of a partner; encouragement to action.

Behind immediate goals there is often a target subtext that deepens and complicates communication. For example, a person carrying on a conversation that is not very interesting to him may be pursuing a long-term goal of establishing a good relationship with his interlocutor. A request to clarify what was said when discussing an issue in a group may have the immediate goal of actually obtaining information (with subsequent support or criticism of the expressed opinion), and the distant goal may be the intention to declare oneself, to assert one’s status. An appeal to a child: “Help mommy prepare dinner” can act as an incentive to action in this particular situation and at the same time as an educational influence aimed at developing the readiness and ability to interact with other people, the ability to give in, to subordinate one’s interests to the interests of others, etc.

Although people often more or less carefully hide or disguise their distant goals, they can be revealed by the general nature of the conversation, by the involuntary (verbal or nonverbal) manifestations of the speaker.

Understanding the message consists in the recipient’s interpretation of the received message. If there is a significant similarity in the partners’ images of the world, the deciphered information will be close to that which constituted the intent of the message - the message will be correctly understood. If the partners’ images of the world are very different, understanding will be difficult.

TO social-role structural The components of speech communication should include the status and situational roles of the participants in communication, as well as the stylistic techniques they use.

The concept of “status role” indicates the behavior prescribed to a person by his social (age, gender, official, etc.) position or status. At the beginning of a specific communicative act, its participants are required to understand their own social role and the role of their partner. This is necessary in order to navigate the situation and choose the appropriate manner of speech behavior. It is no coincidence that when introducing strangers to each other, they name one of the main social roles (for example, “meet Volodya, my classmate”), the rest are identified by the person’s appearance or are assumed to accompany the named role.

In the course of communication, they can be highlighted and situational roles speakers, significantly influencing the nature of communication. Among them:

• a leader who seeks to lead the conversation and control its course;
• “mediator”, monitoring the general course of the conversation, balancing the interests of various people;
• “a capricious child” who violates any prohibitions and expresses independent judgments;
• “flexible person”, ready to adapt to different situations, etc.

Style characteristics communication participants are manifested in the peculiarities of the communicants’ speech style, in the communication strategies and tactics they use. Styles can be ranked according to the degree to which speakers pay attention to their speech. A monosyllabic speaker is one who enters into verbal communication, paying minimal attention to the choice of linguistic means; in different situations and with different partners he is not able to show linguistic flexibility. A person with a high level of linguistic competence, on the one hand, strives to maintain his stylistic appearance in different communicative spheres, and on the other hand, he is able to perform various speech roles and use a diverse speech repertoire depending on the circumstances of communication. Listening styles can also be placed between two extreme positions: from the ability (desire) to the inability (unwillingness) to hear.

In addition to the individual characteristics of speakers and listeners, the choice of style of speech behavior depends on the social context. The appeal to official or poetic, scientific or everyday, business or journalistic speech is determined by the role situation.

Communicative intent (intention) is the desire to achieve one or another communication result. In a lesson situation (and a lesson, as is known, is the main unit of the educational process), the teacher as a leader, organizer of communication creates statements with different intentions, the nature of which is shown in Table. 3.

Table 3. Intentions of the teacher’s professional speech in a lesson situation

Lesson stage	Type of teacher statements	Intention
Organization of educational activities	Organizational monologue Teacher's opening speech	By arousing schoolchildren’s interest in the topic, include each student in the learning process, in the process of studying this material
Checking homework		Ensure the continuity of the cognitive process as a whole (in particular, the connection between the previous lesson and the next one)
Explanation of new material	Explanatory monologue, remarks in explanatory dialogue	Ensure that students learn new material. To develop interest in the topic being studied and in educational activities
Formation of skills and abilities	Formulation of questions, assignments, detailed assessments	Develop interest in the topic being studied and educational activities
Summing up the lesson	Final monologue	Provide the recipient with a feeling of completion of the work stage, the integrity of the educational process

Are Are all types of statements listed in the table and all intentions rhetorical? Let's consider an example - an introductory speech by a biology teacher to a lesson on the topic “Sharks”.

“Sharks. The negative impact on nature, in particular the pollution of the world's oceans and the mass extermination of sharks, has brought this group of animals to the brink of extinction. The ways to restore numbers are known - this includes the creation of marine reserves, reduction of trade and fishing routes, a ban on hunting, reduction of emissions into the ocean, etc. But the most important thing is a change in anthropocentric views of the nature of people. This process is already underway, but its speed should increase tenfold. With the disappearance of each species, the hour “X” approaches, followed by a global environmental catastrophe.

Each species of animal is unique and is an “unsolved book of secrets”, for example: the white shark has the strongest immunity, doctors have learned to use shark liver oil, which increases human defenses, prevents the formation of cancerous tumors, and helps fight viral infections. And this is only one of the solved mysteries, how much more do all living organisms have left.

By reconsidering his attitude towards nature, a person must determine his role on this planet. In my opinion, this is the role of a protector and savior, not only of living organisms, but also of the planet as a whole. Only man is capable of transforming nature with the power of his mind and his hands, creating his creations. We must learn from her so that the work of human hands has the same degree of perfection as the creation of nature itself. An example of such perfection is the shark.” (Based on materials from I.G. Selezneva. Festival of pedagogical ideas “Open ypoK”//http:// festival. 1 september.ru/authors).

The author of the text strives to arouse schoolchildren’s interest in the topic being studied by selecting interesting facts (the unique properties of the shark as a biological organism), using assessment tools (“hour “X”,” “catastrophe,” “protector and savior”). The ecological orientation of the word is obvious (the problems of extinction of species and human responsibility for their conservation are raised). The teacher directly states his position (“in my opinion”), which gives the text a social resonance and reflects the teacher’s sense of his own mission. At the same time, the text is oversaturated with terms, there are contradictions in it (“the most important thing is a change in anthropocentric views on the nature of people” // “only man is capable of transforming nature with the power of his mind and his hands, creating his creations”), and there is almost nothing in the text means of rhetorical influence on schoolchildren were used. We will show how this speech work can be transformed by using special means and techniques.

Sharks. This word evokes associations with attack, jaws, and the death of people. But are sharks really that dangerous to humans? Many experts believe that this danger is greatly exaggerated. It is estimated that a person's chance of being attacked by a shark is 1 in 11 million. Just think about it: 1 in 11,000,000 (repetition and appeal to the audience). But humans turned out to be much more dangerous for sharks (contrast technique). Why? The scientists' answer is quite specific. Pollution of the world's oceans and the mass extermination of sharks have brought them to the brink of extinction (question-and-answer course). With the disappearance of each species, the hour “X” approaches, followed by a global environmental catastrophe.

The shark is one of nature's perfect and unique creatures. We can call it “the unsolved book of secrets.” Why? The shark's body is full of secrets that have not yet been solved by man. For example: the white shark has the strongest immunity. One that a person can only dream of (analogy). Doctors have learned to use shark liver oil, which increases human defenses, prevents the formation of cancerous tumors, and helps fight viral infections. And this is only one of the solved mysteries, and how many more remain.

Is it possible to restore shark numbers? Can. And this will not lead to them becoming dangerous at all. (question-and-answer course).

The ways to restore numbers are known - firstly, the creation of marine reserves. Secondly, a ban on shark hunting. Thirdly, reducing emissions into the ocean (clear division of the semantic components of the text).

Reviewing his attitude towards nature, a person must determine for himself what his role is on this planet. In my opinion, this is the role of protector and savior. And not only living organisms, but also the planet as a whole (parcelation). Only man is capable of transforming nature with the power of his mind and his hands, creating his creations. We must learn from her so that the work of human hands has the same degree of perfection as the creation of nature itself. An example of such perfection is the shark.

Thus, even if traditionally some types of statements and corresponding intentions are not interpreted by the teacher as rhetorical, they can be rhetorical. To do this, another intention must be present in the teacher’s speech behavior - to influence the emotional-volitional sphere of the addressee-student: to motivate imitation of the teacher’s activities (to become a model in speech), to infect him with interest in the subject, educational activity, to instill in him the idea of ​​​​the possibility of learning all the secrets academic subject (and for this to show that when studying mathematics, biology, native language, history and other subjects, secrets are revealed).

The teacher's intentions are characterized by complexity. This is due to four factors. Firstly, by solving a complex problem in communicating with students: to teach and educate. Secondly, the need to constantly evaluate the results of students’ activities. Thirdly, the emergence of situational intentions: to make a remark; focus on the work of individual students; thank you, etc. Fourthly, the need to demonstrate a value-based attitude towards knowledge, pedagogical activity and the student as a subject of learning. If we compare the first components of various explanatory monologues of teachers of different subjects, we will see that they manifest a desire to present a certain range of values.

5) d Task. Determine what values ​​are reflected in each

given below are fragments of the teacher’s speech.

• - “Since ancient times, brevity and simplicity in the presentation of thoughts have been considered the highest virtue. The ability to speak convincingly, clearly, accurately and concisely is the desire of each of us. After all, as the ancients said, “A good word is half of happiness.”
• - “At all times, representatives of any nation have always respected mercy, decency, and hard work. The attitude towards these qualities is reflected in the proverbs that we will get acquainted with today.”
• - “Today in the lesson we will continue to learn how to multiply multi-digit numbers by single-digit numbers, we will learn to use this skill when solving problems. I hope you will please yourself and me with good answers and correct decisions...”
• - “For a person to see, nature gave him eyes... to hear - ears, to move - legs. But we do not have organs specifically designed for producing sounds. All those parts of the body with which we speak perform this work part-time” (M. Kalenchuk).

In a number of studies, the term “communicative attitude” is used as a synonym for the term “communicative intention”. But an attitude should be considered, according to the definition of the famous communication theory specialist L. Yu. Ivanov, “a predisposition, disposition towards a certain understanding, attitude towards people, objects and events” 1 with which a person enters into communication. As the research of E. A. Dryangina shows, for a teacher the mood for a certain type of communication is relevant (in his speech behavior, the desire to achieve communicative agreement, to constructive dialogue, to the choice of adequate - accessible to the interlocutor - language means of communication, to teaching, and upbringing is obvious). At the same time, the communicative attitude also includes a demonstration of a value-based attitude towards the student’s personality, communication, and experience.

In a broader sense, the communicative attitude is understood as the desire to engage in communication or avoid it. A teacher is characterized by a communicative attitude towards active communication (the desire to communicate is one of the personal qualities of a teacher).

• See: Ivanov L. Yu. Communicative attitude // Culture of Russian speech: encyclopedic dictionary-reference book / ed. L. Yu. Ivanova. - M., 2003. -S. 253.
• See: Dryangina E.A. Methods of representing the teacher’s linguistic personality: according to fiction // Russian language: historical destinies and modernity: III International Congress of Russian Language Researchers. -M., 2007. - P. 557.

Communication strategy and tactics.

The act of speech interaction with native speakers is a communicative act, in which native speakers solve, first of all, communal problems, i.e. communicate, exchange information - information.

The meaning of the terms “com act” and “speech act” is often almost the same. But if the term RA implies an emphasis on action, then KA - on interaction.

KA is a set of speech acts performed by communicants towards each other. THAT act is not a speech act, but an exchange of speech acts.

Components of a com strategy

Com strategy – a set of moves planned by the government in advance and implemented during the ACt of teretic moves aimed at achieving a certain goal. The idea of ​​a way to combine these theoretical moves into a single whole (strategy) is called com intention, which is the driving force behind the company's strategy. Intention belongs to the individual and in this sense differs from extrapersonal conventions - rules of command in socially regulated speech situations.

com target– a strategic result for which the Act is aimed: this result can be discussed both at the verb, verbal level (for example, to make a promise, to be offended), and at the level of physical action ( start work, file for divorce). If in the course of a commission the conditions have indeed been created for achieving the appropriate results in a non-linguistic activity (I will be offended - that is, I am offended), then the act has not only a goal, but also com prospect– it is possible to cause the desired consequences in real life.

Components of com tactics

Com tactics considered as a set of practical moves in the real process of speech interaction, i.e. tactics, unlike strategy, are primarily correlated not with a goal, but with a set of intentions.

Com intention (com task)– a tactical move, which is a practical means of movement towards the corresponding target. The entire set of such practices in the real process of speech interaction creates com tactics.

com experience– a set of ideas about successful and unsuccessful commercial tactics, leading or not leading to the implementation of the corresponding commercial strategies.

scheme

Using the competence, the leader sets a goal for himself (both defining and not defining the perspective) and, following the predetermined intention, develops a strategy, which is transformed or not transformed into tactics as a set of intentions ( com of tasks), replenishing the com of honey mushrooms.

ADDITIONALLY FROM BOOKS:

We can talk about the functions of communication in general (about its role in the life and activities of man and society). We can also talk about the functions of individual communicative acts and communicative events.

emotive,

conative

referential

Byethical

phatic

Each of the functions he proposed is associated with a particular participant or element of communication.

Some researchers (A.A. Leontyev, N.B. Mechkovskaya) also add magical or spell function, ethnic(uniting people) function, biological function (for animal communication).

Communication goal(according to E.V. Klyuev) is the strategic result towards which the communicative act is aimed. Communicative intention- the intention of an individual communicant (or a corporate communicant presenting himself as an individual) to carry out this or that action through a communicative act or with its help.

Communicative goals and intentions are carried out not in a vacuum, but in the environment of the intentions and goals of other communicants, therefore there is always an abyss between word and deed. For example, carry out deprivatization– the intention of the radical left – will certainly meet resistance from the opposite intention of other participants in the social communicative process, the social communicative environment.

In the communicative environment, at a certain period, communicative conventions regulated by society are established. Thus, we observe the highest degree of regulation of communication conventions in the legislative assemblies of a number of countries (stages of passing bills), compare this with a meeting where decisions are made ‘by voice’ (a term from the State Duma, showing the communicative incompetence and underdevelopment of Russian democracy).

Communication strategy- this is a part of communicative behavior or communicative interaction in which a series of different verbal and non-verbal means are used to achieve a specific communicative goal, as E.V. Klyuev writes, “the strategic result towards which the communicative act is aimed.”

Communication tactics, in contrast to strategy, as the general outline of communicative behavior, it is considered as a set of practical moves in the real process of speech interaction. Communication tactics are a smaller scale of consideration of the communication process, compared to communication strategy. It does not correspond to a communicative goal, but to a set of individual communicative intentions.

Communicative intent(task) is a tactical move that is a practical means of moving towards the corresponding communicative goal.

E.V. Klyuev offers the following scheme that allows us to understand the relationship between the elements of strategy and tactics in the communicative process: “using communicative competence, the speaker sets a communicative goal (whether or not defining the communicative perspective, that is, the ability to cause the desired consequences in reality) and , following a certain communicative intention, develops a communicative strategy, which is transformed into communicative tactics (or is not transformed, or is not transformed successfully) as a set of communicative intentions (tasks), replenishing the communicative experience of the speaker.

The socio-historical variability of the success of communication strategies once again confirms the need for constant research work in the field of theory and technology of communication. Analysis of communicative behavior, depending on its objectives, may include various aspects and parameters. The book by G.G. Pocheptsov analyzes the communicative behavior of political leaders and at the same time conducts psychological analysis(motives, ideas, cognitive style, temperament and interpersonal characteristics), motivational analysis(striving to achieve results, establishing close relationships, obtaining and exercising power, correlation of motives with behavior), cognitive and operational analysis(system and structure of views, model of reality, and its more specific embodiment in the preferences and actions of the communicative personality, narrative analysis(here time and the concept of a sequence of communicative actions are introduced into the model; communication is considered as a text event, as a 'fairy tale' with its heroes and villains, this method originates from the famous researcher of the structure of fairy tales V.Ya. Propp and is now very popular in the analysis of television and radio news), binary content analysis(analysis of statements, discourse according to the +/– principle), role analysis(roles of political figures, for example, according to Berne: kinder surprise, boys in pink pants).

A specialist working in one or another area of ​​public communication must have certain communication skills, that is, he should

be able to effectively formulate a communication strategy;

be able to effectively use a variety of tactical communication techniques;

be able to effectively present yourself (or your company) as a participant in the communication process.

Efficiency here means the correlation of verbal and non-verbal techniques with the goals and objectives of communication, communicative intention and perspective, the systemic cohesion of the elements of a communicative strategy, the practical feasibility of individual tactical moves.

Scheme primary analysis communicative act

1)Who 2)says what 3)to whom 4)in which channel 5)with what effect ?

Those. 1) source (who?), 2) message and form (who communicates?), 3) addressee and type (to whom?), 4) channel (in what way?), 5) goals and functions (why?)

Scheme of functional analysis of a communicative act

function	facilities
emotive	Addressee directly expresses his attitude to the topic and situation: modal words and turns of opinion, etc.
conative	Focus on addressee: appeals and imperatives, attracting attention, motivation, pointers, etc.
referential	Attention is focused on the situational context communication: object, topic, content of discourse.
poetic	Attention is focused on the message and for the sake of the message: tropes and figures of speech, decoration, etc.
phatic	Using a communication system to establish contact, maintaining and ending communication.
metacommunicative	Focusing on the most code: establishing and describing the parameters of communication and interpretation.