The beginning of the revolution. "Long Parliament". The first stage of the revolution begins with the activities of the Long Parliament - constitutional.
In general, the history of the English bourgeois revolution is usually divided into four stages:
2) the first civil war (1642 - 1646);
3) the second civil war or the struggle to establish a republic (1646 - 1649);
4) independent republic (1649 - 1653).
Having heeded the “advice” of his inner circle, on November 3, 1640, the king opened a session of parliament. And although the parliamentary elections did not give a favorable composition for the monarch, Charles I hoped for a successful resolution of the financial issue.
However, in order to protect itself from unexpected dissolution, the Long Parliament adopted a number of important acts.
This is the so-called three-year certificate(“An Act for the Prevention of Inconveniences Resulting from Long Intervals between Parliaments” dated 15.02. 1641). It was established that non-parliamentary rule could last no more than three years. If this rule is ignored by the king and his government, the initiative for elections passes to the sheriffs, and if the latter are inactive, then to the population. It was established that parliament could not be dissolved or adjourned earlier than 50 days from the start of the session. And an act according to which parliament could not be dissolved except by its own decision.
Parliament, taking advantage of the favorable moment, takes command of the army from the king, passes a law on the treason of the Earl of Strafford, the royal favorite, and arranges for his execution.
By a special act, the Act on regulating the activities of the Privy Council and the abolition of the court usually called the “Star Chamber”, dated July 5, 1641, such important instruments of royal absolutism as the Star Chamber and the High Commission were eliminated. The “common law courts” (and the court of chancellor) were declared legal courts. The independence of judges from the crown and their irremovability were proclaimed.
On December 1, 1641, parliament adopted Great remonstration (protest). The Remonstrance began by pointing out the danger looming over the kingdom, the source of which was the “malicious party” in its desire to change the religion and political system of England. The actions of this “party” explained the wars with Scotland, the uprising in Ireland, and the constitutional conflict between the king and parliament. The Remonstrance demanded that bishops be removed from the House of Lords and their power over their subjects reduced. For this purpose, it was proposed to carry out a complete reformation of the church. The responsibility of ministers to parliament was introduced. All dignitaries - ministers, privy councilors, ambassadors - should enjoy parliamentary confidence. Many articles of the Remonstrance are devoted to issues of the inviolability of property, both movable and immovable. The illegality of fencing off communal lands and the ruin of the cloth industry were also noted. A number of articles pointed to the destruction and impossibility in future of arbitrariness in the collection of taxes on the part of royal power and unparliamentary rule.
The House of Commons approved the Great Remonstrance by a majority of just 11 votes. The discussion of this document in parliament showed how deep the differences were within the House of Commons itself on issues not related to the direct existence of parliament itself.
All documents adopted by the Long Parliament limited royal power and contributed to the establishment of a constitutional monarchy.
Charles I approved all constitutional acts, this was explained by his fear of a crowd of armed Londoners. The threatening behavior of the crowd was the decisive argument of the House of Commons in carrying out the most important acts of the constitutional period of the revolution.
However, the king is trying to use force against parliamentarians. So on January 4, 1642, Charles I appears in the House of Commons with the intention of arresting opposition leaders Pym and Hampden, but they manage to escape. Parliament and London are in revolt. The king was forced to leave the capital and take refuge in provincial Oxford.
The constitutional conflict was not resolved, and by the fall of 1642 it escalated into an armed conflict.
During the Civil War, two stages can be distinguished: 1) when military leadership was in the hands of the Presbyterians and 2) when this leadership passed to the Independents.
At the first stage of the war, the advantage is on the side of the royal army, which is better trained and armed. The failures of the parliamentary army forced its reorganization according to the plan proposed by General O. Cromwell (1599 - 1658). As a result of the reform, an army was created, called the “new model”. Soldiers began to be recruited from people of military origin, the army was subordinated to a single command, and capable people from the people were promoted to command positions. Cromwell, being an Independent, provided a leadership role in the army for members of the Independent communities. To remove aristocrats from military leadership, the “Bill of Self-Denial” was passed, according to which members of Parliament could not hold command positions in the army. An exception was made for Cromwell.
In 1645, the royal troops were defeated, and the king fled to Scotland, where he was handed over to parliament.
Conflict between parliament and army. By this time, the differences between parliament and the army of Presbyterians sitting in parliament were becoming more and more clear; the revolution was essentially completed. They were quite happy with the idea of the supremacy of parliament, which exercises power in the country together with the king, that is, the idea of a political system like a constitutional monarchy. The Independents and especially the Levellers demanded more radical reforms. They concluded the so-called “people's agreement”, which included a whole program of actions: the dissolution of the Long Parliament; new elections with all men; equal representation from counties in Parliament; equality of all before the law, etc.
The struggle between the Independents and the Presbyterians escalated in the spring of 1648 - a second civil war broke out, unleashed by the king and the Presbyterian parliament. Only the support of the Levelers ensured the victory of the independent army, within which a split occurred between the commanding elite (grandees) and the rank and file.
After the victory, Cromwell removed active members who belonged to the Prosbyterians from parliament (Colonel Pride's purge). Of the 90 “purged”, 40 were arrested. In the end, 100 deputies obedient to the army (independents) remained.
In the same year, in December, a bill was introduced into the House on the trial of the king, who was accused of violating the laws of the country, waging war against the people, etc. The Lords (that is, that part of the upper house that remained in London) unanimously rejected this bill.
Then the lower house adopted a resolution on January 4, 1649 ( Resolution of the House of Commons declaring itself the supreme authority of the English state). Its essence is the recognition of the supremacy of the lower house over the upper house and over all authorities in general (including over the king).
Following this, a decision is made to create a special supreme court of 135 people, which is entrusted with deciding the fate of Charles I ( Auronance on the establishment of the trial of the king on January 8, 1649).
Independent Republic. After the execution of the king on January 29, 1649, special acts abolished the title of king of the English nation ( Act of abolition of the royal title of March 17, 1649) The House of Lords was abolished ( Act of Abolition of the House of Lords, March 19, 1649.), and the House of Commons declared itself the supreme power. England was proclaimed a republic ( Act declaring England a free state (Commonwealth) dated May 19, 1669) The State Council became the highest executive body. His tasks included: opposing the restoration of the monarchy, managing the country's armed forces, establishing taxes, managing trade and the country's foreign policy.
Owing its establishment to the masses of the people, the republic, nevertheless, did nothing for them. This was the main reason for her weakness, and this predetermined her death.
Cromwell's Protectorate. Cromwell's power increasingly acquired the character of a personal dictatorship. Having no support in parliament, Cromwell dispersed it in 1653.
At the end of 1653, a constitution was introduced, called the Form of Government of the States of England, Scotland and Ireland and the Domains Belonging to Them (“Instrument of Government”) dated December 13, 1653, which consolidated the military dictatorship of Cromwell.
According to the new constitution, the highest legislative power was concentrated in the hands of the Lord Protector and Parliament. The parliament was unicameral. Participation in elections was limited by a fairly high property qualification, which was 100 times higher than what existed before the revolution.
The highest executive power was vested in the Lord Protector and the Council of State, consisting of no less than 13 and no more than 21 members. The appointment of council members depended on the Lord Protector.
During breaks between parliamentary sessions, the Lord Protector commanded the armed forces, carried out diplomatic relations with other states, and appointed senior officials.
The Constitution explicitly declared Cromwell Lord Protector for life, thus cementing his personal dictatorship.
Soon Cromwell stopped convening parliament; he appointed members of the Council of State at his own discretion. In 1657 the upper house was restored. Local government was concentrated in the hands of the generals of Cromwell's army.
The “instrument of government” contained monarchical principles, although this constitutional act reflected the class interests of the bourgeoisie, the new nobility, interested in preventing the restoration of the monarchy. “The instrument of administration consolidated the regime of individual power, corresponding in the breadth of powers to monarchy. The Lord Protector had legislative power, but it was believed that he shared it with Parliament. The Lord Protector had executive power (although he had to take into account the opinion of the Council of State). The courts actually depended on him. From this time on, a gradual movement began in reverse - from a republic to a monarchy.
22.Convocation of the Long Parliament and the beginning of the English Revolution. Constitutional stage of the revolution.
Short Parliament
The years of non-parliamentary rule (1629-1640) were characterized by complete arbitrariness of royal power. To replenish the treasury, Charles I single-handedly introduced new levies and fines, suppressing discontent in the country with the help of emergency courts. One of the results of such rule was an armed uprising in Scotland, which created the threat of a Scots invasion of England. Military failures and lack of funds forced Charles I to convene parliament. This parliament, which worked from April 13 to May 5, 1640, went down in history under the name of the Short Parliament. The House of Commons did not satisfy the king's request for a subsidy to wage war with the Scots. Instead, she began to examine the policies of Charles I during his sole reign. The result was a statement that, until reforms were carried out to eliminate the possibility of future abuse of the rights of the prerogative, the House of Commons did not intend to vote any subsidies to the king. After the dissolution of the obstinate parliament, the position of Charles I became even more critical. Realizing that without parliament it would not be possible to resolve the military and political crisis, the king in November 1640. convened a new parliament, which turned out to be Long: it lasted until 1653. In October, elections for a new parliament were held, and on November 3, 1640. its meetings opened. With the beginning of the sessions of the Long Parliament, essentially a new chapter of English history began - the history of the Great Social Revolution.
Long Parliament
Begins with the activities of the Long ParliamentThe first stage of the revolution is constitutional. The elections to the Long Parliament did not produce a parliament favorable to the king: the Presbyterians took a dominant position in it. During 1640-1641. Parliament obtained from the king the approval of a number of important legal acts. First of all, on the initiative of the House of Commons, the main advisers of Charles I - the Earl of Strafford and Archbishop Laud - were convicted. Thus, the right to impeach senior officials was approved. To protect itself from unexpected dissolution, the Long Parliament was held on February 16, 1641. adopted the Triennial Act, according to which parliament was to be convened at least once every three years, and if the king did not agree to do this, it could be convened by other persons (peers, sheriffs) or assemble independently. These provisions were supplemented by a law that prohibited the interruption, adjournment and dissolution of the Long Parliament except by an act of Parliament itself. This excluded the possibility of a return to unparliamentary rule. In July 1641, two acts were adopted that limited the powers of the Privy Council in the field of legal proceedings and provided for the destruction of the system of emergency political tribunals, primarily the Star Chamber and the High Commission. A series of acts adopted in the summer of 1641 proclaimed the inviolability of the property of subjects and deprived the king of the right to arbitrarily impose various fines. December 1, 1641 Parliament adopted the Great Remonstrance, which set out the program of the allied classes in the revolution, as they saw it at this stage. The Remonstrance began by pointing out the danger looming over the kingdom, the source of which was the “malicious party” in its desire to change the religion and political system of England. The actions of this “party” explained the wars with Scotland, the uprising in Ireland, and the constitutional conflict between the king and parliament. The Remonstrance demanded that bishops be removed from the House of Lords and their power over their subjects reduced. For this purpose, it was proposed to carry out a complete reformation of the church. Many articles of the Remonstrance are devoted to issues of the inviolability of property, both movable and immovable. The illegality of fencing off communal lands and the ruin of the cloth industry were also noted. A number of articles pointed to the destruction and impossibility in future of arbitrariness in the collection of taxes on the part of royal power and unparliamentary rule. The House of Commons approved the Great Remonstrance by a majority of just 11 votes. The discussion of this document in parliament showed how deep the differences were within the House of Commons itself on issues not related to the direct existence of parliament itself. The Great Remonstrance contained a new requirement that the king henceforth appoint only those officials in whom Parliament had reason to trust. This meant, in essence, the political responsibility of officials to parliament and was perceived by the king as an invasion of his prerogative, the executive power. The king refused to approve the Great Remonstrance. During this period, the Long Parliament abolishes the jurisdiction of the Privy Council and limits its competence in general. It is legalized that no tax and no duties can be collected without the consent of parliament. The independence of judges from the crown and their irremovability are proclaimed. All documents adopted by the Long Parliament limited royal power and contributed to the establishment of a constitutional monarchy. Charles I approved all (except the Great Remonstrance) constitutional acts, which was explained by his fear of a crowd of armed Londoners. The threatening behavior of the crowd was the decisive argument of the House of Commons in carrying out the most important acts of the constitutional period of the revolution. In a desperate attempt to stop the revolution, Charles I personally appears in the lower house demanding the extradition of opposition leaders, but fails. From mid-1641 In view of the ever-increasing confrontation of forces, the Long Parliament takes over government functions. Parliament arbitrarily disposes of the treasury and military affairs. The Long Parliament declares the royal army dissolved and creates a parliamentary one. A galaxy of talented generals emerged in the parliamentary army. One of the most prominent was Oliver Cromwell (1599-1658). Acts of Parliament 1641 were aimed at limiting the absolute power of the king and meant a transition to a certain type of constitutional monarchy. However, in fact, this form of the bourgeois state did not have time to establish itself with the outbreak of civil wars between the king and parliament (1642-1647 and 1648-1649).
Famous in England (1642-1660) is known in our country by this name thanks to Soviet textbooks, which focused on the class struggle in English society of the 17th century. At the same time, these events in Europe are simply known as the “civil war.” It became one of the key phenomena of its era and determined the vector of development of England over the following centuries.
Dispute between King and Parliament
The main cause of the war was the conflict between the executive and, on the one hand, King Charles I of the Stuart dynasty, who ruled England as an absolute monarch, depriving citizens of their rights. It was opposed by parliament, which had existed in the country since the 12th century, when the Magna Carta was granted. The House of Representatives of different classes did not want to put up with the fact that the king was taking away its powers and pursuing dubious policies.
The bourgeois revolution in England had other important preconditions. During the war, representatives of different Christian movements (Catholics, Anglicans, Puritans) tried to sort things out. This conflict became an echo of another important European event. In 1618-1648. The Thirty Years' War raged on the territory of the Holy Roman Empire. It began as a struggle of Protestants for their rights, which was opposed by Catholics. Over time, all the strongest European powers, except England, were drawn into the war. However, even on an isolated island, a religious dispute had to be resolved with the help of weapons.
Another feature that distinguished the bourgeois revolution in England was the national confrontation between the British, as well as the Scots, Welsh and Irish. These three peoples were subjugated by the monarchy and wanted to achieve independence by taking advantage of the war within the kingdom.
The beginning of the revolution
The main causes of the bourgeois revolution in England, described above, must sooner or later lead to the use of weapons. However, a compelling reason was needed for this. He was found in 1642. A few months earlier, a national uprising began in Ireland, the local population of which did everything to expel the English invaders from their island.
In London, they immediately began to prepare to send an army to the west in order to pacify the dissatisfied. But the start of the campaign was prevented by a dispute between parliament and the king. The parties could not agree on who would lead the army. According to recently adopted laws, the army was subordinate to parliament. However, Charles I wanted to take the initiative into his own hands. To intimidate the deputies, he decided to suddenly arrest his most violent opponents in parliament. Among them were such politicians as John Pym and Denzil Hollis. But they all escaped from the guard loyal to the king at the last moment.
Then Charles, afraid that because of his mistake he himself would become a victim of the backlash, fled to York. The king remotely began testing the waters and convincing moderate members of parliament to come over to his side. Some of them actually went to Stuart. The same applied to part of the army. Representatives of the conservative nobility, who wanted to preserve the old order of the absolute monarchy, turned out to be the layer of society that supported the king. Then Charles, believing in his own strength, headed to London with his army to deal with the rebellious parliament. His campaign started on August 22, 1642, and with it the bourgeois revolution began in England.
"Roundheads" vs. "Cavaliers"
Supporters of parliament were called roundheads, and defenders of royal power were called cavaliers. The first serious battle between the two warring forces took place on October 23, 1642 near the town of Edgehill. Thanks to their first victory, the cavaliers managed to defend Oxford, which became the residence of Charles I.
The king made his nephew Rupert his chief military leader. He was the son of the Elector of the Palatinate, Frederick, because of whom the Thirty Years' War began in Germany. Eventually, the emperor expelled Rupert's family from the country, and the young man became a mercenary. Before appearing in England, he had gained rich military experience thanks to his service in the Netherlands, and now the king's nephew led the royalist troops forward, wanting to capture London, which remained in the hands of supporters of parliament. Thus, England was split into two halves during the bourgeois revolution.
The Roundheads were supported by the emerging bourgeoisie and merchants. These social classes were the most proactive in their country. The economy rested on them, and innovations developed thanks to them. Due to the king's indiscriminate domestic policies, it became increasingly difficult to remain an entrepreneur in England. That is why the bourgeoisie sided with parliament, hoping that in case of victory they would receive the promised freedom to conduct their affairs.
Cromwell's personality
He became a political leader in London. He came from a poor landowner family. He earned his influence and fortune through cunning deals with church real estate. At the outbreak of war he became an officer in the parliamentary army. His talent as a commander was revealed during the Battle of Marston Moor, which took place on July 2, 1644.
In it, not only the Roundheads, but also the Scots opposed the king. This nation has been fighting for its independence from its southern neighbors for several centuries. Parliament in England entered into an alliance with the Scots against Charles. Thus the king found himself between two fronts. When the Allied armies united, they set off towards York.
A total of about 40 thousand people on both sides took part in the Battle of Marston Moor. The king's supporters, led by Prince Rupert, suffered a crushing defeat, after which the entire north of England was cleared of royalists. Oliver Cromwell and his cavalry received the nickname "Ironsides" for their steadfastness and endurance at a critical moment.
Reforms in the army of parliament
Thanks to the victory at Marston Moor, Oliver Cromwell became one of the leaders within Parliament. In the fall of 1644, representatives of the counties, which were subject to the largest taxes (to ensure the normal functioning of the army), spoke in the chamber. They reported that they could no longer contribute money to the treasury. This event became the impetus for reforms within the Roundhead army.
For the first two years, the results of the war were unsatisfactory for parliament. Success at Marston Moor was the first victory of the Roundheads, but no one could say with certainty that luck would continue to favor the king’s opponents. The parliament's army was characterized by a low level of discipline, since it was replenished mainly by incompetent recruits who, among other things, also fought reluctantly. Some recruits were suspected of connections with cavaliers and treason.
New model army
Parliament in England wanted to get rid of this painful situation in their army. Therefore, in the fall of 1644, a vote took place, as a result of which control of the army passed solely to Cromwell. He was entrusted with carrying out reforms, which was successfully done in a short time.
The new army was called the “new model army.” It was created on the model of the Ironsides regiment, which Cromwell himself led from the very beginning. Now the army of parliament was subject to strict discipline (drinking alcohol, playing cards, etc. was prohibited). In addition, the Puritans became its main backbone. It was a reformist movement, completely opposite to the monarchical Catholicism of the Stuarts.
The Puritans were distinguished by their harsh lifestyle and sacred attitude towards the Bible. In the New Model Army, reading the Gospel before battle and other Protestant rituals became the norm.
Final defeat of Charles I
After the reform, Cromwell and his army faced a decisive test in battle against the cavaliers. On June 14, 1645, the Battle of Nesby took place in Northamptonshire. The royalists suffered a crushing defeat. After this, the first bourgeois revolution in England moved to a new stage. The king was not just defeated. The Roundheads captured his convoy and gained access to secret correspondence in which Charles Stuart called for help from the French. From the correspondence it became clear that the monarch was ready to literally sell his country to foreigners just to stay on the throne.
These documents soon received wide publicity, and the public finally turned away from Karl. The king himself first ended up in the hands of the Scots, who sold him to the English for a large sum of money. At first the monarch was kept in prison, but was not yet formally overthrown. They tried to come to an agreement with Charles (parliament, Cromwell, foreigners), offering different conditions for returning to power. After he escaped from his cell and was then captured again, his fate was sealed. Carl Stewart was put on trial and sentenced to death. On January 30, 1649, he was beheaded.
Pride's purge of parliament
If we consider the revolution in England as a conflict between Charles and Parliament, then it ended back in 1646. However, a broader interpretation of this term is common in historiography, which covers the entire period of the unstable state of power in the country in the middle of the 17th century. After the king was defeated, conflicts began within parliament. Different groups fought for power, wanting to get rid of competitors.
The main criterion by which politicians were divided was religious affiliation. In Parliament, Presbyterians and Independents fought among themselves. These were representatives of different On December 6, 1648, Pride's purge of parliament took place. The army supported the Independents and expelled the Presbyterians. A new parliament, called the Rump, briefly established a republic in 1649.
War with the Scots
Large-scale historical events lead to unexpected consequences. The overthrow of the monarchy only intensified national discord. The Irish and Scots tried to achieve independence with the help of weapons. Parliament sent an army against them, led again by Oliver Cromwell. The reasons for the bourgeois revolution in England also lay in the unequal position of different peoples, therefore, until this conflict was exhausted, it could not end peacefully. In 1651, Cromwell's army defeated the Scots at the Battle of Worcester, ending their struggle for independence.
Cromwell's dictatorship
Thanks to his successes, Cromwell became not only popular, but also an influential politician. In 1653 he dissolved parliament and established a protectorate. In other words, Cromwell became the sole dictator. He assumed the title of Lord Protector of England, Scotland and Ireland.
Cromwell managed to calm the country for a short time thanks to his harsh measures towards his opponents. In essence, the republic found itself in a state of war, which was led to by the bourgeois revolution in England. The table shows how power in the country changed over the long years of the civil war.
End of the protectorate
In 1658, Cromwell died suddenly of typhus. His son Richard came to power, but his character was the complete opposite of his strong-willed father. Under him, anarchy began, and the country was filled with various adventurers who wanted to seize power.
Historical events happened one after another. In May 1659, Richard Cromwell voluntarily resigned, yielding to the demands of the army. In the current circumstances of chaos, Parliament began to negotiate with the son of the executed Charles I (also Charles) about the restoration of the monarchy.
Restoration of the monarchy
The new king returned to his homeland from exile. In 1660, he became the next monarch from the Stuart dynasty. Thus ended the revolution. However, the restoration led to the end of absolutism. The old feudalism was completely destroyed. The bourgeois revolution in England, in short, led to the birth of capitalism. It enabled England (and later Great Britain) to become the world's leading economic power in the 19th century. These were the results of the bourgeois revolution in England. The industrial and scientific revolution began, which became a key event for the progress of all mankind.
The Long Parliament was convened when the public movement against the monarchy was at its peak. The unstable political situation threatened the deputies with the loss of their jobs, so they adopted an act according to which the dissolution of the legislative body is possible only with their consent. The majority in the lower house were representatives of the new nobility and the bourgeoisie.
In the first two years of its work, the parliament actively strengthens its position. Thus, it is prohibited to collect taxes not approved by him. The Star Chamber and the High Commission were destroyed. Charles I's chief advisers are executed on charges of treason. In the context of a “purge” among officials, two ministers flee for their lives. Parliament subordinates law enforcement agencies, which will be one of the keys to its victory in the civil war.
Charles I
Early in 1641, the legislature began debating a petition seeking the abolition of episcopal authority. On December 1, 1641, the Great Remonstrance was handed over to the king: the document consisted of 204 articles exposing the abuses of royal power. The voice of the growing bourgeoisie was clearly felt in it - thus, parliament demanded to ensure the inviolability of private property and freedom of trade, and to restore order with taxes. The Great Remonstrance marked the beginning of a confrontation between the monarch and the legislature. At the same time, ordinary townspeople came out in support of the latter.
Charles I plotted revenge and accused five members of parliament of treason. The monarch's demand was ignored, and he personally appeared in the chamber for arrest. The comrades did not surrender the “traitors”; the king became furious. It was clear that an armed conflict could not be avoided. Parliament, however, made an attempt to resolve the conflict diplomatically and sent Charles I a list of its conditions. One of the requirements was that the king take advisers solely at the direction of the legislature. The parliamentarians were going to put marriages in the royal family under their control.
Oliver Cromwell
Both sides began to form troops. A civil war began, in which the royalist army suffered a crushing defeat. Charles I surrendered. Oliver Cromwell consolidated broad social strata around himself. The winners were unable to develop a unified position, and civil war broke out again in 1648. On January 30, 1649, Charles I was executed. In March, parliament announced the abolition of the monarchy as an institution dangerous to the good of the people. Now issues of domestic and foreign policy were entirely under the jurisdiction of the unicameral parliament. At the same time, its prestige fell - the press attacked its members in connection with irregularities in the sale of royal and church property.
Oliver Cromwell, of course, had no interest in an all-powerful Parliament. First he purged its ranks of political opponents, and then in 1653 he delivered his famous speech of indictment and disbanded the legislature.
Cromwell closes the Long Parliament
After Cromwell's death and the overthrow of his son Richard in 1659, the Long Parliament was reconvened. This time his work turned out to be short-lived - the very next year, due to contradictions with the army, the legislative body announced its dissolution.
After the death of James I (1625), the throne was taken by his son Charles I (1600-1649). Frivolous and self-confident, he further strained relations with parliament. He soon dispersed parliament and established a regime of his “personal domination” (1629-1640). However, this left Charles I without money, since taxes in England were approved by Parliament. Seeking funds, Charles I and his assistants began to grossly violate the customs and traditions of the country. This contributed to the growth and strengthening of the opposition (resistance) to royal power.
Having started a war with Scotland with his “advisers” and being defeated in it, Charles I was forced to convene parliament. He was called "Long" because... Having met in the fall of 1640, it sat for 12 years. The opening day of its meetings (November 3, 1640) is considered the day of the beginning of the English Revolution.
The first two years of the Long Parliament can be called “peaceful”. With active support
In the wake of the people, the bourgeoisie and the new nobility (they formed the majority in the lower house of parliament - the House of Commons) adopted a number of laws that made it impossible for the king to rule without the cooperation of parliament. It was forbidden to collect taxes not approved by parliament. The punitive bodies of absolutism (the “High Commission” and the “Star Chamber”) were destroyed, and the king’s main advisers (Earl of Strafford and Archbishop Laud) were sent to the scaffold.
An important point in the activity of parliament was the adoption of the “Great Remonstrance” (protest), in which, in 204 articles, the king’s abuses were listed. The document was aimed at substantiating the bourgeois principle of the inviolability of a person’s personality and his property. It also spoke about the right of parliament to control the activities of the king’s ministers, which was already an element of a constitutional monarchy.
At the beginning of 1642, Charles I left unruly London and went to the north of the country (most of the old nobility sat there) and began to form an anti-parliamentary army from his royalist supporters. Parliament began to assemble its army. The country split into two camps. The king's supporters were called "cavaliers" (from the English word cavalier horse). In the royalist army, the main striking force was the cavalry. Supporters of parliament were called "roundheads" (for the shape of their hairstyle).
In the first battles of the civil war that began in the fall of 1642 (a war between citizens within one state), the parliamentary army, formed from mercenaries, began to suffer defeats. This was explained not only by the superior military skills of the royalists. The parliamentary motley army was led by noble generals. Although they were opponents of absolutism, they did not want the complete defeat of Charles I. Their goal was a compromise (agreement) with the king on concessions in favor of the bourgeois nobility. Their defensive strategy (waging war) threatened parliament with defeat.
3. Creation of a “new model” army
Under the current conditions, parliament decisively moved to create a “new model” army. Qualitatively new units of peasants began to form. These formations were distinguished not only by their painstaking study of military affairs and high discipline, but also by their deep conviction in the rightness of the cause for which they fought. They called their military work “God’s work” and themselves “God’s people.”
The main role in the new army began to be played by a brave officer, a talented commander and politician, a typical representative of the new nobility, Oliver Cromwell (1599-1658). Thanks to him, a galaxy of talented officers from the people emerged. Cromwell's cavalrymen ("Ironsides" as the royalists called them) charged into the attack chanting a prayer.
He did not want to reach an agreement with parliament. The short-lived second civil war (1648) ended without result for him. January 30, 1649 Charles I Stuart “tyrant, traitor, public merciless enemy of the English state” (as it was said in the verdict) was beheaded in London.
During the civil war, parliament confiscated the lands of the king, the feudal nobility and the possessions of the church. They were sold in large plots, so that peasants could not buy them. Almost all of these lands were bought up by the “new” nobility and bourgeoisie.
What role did the peasantry play in the defeat of the royalists?
Parliament did not abolish the dependence of the peasants (copy-holding) on the new land owners. Nothing has changed in the situation of the peasants. For them, the land did not become private property. They still gave payment for the land, only now not to the “knight”, but to the capitalist landowner. But that didn’t make it any easier for them.
After the victory of the Dutch Revolution in 1609, an anti-feudal explosion began to brew in England. There was a rapid development of capitalism in agriculture and industry. In addition to the bourgeoisie, a significant part of the nobility took the path of entrepreneurship. This “new” nobility, in alliance with the bourgeoisie, entered into a conflict with absolutism, which escalated into a civil war. The creation of an army consisting of peasants allowed Parliament to defeat the royal troops and overthrow the power of the Stuarts. The main achievement of the revolution was the abolition of the feudal system of land tenure. Land became private (personal, not royal) property. The peasantry remained dependent, but now dependent on bourgeois owners.
1. What was the main reason for the revolution in England? Who was interested in it and why?
2. Why did the bourgeoisie and the “new nobility” turn out to be allies?
3. Why did the army of parliament initially suffer defeats?
4. What allowed parliament to defeat the king? 4. How did the revolution solve the agrarian question and how should this affect the fate of the peasantry?
Documents and materials
From the "Great Remonstrance" (22.11.1641)
We see the root of all these misfortunes in a malicious and disastrous intention to undermine the fundamental laws and principles of government on which the religion and justice of the kingdom firmly rested. The culprits and inspirers of this were: 1) Jesuit-papists... 2) bishops... 3) those advisers and courtiers who, for personal reasons, undertook to contribute... to the destruction of His Majesty and their own state...
Source: New history in documents and materials.-
M.1934.- 4.1.- P.24.
Questions about the document
1. Why did the bourgeoisie and the new nobility oppose
Church of England?
2. Remember whose views Puritanism expressed?
3. How did parliament deal with the king’s “advisers”?
Remember the dates
1640-1660 ~ English Revolution of the 17th century. 1645 - Battle of Naseby - Parliamentary victory
Glossary of terms
CONSTITUTIONAL MONARCHY - (monarchy - gr.
monarchia - autocracy) - the power of the monarch is limited by the constitution, legislative functions are transferred to parliament, executive functions are transferred to the government, i.e. the monarch “reigns but does not rule.”
STRATEGY - (gr. strategia - stratos - army + ago - leading) - the art of conducting large operations, campaigns and war in general.
§ 26. Stuart restoration and coup of 1688
And the Conspiracy of General Monk. Transfer of the crown to Charles II
Soon after the execution of Charles I, England was proclaimed a republic, power in which was in the hands of army generals led by O. Cromwell. The most important achievement of the revolution was secured by a special law. Large (landlords) and other nobles - landowners ceased to be holders of land by the will of the king and became its full (private) owners.
However, the old feudal duties of the copy-holding peasants were not abolished, and they remained completely dependent on the new, bourgeois owners. Enclosures, accompanied by the dispossession of peasants, continued, but on a much larger scale. Passive protest, expressed in attempts to develop empty lands by “diggers” (diggers), was immediately suppressed by the generals.
The bourgeoisie needed strong power. The English Republic very soon took the form of a protectorate (protector - guardian) of O. Cromwell. It was a dictatorship, supported by the enormous authority of this outstanding politician and statesman. He pursued an active foreign policy. Ireland was conquered and Scotland annexed. However, when Cromwell died (1658), a struggle for power began between the generals.
In this unstable political situation, events were accelerated by General George Monck (1602-1670), commander of the English troops in Scotland. Understanding the mood of the new owners, Monk began secret negotiations with the son of the executed king, the Prince of Wales, who was in Holland. It was about the restoration (restoration) of the Stuarts.
In February 1660, Monk's army entered London unopposed. Elections were held to parliament, the new composition of which invited the Prince of Wales to the English throne, and soon proclaimed him King Charles II. He returned to his parental throne no longer an absolute monarch. His return was stipulated by the treaty. Charles II confirmed the rights won by the new nobility and bourgeoisie. He was deprived of royal lands, but was assigned an annual allowance (1.2 million pounds sterling). The king did not have the right to create a standing army.
Revolutions: these initial events of two bourgeois revolutions - in England in the 17th century. and in France in the 18th century. - meant the first victories of the revolutionary bourgeoisie in alliance with the masses over royal absolutism and the feudal system. But the execution of Strafford did not lead to the end of the English Revolution; on the contrary, it was only the beginning, and the overthrow of the monarch was inevitable. The decisive factor in this was...
They gained national independence and significantly limited the ability of foreign countries to dictate the terms of post-revolutionary economic and political development. 7. OTHER WAYS OF REMOVING LIMITATIONS Since revolutions, as shown above, in most cases do not lead to the radical elimination of barriers to social development, it is necessary to focus on other...
This has been proven by many historians. That is why the main goal of my work is to reveal the reasons that determined the beginning of the Great Bourgeois Revolution in England, its main stages, as well as the role of the English bourgeois revolution in the development of parliamentarism. To do this, it is necessary to turn to the prerequisites of the revolution, consider the main stages of its development, and also trace it...
And Wang Mang's orders. The country's economy began to stabilize. Significant changes have occurred in the state apparatus. The functions of governing the country" were divided between five departments, and a supreme advisory body was created under the emperor - the imperial council. 2. The English bourgeois revolution of the mid-17th century The political causes of the revolution, most domestic historians ...
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