Phraseological unit
Phraseologism, or phraseological unit- a phrase stable in composition and structure, lexically indivisible and integral in meaning, performing the function of a separate lexeme (dictionary unit).
A phraseological unit is used as a whole that is not subject to further decomposition and usually does not allow rearrangement of its parts within itself. The semantic cohesion of phraseological units can vary over a fairly wide range: from the non-deducibility of the meaning of a phraseological unit from its constituent words in phraseological combinations (idioms) to phraseological combinations with a meaning arising from the meanings of the components of the combination.
Phraseological adjunctions (idioms)
Phraseological adjuncts are also called idioms(from Greek ἴδιος - own, characteristic). The meaning of a phraseological fusion cannot be deduced from the meanings of its constituent components (for example, “Sodom and Gomorrah” - turmoil, noise; “railroad" - a special type of communication with train rails, sleepers, etc., and not just a road paved with iron ). Often, the grammatical forms and meanings of idioms are not determined by the norms and realities of the modern language, that is, such fusions are lexical and grammatical archaisms.
So, for example, the idioms “to kick the bucket” - “to mess around”, in the original meaning - to split a log into blanks for making household wooden objects and “carelessly” - “carelessly” reflect the realities of the past that are absent in the present - in the past they were characterized by metaphor. , which determines their modern meaning, archaic grammatical forms are preserved in the adhesions “from small to large,” “without hesitation.”
A special feature of idioms is that they syntactically act as a single member of a sentence.
Phraseological unities
In phraseological units, the meaning of a phraseological unit is motivated by the meanings of its constituent words; usually phraseological units of this type are tropes with a figurative (metaphorical) meaning (for example, “granite of science”, “go with the flow”, “cast a fishing rod”). Replacing a word as part of a phraseological unity, including the substitution of a synonym, leads to the destruction of the metaphor (for example, “granite of science”, “basalt of science”) or a change in the expressive meaning: “fall for the bait” and “get caught in the net” are phraseological synonyms, but express different shades of expression.
Like idioms, phraseological units are lexically indivisible, their grammatical forms and syntactic structure are strictly defined, however, unlike idioms, they are motivated by the realities of modern language and can allow the insertion of other words between their parts in speech, for example, “bring (yourself, him, someone) until white heat”, “to pour water into the mill” of something or someone and “to pour water (one’s own, someone else’s, etc.) into the mill.”
Phraseological combinations
Phraseological combinations are stable phrases, but their holistic meaning follows from the meanings of the individual words that make them up. Unlike phraseological adhesions and unities, their composition allows limited synonymous substitution or replacement of individual words, while one of the members of the phraseological combination turns out to be constant, while the others are variable: for example, in the phrases “burn with love, hatred, shame, impatience” the word “burn out” is a constant member with a phraseologically related meaning.
A limited range of words can be used as variable members of a combination, determined by semantic relations within the language system: for example, the phraseological combination “burn with passion” is a hypernym in relation to combinations like “burn with...”, while by varying the variable part it is possible the formation of synonymous series “burn with shame, disgrace, disgrace”, “burn with jealousy, thirst for revenge.”
Often a phraseological unit is the property of only one language (the exception is the so-called tracing paper).
see also
- List of phraseological units in Russian
Literature
Amosova N.N. Basics of English phraseology. – L., 1963
Arsentyeva E.F. Phraseology and phraseography in a comparative aspect (based on the material of the Russian and English languages). – Kazan, 2006.
Valgina N.S., Rosenthal D.E., Fomina M.I. Modern Russian language. 6th ed. – M.: “Logos”, 2002
Kunin A.V. Course of phraseology of modern English. – 2nd ed., revised. – M., 1996
Mokienko V.M. Slavic phraseology. 2nd ed., Spanish and additional – M., 1989
Telia V.N. Russian phraseology: Semantic, pragmatic and linguocultural aspects. – M., 1996
Links
- Phraseologisms (idioms) in English (American) language (English)
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In linguistics, the concept of phraseology is used in two meanings:
1) Branch of linguistics, the science of phraseological units and idioms.
2) A set of phraseological units and idioms of the language.
The vocabulary of a language includes not only words, but also stable combinations of words, which also serve as a means of expressing concepts. Such phrases are called phraseological units (PU).
The concept of a phraseological unit (French Unité phrasеologique) as a stable phrase, the meaning of which cannot be deduced from the meanings of its constituent words, was first formulated by the Swiss linguist Charles Bally in his work “Prеcis de stylistique”, where he contrasted them with another type of phrases - phraseological groups (Fr. . Séries phraséologiques) with a variable combination of components. Bally used the term phraseologie in the meaning of “a branch of stylistics that studies related phrases,” but this term did not acquire citizenship rights in the works of Western European and American linguists and is used in three other meanings: 1) choice of words, form of expression, formulation; 2) language, syllable, style; 3) expressions, phrases.
Subsequently, the study of phraseology developed widely in Soviet linguistics in the 1940-70s, based primarily on the Russian language, but also on a number of others. The literature on the subject is enormous. A variety of definitions of the object of study and its categories and experiences of classification of phraseological units are given, both compatible and complementary to each other, as well as contradictory to one another.
There are various definitions and classifications of phraseological units. Kunin defines a phraseological unit as a stable combination of lexemes with a completely or partially rethought meaning.
According to the definition presented in the Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary, phraseological units are “stable phrases characterized by a constant lexical composition and complicated semantics.” The meaning of a phraseological unit, as indicated later in the same article, is not divided into elements corresponding to the elements of its external form.
V.V. In his definition, Vinogradov contrasts phraseological units with free phrases. He believed that phraseological units are “stable verbal complexes, opposed to free syntactic combinations as ready-made linguistic formations, not created, but only reproduced in speech.”
Kunin believes that “the stability of a phraseological unit is based on the various types of invariance inherent in it, i.e., the immutability of certain elements under all normative changes” and offers 5 signs of invariability of a phraseological unit.
1) Stability of use: a phraseological unit is an element of the vocabulary of a language and is used in its finished form.
2) Structural-semantic stability: phraseological units do not have a typical meaning, that is, they cannot serve as a model for creating similar phraseological units according to the structural-semantic model.
3) Semantic stability: the new rethought meaning of the phraseological unit remains unchanged.
4) Lexical stability: i.e. impossibility of replacing elements of phraseological units.
5) Syntactic stability, i.e. complete immutability of the order of the components of phraseological units.
Based on the integrity of the meaning, phraseological units can be compared with a word. The term “word equivalent” was created by L.V. Shcherba. He emphasized that such a group of words denotes one concept and is a potential equivalent of the word. Like a word, phraseological units are characterized by unambiguity/ambiguity; A phraseological unit can enter into synonymous, antonymic, homonymous relationships both with other phraseological units and with words. Along with the word, the phraseological unit is a unit of nomination, but it has an indirectly nominative meaning, which is created through metaphorization and metonymization of the component words included in the phraseological unit. Phraseology also studies proverbs and sayings, which have a sentence structure.
Being ready-made nominative units that function on equal terms with the word, phraseological phrases are an integral part of the vocabulary of the language and, accordingly, are subject to consideration in lexicology, in contrast to free phrases that constitute the subject of syntax. Of course, between phraseological and free phrases, a large number of phrases of a transitional type are found, the “free” or “phraseological” nature of which is not revealed with a sufficient degree of clarity or certainty.
Many phrases with a sentence structure have the property of reproducibility, which include proverbs, sayings, catchphrases, literary quotations, phrase cliches, etc. It is they who become the subject of lively discussions and diametrically opposed decisions, depending on which the volume of phraseology changes.
1) V.V. Vinogradov, V.L. Arkhangelsky, A.V. Kunin, include sentences reproduced in speech as part of phraseology;
2) A.I. Smirnitsky, who in no way denies the possibility of sentences entering the language system and assigns them an appropriate place in his classification, nevertheless denies them the status of phraseological units and takes them beyond the boundaries of phraseology.
3) N.N. Amosov, refers to phraseology only those sentences that have a holistic meaning and constitute a constant context, and when included in a variable sentence do not turn it into a complex one, i.e. they act as units of nomination, not communication. Proverbs and sayings that carry a communicative meaning are part of phraseology, according to N.N. Amosova, do not belong.
4) Some linguists, including sayings in phraseology, exclude proverbs from it on the grounds that the latter are the equivalent of a whole story, description of events, etc.
Thus, in linguistics there is no consensus on the scope and boundaries of phraseology.
Phraseology as a branch of the science of language. Types of phraseological units.
Phraseology- this is a special branch of the science of language, engaged in the study of the semantic and structural properties of phraseological units, studying the reasons for their occurrence in the language system and the peculiarities of their use in speech.
The term “phraseology” is derived from two Greek words: phrasis - “expression, figure of speech” and logos - “teaching”.
Just as lexicology studies the vocabulary of a language, phraseology studies its phraseological composition. If the unit of a language in its lexical system is a word, then in a phraseological system such a linguistic unit is a phraseological unit, or a phraseological unit.
Phraseology(Greek phrasis, r.p. phrases‘expression’) is a branch of linguistics that studies the phraseological system of language in its current state and historical development (studying stable combinations in language) [Shansky, p. 4].
Phraseology is also called totality stable combinations in the language as a whole, in the language of a particular writer, a separate work of art, etc.
Object phraseology are stable (non-free) word combinations reproduced in speech as ready-made and integral units:
Such stable combinations of words are called phraseological units(FE),phraseological units,phraseological units,phrasemes,idioms(Greek idioma‘special property’).
Subject phraseology as a branch of linguistics is
· study of the nature of phraseological units and their categorical features,
· as well as identifying the patterns of their functioning in speech [Molotkov, p. 18; LES, s. 560].
As an independent linguistic discipline phraseology was formed in the 40s of the XX century. Researchers do not have a common opinion on what a phraseological unit is; therefore, there is no common view on the composition of these units in the language.
The main tasks of phraseology in the field of studying the modern phraseological system of the Russian language are:
1) study of the semantic and grammatical features of phraseological units, delimiting the latter, on the one hand, from free phrases (cf. White paint, But White crow) and syntactically indecomposable (two boys, three girls, But far away lands), and on the other hand, from individual words in various grammatical forms (will sharpen knives, But will sharpen the lasses);
2) identification of the main types of phraseological units and the principles of their differentiation from each other;
3) establishing the reasons for the emergence of the main sources of replenishment and the ways of development of phraseological units;
4) characteristics of phraseological units according to their belonging to different styles of language.
Differential features of FO:
1. stability, i.e. the immutability of its form, a measure of the semantic unity of the components;
2. reproducibility, i.e. regular repetition (proverbs, aphorisms, sayings);
3. holistic meaning - the overall meaning of the entire expression, and not individual words.
Main types of phraseological units of the Russian language
There are three types of phraseological units.
1. Phraseological conjunctions- stable combinations, the generalized holistic meaning of which is not derived from the meaning of their constituent components, i.e., is not motivated by them from the point of view of the current state of vocabulary: get into trouble, screw up, eat the dog, out of nowhere, out of nowhere, wherever it goes and under. We don’t know what a “prosak” is (that’s what a machine for weaving nets was called in the old days), we don’t understand the word thumbs up(wooden blanks for spoons, the production of which did not require skilled labor). However, the holistic meaning of these phraseological units is clear to every Russian person.
2. Phraseological unities- stable combinations, the generalized holistic meaning of which is partly related to the semantics of their constituent components, used in a figurative meaning: come to a dead end, hit the key, go with the flow, hold a stone in your bosom, take it into your own hands, bite your tongue. Such phraseological units can have “external homonyms”, i.e. phrases coinciding with them in composition, used in a direct (non-metaphorical) meaning: To us had to float down the river for five days; I was thrown so hard by the bump that I bit my tongue and was in pain.
Unlike phraseological fusions, which have lost their figurative meaning in the language, phraseological unities are always perceived as metaphors or other tropes. So, among them we can highlight stable comparisons(like a bath leaf, like on needles, like a cow licked its tongue, like a cow’s saddle),metaphorical epithets(tinned throat, iron grip),hyperboles(mountains of gold, a sea of pleasure, as far as evil goes),litotes(about the size of a poppy seed, grasping at a straw).
3. Phraseological combinations- stable phrases, the meaning of which is motivated by the semantics of their constituent components, one of which has a phraseologically related meaning: lower your gaze (head)(there are no stable phrases in the language “put your hand down”, “put your foot down”). Verb look down in the meaning of “omit” has a phraseologically related meaning and is not combined with other words. The phraseologically related meaning of the components of such phraseological units is realized only in a strictly defined lexical environment. We are speaking the Velvet season, but we won't tell “Velvet month”, “Velvet autumn”.
This classification of phraseological units is often supplemented by the so-called phraseological expressions, which are also stable, but consist of words with free meanings, that is, they are distinguished by semantic division: Happy hours are not observed; To be or not to be; The legend is fresh, but hard to believe. This group of phraseological units includes catchphrases, proverbs, and sayings. In addition, many phraseological expressions have a fundamentally important syntactic feature: they are not phrases, but entire sentences.
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The concept of Phraseological Unit.
The term " phraseological unit"In relation to the term "phraseology" as a discipline that studies the corresponding means of language, there is no objection. But it is inaccurate as a designation of the linguistic means themselves, which are the object of phraseology; it is enough to compare the relationships between established terms: phoneme - phonology, morpheme - morphology, lexeme - lexicology (cf. phraseme - phraseology).
In educational and scientific literature, attempts have been made to define the concept of a phraseological object. For example, the following definition is given: “a ready-made whole expression with a known and given value in advance is called phraseological turn, or idiom». Signs of phraseological units: direct meaning, figurative meaning, ambiguity, emotional richness.
Phraseological turnover - This is a reproducible linguistic unit of two or more stressed words, integral in its meaning and stable in its composition and structure.
In this case, the following features are highlighted: reproducibility, stability of composition and structure, constancy of the lexical composition. The presence of at least two words in a unit, stability of word order, impenetrability of most phraseological units.
In the “Introduction to Linguistics” courses, definitions of “idiom” are given, i.e. one of the varieties of phraseological units: “Idiomatic phrases are peculiar expressions of certain languages. Being integral in their use and unified in meaning, usually not amenable to exact transfer into other languages and requiring replacements of a similar stylistic coloring when translated.”
L.A. Bulakhovsky believes that idioms should be distinguished from phraseological units, R.A. Budagov identifies idioms with phraseological units.
Professor A.A. Reformatsky calls all types of non-free phrases lexicalized combinations and brings them under the general concept of idioms.
Prof. S.I. Ozhegov believes that the acquisition of a single meaning and the insignificance of the syntactic connection of words for the meanings of the whole make phrases a phraseological unit in which the integrity of the meaning dominates over the syntactic separateness. There are other definitions of phraseological units.
The following signs of PU are noted in the literature::
1. The popularity of an expression in a given language or in one of its dialectal or socio-speech branches.
2. Reproducibility V speech as a linguistic unit,
3. Grammatical organization of phraseological units according to patterns of combinations of words, phrases, so-called predicative combinations of words and sentences of different types; Consequently, the equivalence of phraseological units in grammatical form with a phrase or (sentence) was indicated (F. F. Fortunatov, A. M. Peshkovsky, E. D. Polivanov, etc.). This sign of the commensurability of units of phraseology with units of syntax is considered differently in depending on the point of view of scientists who understand the term “phraseology” in the broad or narrow sense of the word.
4. The elements of phraseological units are at least two words; almost all researchers agree with this feature, but some insist that both words must be fully significant, and others believe that one word can be fully significant, and the second - auxiliary; still others allow the presence of phraseological units that represent a combination of two function words.
5. Separately formed elements of phraseological units, each of which is identified with a word.
6. Invariable word order (a certain sequence of lexical elements of a phraseological unit as an essential feature of its structure, manifested differently in phraseological units of different semantic and grammatical types).
7. Stability of the lexical and grammatical composition, coherence of the elements of the phraseological unit, or, more precisely, the constancy and obligation of its lexical and grammatical elements in a given combination.
Phraseological objects are often called stable combinations of words (Prof. S.I. Abakumov and others). The terms “stable phrases” and “stable phrases” seem important because they are associated with the concept of stability*, which is widely used in various branches of knowledge.
8. Some features of stress characteristic of phraseological units; the sign of other and more stressed words in the composition of phraseological units is not universal, if we recognize that the concept of phraseological units also includes combinations of words consisting of a auxiliary and a fully significant word: under degrees, and nicknameToux, not a joke.
9. Semantic integrity and distinctiveness according to the meaning of the phraseological unit in the speech stock; its equivalence to a word or a similar expression (S. Bally, F. F. Fortunatov, A. I. Smirnitsky, V. V. Vinogradov, etc.). However, this sign of semantic identification with a word is characteristic only of phraseological units that have global meaning.
10. Synonymous interchangeability with a word or the entire phraseological unit, or some of its elements, depending on the semantic type of the phraseological unit (V.V. Vinogradov).
11. Semantic idiomaticity of phraseological units of some categories and, as a consequence, the impossibility of literal translation into other languages.
12. Globality of the meaning of phraseological units of some categories, unmotivated, motivated or analytical meaning of phraseological units depending on belonging to a certain phraseological category (V.V. Vinogradov); The doctrine of the semantic structure of phraseological units is connected with this.
13. The integrity of the nomination, the focus of the meaning of the entire phraseological unit (but not its individual element) on the signified; however, this feature is also not universal, if we include phraseological combinations with an analytical meaning under the concept of phraseological units, How this is done by academician. V. V. Vinogradov.
14. Stability of the meaning of a phraseological unit in relation to the signified or expressed, as well as, by analogy with the meaning of a word, the unambiguous correspondence of the meaning of a phraseological unit as a designatum with the signified or expressed as a denotation. At the same time, materialist scientists insist that the meaning of a word and the meaning of phraseological units is a socially generalized reflection of the essential properties of a whole class of homogeneous objects or phenomena of reality.
15. Limitality of a phraseological unit.
16. Functions of phraseological units in relation to the signified, which turn out to be different in different types of phraseological units, for example: nominative, definitive, eidological, expressive, modal, appellative. Consequently, this feature is the homogeneity of the function in relation to the signified - is not common to all phraseological units.
17. The syntactic role of phraseological units, which turns out to be different for phraseological objects of different types.
Thus, a phraseological unit is a stable lexico-grammatical unity of words reproduced in speech with internal dependencies between the combined parts. Therefore, the classification of phraseological units should be based on internal” relationships between parts that characterize the structure and, above all, are “indicators of stability; the same, i.e. structural, can be to a certain extent the method of studying phraseological units.
The definition of phraseological units should be based on the following provisions: the sound matter of a language is the substance of its changes in speech; linguistic objects subsumed under the concept of phraseological units are objects of the material world that exist independently of our consciousness; phraseological objects are understood as primary, and relations between objects - as secondary; the components of these objects are understood as primary, and the relationships between the components as secondary; internal dependencies (or relationships) between parts of phraseological units are strictly logical figures, abstracted from relationships between phenomena of reality and reflecting these relationships; the meaning of phraseological units, just like the meaning of a word, is understood as a socially generalized reflection of the essential properties of an entire class of homogeneous objects or phenomena of reality, assigned to a specific sound shell.
Taking into account these basic provisions, the following definition of phraseological units can be given.
Phraseological unit refers to the constant combination of verbal signs that exists in a language at a given stage of its historical development: ultimate and holistic; reproduced in the speech of its speakers; based on the internal dependence of members; consisting of at least two strictly defined units of the lexical level, located in a known sequence; grammatically organized according to existing or existing patterns of phrases or sentences; having a single meaning, combinatorial to varying degrees in relation to the meanings of the combined elements, but stable in relation to the signified for the expressed.
The proposed definition emphasizes that phraseological objects are units of the language system. According to the form of expression and content, they are known to native speakers of the Russian language who know its system, or can become known under certain conditions. These are the ultimate and integral constant combinations of verbal signs. They are characterized by reproducibility and use in one, several or all styles of literary speech.
Of course, such a limitation as the fact that phraseological units belong only to the literary language as the highest form of the national language must be taken into account based on the goals and objectives of compiling a phraseological dictionary of the literary language, and only in this sense is it correct: after all, outside the phraseology of the literary language there are many phraseological objects characteristic of folk dialects, professional dialects and jargons, and, of course, all these objects belong to the Russian language system; however, the stylistic assessment of some phraseological units in a literary language limits their use in literary speech styles.
The composition of phraseological units includes qualitatively defined units of the lexical level in their known word forms; at least two words (functional or significant) form a phraseme or a set phrase.
Phrase phrases are characterized by a certain sequence of lexical elements - often a stable or free word order (for example, for most verb phrases V Russian language). The stability of phraseological units is based on restrictions in the choice of variables compared to the freedom to choose variables in a theoretically possible equivalent of a phraseological unit. Different types of dependence between members of phraseological units determine them as constant or variable at different levels of the Russian language structure.
Grammatical organization according to patterns of word combinations or sentences makes it possible to distinguish phraseological units into phrasemes and set phrases.
The single combinatorial meaning of a phraseological unit is in different relationships to the meanings of the words in its composition. This meaning is stable in relation to the signified or expressed and is in stable correspondence with objects and phenomena of reality How denotations in relation to which phraseological units are detonators.
Literature used: V. L. Arkhangelsky. Set phrases in modern Russian. Publishing house of Rostov University, 1964.
Modern linguistics is unthinkable without a comparison of the objects being studied. Comparison and contrast of units, forms, categories, categories and other linguistic phenomena acts as a prerequisite for characterizing each of them. The above fully applies to the study of phraseological units. Studying the similarities and differences between specific phraseological units of several languages removes difficulties in translation and facilitates the perception and understanding of speech.
One of the striking stylistic means of speech is phraseological units or phraseological units (from the Greek phrases - figure of speech, logos - teaching). Phraseologisms are a stable expression with an independent meaning close to idiomatic. Phraseologisms present great difficulties for English language learners. Ignorance of the semantics of phraseological units can lead to misunderstanding in the process of communication with native speakers and cause difficulties in translating fiction and scientific journalistic literature.
The object of this study is phraseological units of two languages: English and Russian. However, not the entire phraseological range of these languages is studied, but only somatic phraseological units with the keyword “head”.
Somatic phraseological units are figures of speech that contain a component with the meaning of a body part. This lexical-semantic group was chosen due to its wide distribution, imagery and expressiveness.
The subject of this study is the internal structure of English and Russian phraseological units with the keyword “head” - “head”.
1. Definition of a phraseological unit and its main components.
Researchers of the phraseological composition of compared languages have many opinions about what a phraseological unit is. The best known definitions of phraseological units are those of A. V. Kunin, I. I. Chernysheva, and N. M. Shansky. The authors define differently how different groups of phrases belong to phraseological units. So, for example, Shansky N.M. includes proverbs, sayings, proverbs, catchwords, and aphorisms in phraseological units. The phraseological dictionary of the Russian language (FSRY) includes various descriptive and analytical figures of speech, complex conjunctions, complex prepositions, compound terms, etc. in the composition of phraseological units of the language. In general, a phraseological unit is characterized as “a combination of words with a figurative meaning”, as “a stable phrase with idiomatic meaning" as a "stable phrase". Phraseologisms are characterized by metaphor, imagery, expressive and emotional coloring. Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language. Ozhegova S.I. and Shvedova N.Yu. give the following definition of a phraseological unit - it is a stable expression with an independent meaning close to idiomatic. Phraseologism, phraseological unit, idiom, stable combination of words, which is characterized by a constant lexical composition, grammatical structure and a meaning known to native speakers of a given language (in most cases, figurative) that is not deduced from the meaning of the constituent phraseological components. This meaning is reproduced in speech in accordance with historically established norms of use.
But in our opinion, the most complete definition is A.V. Kunin:
A phraseological unit is a stable combination of lexemes with a completely or partially rethought meaning.
Phraseological units consist of lexemes that have partially or completely lost their subject correlation. They cannot be distinguished as members of a sentence, since the phraseological unit itself is a member of the sentence.
Thus, phraseological units are understood as figures of speech consisting of two or more words, possessing reproducibility, stability of composition and structure, as well as holistic meaning.
1. 2. Types of phraseological units from the point of view of semantic stability (unity) of their components
The classification of phraseological units from the point of view of the semantic unity of their components belongs to Academician V. V. Vinogradov. As is known, phraseological units arise from a free combination of words, which is used in a figurative meaning. Gradually, the portability is forgotten, erased, and the combination becomes stable. Depending on how much the nominative meanings of the components of a phraseological unit are erased, how strong the figurative meaning is in them, V. V. Vinogradov divides them into four types: phraseological adhesions, phraseological unities, phraseological combinations and phraseological expressions. Let us consider these types of phraseological units in relation to modern English.
Phraseological adjunctions:
Phraseological adhesions, or idioms, are absolutely indivisible, indecomposable stable combinations, the general meaning of which does not depend on the meaning of their constituent words: keep one`s head - lose your head.
Phraseological adhesions arose on the basis of figurative meanings of their components, but subsequently these figurative meanings became incomprehensible from the point of view of modern language.
Thus, in phraseological fusions the connection between direct and figurative meanings has been lost; the figurative has become the main one for them. That is why phraseological fusions are difficult to translate into other languages.
Phraseological unities:
Phraseological unities are such stable combinations of words in which, in the presence of a common figurative meaning, the signs of semantic separation of components are clearly preserved: raise it’s head - raise your head, perk up.
“Phraseological unities are somewhat closer to phraseological fusions in their imagery and metaphor.” But unlike phraseological fusions, in phraseological unities figurativeness and portability are realized from the point of view of modern language.
Phraseological combinations:
Phraseological combinations are stable phrases that include words with both free and phraseologically related meanings: a wooden head - a stupid head.
In contrast to phraseological adhesions and phraseological unities, which have a holistic, indecomposable meaning, “phraseological combinations are characterized by semantic decomposability.” In this respect, they come close to free phrases.
Phraseological expressions:
Phraseological expressions include phraseological units that are stable in their composition and use, which consist entirely of words with “free nominative meaning and are semantically divisible.” Their only feature is reproducibility: they are used as ready-made speech units with a constant lexical composition and certain semantics.
Phraseological expressions include numerous English proverbs and sayings that are used in a literal sense and do not have a figurative allegorical meaning: Better be the head of a dog than the tail of a lion (it is better to be the first among the last than the last among the first).
Chapter 2. Characteristics of the internal structure of English and Russian phraseological units with the keyword “head”.
2. 1. Comparison of the internal structure of English and Russian phraseological units with the keyword “head” according to the method of formation.
Depending on the method of formation, in our work we consider two main types of phraseological units: continuous phrases and semantic blocks.
Integrated phrases are formed by connecting components, each of which has structural and systemic phrase-forming properties.
Semantic blocks are formed by transforming the meaning of the entire phrase as a whole.
English language Russian language
Integrated phrases (phraseological units)
The first is the meaning of the original phrase, the second the meaning of phraseological units.
(leading component highlighted)
Put one's head into the lion's mouth. My head is (not) cooking
1. 1. Putting your head in the lion's mouth Someone is either (not) smart
1. 2. Expose yourself to danger or risk. Lather your head
Bury one's head in the sand. Scold for something
2. 1. Hide your head in the sand Plunge your head in
2. 2. Adhere to the ostrich policy, turn a blind eye to what is happening. 3. 1. Dedicate yourself entirely to something
Better be the head of a dog than the tail of a lion.
3. 1. It is better to be the head of a dog than the tail of a lion.
3. 2. It is better to be the first among ordinary people than the last among nobles.
Semantic blocks (phraseological units)
(the meaning of the original phrase is given first, the meaning of the phraseological unit is given second)
1. Be head and ears in debt (to be deeply in debt). Head up
2. Go about with one’s head in the air. (to put on airs). 1. 1. Feel confident
3. Have a bad head for smth. (to be in a bad head). 2. Bow your head
4. Open one’s head (chatter, chat). 1. 2. Reconcile
3. From head to toe
3. 1. Completely
Of the 68 English phraseological units that made up the card index of English phraseological units, 57 are semantic blocks, and 11 are continuous phrases. And of the 33 Russian phraseological units that made up the Russian card index, 24 were semantic blocks, and 9 were continuous phrases.
Conclusion: Having analyzed the data, we came to the conclusion that most often phraseological units, both English and Russian, are formed by rethinking free phrases, transforming the knowledge of the entire phrase as a whole.
1. Comparison of the internal structure of English and Russian phraseological units with the keyword “head” in structure.
Depending on the nature of the leading component, one can distinguish, both in English and in Russian phrases: substantive (the main component is a noun), adverbial (adverbial), verbal, adjective.
English language Russian language
Substantives A good head Head and two ears (Unsmart
(Strong head) man)
A level head Head on shoulders
(balanced person)
(Smart enough)
Verb: Hang one's head
(Hang your head, be upset) (Be very depressed)
Lose one's head No pat on the head
(Lose your head, (Be very depressed)
get confused)
Adjective: Out of one’s alone head There are no such phraseological units in the studied dictionaries
(Fictional)
Adverbial: Head first Headlong
(Quickly, recklessly) (Quickly, recklessly)
One's head off
(as much as you like)
In the Russian card index of 33 phrases: substantive – 7, verbal – 22, adverbial – 4, no adjectival ones were found. In the English card index of 68, substantives – 6, verbal – 42, adverbial – 6, adjectival – 2. Thus, in both the English and Russian card indexes, verbal combinations and adverbial combinations predominate, substantives are less common and adjectival ones practically do not occur.
2. 3. Comparison of the internal structure of English and Russian phraseological units with the keyword “head” according to their syntactic function in speech.
You can also classify phraseological units according to their syntactic function. In this case, we can distinguish phraseological combinations that appear in a sentence as:
subject: Vanya, a garden head, got a bad grade in class.
John, a swelled head, was a stubborn boy.
John, an arrogant man, was very stubborn.
Predicate: They put their heads together and agreed upon He laid down his head in the war.
They immediately discussed everything and determined a plan of action.
Circumstance: They made head against the wind. He looked her over from head to toe and decided to take her to
They walked and walked forward towards the wind. to work.
Addition: You are turn her head with flattery! I bow my head to you.
You'll turn her head!
Having studied the syntactic functions of phraseological combinations, we noticed that both English and Russian phraseological units rarely act as the subject.
So, having compared the internal structure of English and Russian phraseological units according to the method of formation and structural classification, we came to the conclusion that the structure of English and Russian phraseological units coincides in these parameters. This makes it possible to make an assumption about the relationship between these groups of phraseological units.
2. 4. Semantic features of phraseological units with the keyword “head” in English and Russian languages.
Native speakers use words that name their organs to describe various areas of human activity. This includes cognitive processes (sensation, perception, memory, thinking, imagination), volitional and emotional, as well as the manifestation of various mental properties of the individual. The bulk of phraseological units in both languages are based on metaphor.
The vast majority of phraseological units are anthropocentric in nature, that is, they refer to a person or something connected with him. These turnovers are of an estimated nature. Ratings can be both positive and negative.
Having analyzed phraseological units with the keyword “head” in English and Russian, we divided them into three thematic groups:
1. Phraseological units denoting human mental abilities.
2. Phraseological units denoting a person’s emotional state.
3. Phraseological units characterizing human behavior and actions.
Group 1: Phraseological units denoting human mental abilities.
English language Russian language
1. Have an old head on young shoulders1. Soft in the head 1. Plunge headlong (entirely 1. My head is spinning (Losing the ability
(to be wise). (not everyone is at home, idiot). devote oneself to something). easy to understand).
2. Two heads are better than one 2. Have a head like a sieve (to be 2. Raise your head 2. Head and two ears
(a mind is good, but two are better). scattered). (Feel confident). (unsmart person).
Group 2: Phraseological units denoting a person’s emotional state.
English language Russian language
1. Keep one’s head 1. Be not right in one’ head 1. Raise your head 1. Hang your head
(keep calm). (to be out of your mind, to go crazy). (feel confident). (become despondent).
2. Be head and ears in love 2. Have a bad head for heights. 2. Lose your head
(to be head over heels in love). (tolerate poorly (not knowing from excitement what to do, what heights, being afraid of heights). do).
Group 3: Phraseological units characterizing human behavior and actions.
English language Russian language
1. Buy smth over smb’s head 1. Better one’s head against a brick 1. About two heads 1. Lather your head
(offer a more profitable service). wall (recklessly boldly). (to scold for something).
2. Knock smth on the head (get into trouble). 2. Headlong
(put an end to something). 2. Be head and ears in debt (to be quickly).
ears in debt).
mental abilities +7; -2 +4; -7
emotional state +2; -11 +1; -3
behavior and actions +9; -14 +1; -eleven
As the analysis shows, the number of phraseological units with a positive evaluative meaning in each of the three presented groups prevails in the English language.
Having carried out a meaningful analysis of phraseological units with the keyword, head in the Russian language, we assumed that the presence of phraseological units denoting daring, recklessness, recklessness reflect such a characteristic feature of the Russian mentality as “maximalism”. Conversely, the presence in the English language of a large number of phraseological units with a positive evaluative characteristic of people’s actions and their mental activity can be a confirmation of the presence in the English national character of such traits as “clarity of mind, restraint, equanimity.”
Conclusion.
The first chapter of this work gives a definition of a “phraseological unit”, examines its main components and reveals the main characteristics of phraseological units from the point of view of semantic stability (cohesion) of their components.
In the second chapter, an attempt is made to analyze the internal structure of English and Russian phraseological units with the keyword “head”, to conduct a qualitative analysis of phraseological units in each of the studied groups, and to draw conclusions on the topic. Comparison and analysis of phraseological units was carried out according to the following parameters: by method of formation, by structure, by syntactic function in speech. A separate chapter is devoted to the semantic features of phraseological units with the keyword “head” in English and Russian. Having analyzed the data, we came to the conclusion that most often phrases are used as a whole, that is, semantic blocks (phraseological units) predominate. In both languages, verb combinations predominate; substantive and adverbial combinations are less common. In sentences, phraseological units with the keyword “head” most often act as an object, less often as a subject.
As the analysis of the semantic features of phraseological units shows, the number of them with a positive evaluative meaning, in each of the three presented groups, prevails in the English language. This chapter is of particular interest to us, since in the future we will try to consider in more detail phraseological units with the keywords “head”, “eyes” and “hands” from the point of view of their semantic features in English and Russian languages. We believe that this comparison will help us more accurately understand the similarities and differences in the national character traits of representatives of the two countries. In addition, knowledge of the semantics of phraseological units will help to correctly translate these constructions, correctly determining the desired meaning in a given context.
Of course, the vocabulary of a language is subject to change. The phraseological composition changes and is replenished.
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