Creation date: 2013/11/27
According to modern science, there are about 10 thousand poisonous plants on the globe. This number includes shrubs, herbs, and mushrooms. For example, out of 200 species of mushrooms growing in Russia, 40 are poisonous. Of the total existing number of chemical elements, 75 are found in the bodies of plants and animals. And each of them can be called both medicinal and poisonous. “If you look around with the eyes of a doctor,” says the Buddhist commandment, “looking for a medicine, then we can say that we live in a world of medicines, for there is no substance in nature that would not be suitable as a medicine.” Nowadays, more than ever, treatment with poisons is quite widely used in medicine. For example, everyone knows ointments used for external rubbing of muscles and joints, for the treatment of a wide range of skin diseases. One of the most common areas of therapeutic practice is apitherapy, in which not only beekeeping products are successfully used, but also targeted bee stings.
Medicines and poisons in ancient times
Poison is a chemical compound that, when entering the body from the outside, causes poisoning. Since ancient times, poison and man have lived hand in hand. They were treated with poisons, sometimes poisoned and poisoned, solving political affairs, amorous and hereditary. In the latter case, they acted with special sophistication: compared to other means of eliminating political and amorous opponents, poisons had an undeniable advantage - the unfortunate person went to his forefathers only from “indigestion.” Quiet, peaceful, no shocks. That is why this world preferred to keep with them faithful pharmacists who knew a lot about poisons and antidotes.
The modern world is very toxic. Oxygen in the air, water in the tap and salt in soup can send you to the next world if consumed in excess. However, in living and inanimate nature there are substances that are not only harmful to put in your mouth, but even to take into your hands. At the same time, they are very useful. The same compounds can be used to produce alcohol, fertilizers, medicines, and, if the wind direction is favorable, to destroy an entire army on the battlefield. They are very practical. Just one drop in a glass of wine is enough to change the ruling dynasty and change the course of history. They are cheap and can literally be made from toothpaste. They must be taken into account.
The history of using plants as medicines dates back to ancient times, and herbal medicine is currently popular. In ancient times, there were more than 21 thousand medicinal plants in the world. One of the ancient mentions of plants dates back to the Sumerian era. A clay tablet with 15 recipes has been preserved, which, according to historians, belongs to the third millennium BC. Plants were widely used in Babylon, Ancient China, Tibet, India, Africa and many other countries. Chinese medicine used more than 2,000 medicinal plants, and India used more than 1,000. Herbal medicine was also used in Ancient Greece. The works of Hippocrates, which contain more than 200 names of medicines, have survived to this day. Hippocrates believed that there is no need to process them; they are most effectively treated by consuming the pulp and juices.
Claudius Galen, on the other hand, believed that raw plants contain many unnecessary and even harmful substances. Therefore, he proposed making decoctions and medicinal herbal tinctures from useful ingredients. The widespread use of plants and medicines arose in Europe and on the territory of Ancient Rus'. The term “herbal medicine” was first introduced by the French physician Henri Leclerc (1870-1955). It was believed that many diseases, or rather half of them, could be cured with herbal remedies.
But are all the components of medicinal plants useful? No, many of them are harmful and even toxic, therefore, like synthetic drugs, they can cause unwanted side effects. Many plants not only contain potent toxins, but also mutagens and carcinogens.
Myths from the Ancient East tell us that both medicines and poisons can be obtained from the same plants. For example, an Indian myth says: the gods, who received the drink of immortality - amrit, added juices of medicinal plants to it. After receiving the drink of immortality, God brought it out in a bowl, after which the ocean was filled with a strong poison that threatened to poison the whole world. The gods decided to turn to Shava for help, who swallowed the poison and saved the world from death. Perhaps this is the idea of the ancient Hindus that plant juices must be handled carefully, because not only medicines, but also poisons are obtained from them.
We know that parts of the same plant can be both medicines and poisons. For example, potatoes, all parts of them are poisonous except the tubers, and all parts of tomatoes are poisonous except the fruits and seeds. Sometimes medicines and poisons were prepared from the same plants. In Ancient Egypt, priests prepared medicines from peach pulp, and from the leaves and seeds they obtained a strong poison, which contained a strong acid.
Venom therapy
The properties of poisons for the purpose of their therapeutic use have been studied for a very long time. In particular, it is known that even before our era, at the court of King Mithridates VI of Pontus, experiments were carried out to find antidotes for snake bites. Various substances - antidotes, so-called antidotes - were also studied. In particular, Hippocrates dedicated an entire work to them, which is called “Antidotes.” In Europe in the middle of the century, poisons of plant origin were mainly used. These were alkaloids - physically active compounds of the family Ranunculaceae, Poppy, Solanaceae, etc.
The most widespread use of poisons has found its place in herbal medicine. Here, poisonous plants are a necessary component of many remedies: tinctures, infusions of decoctions, herbal mixtures. Poisonous mushrooms, in particular fly agarics, are also often used. If you open any reference book on traditional medicine, any herbalist, you can immediately understand that poisonous plants are an integral part of most recipes for preparing medicines that cure diseases such as cancer, skin, musculoskeletal, respiratory, etc.
Arsenic(As)
Forensic toxicology was discovered in France. Arsenic played a direct role in her story. White arsenic is perfect for committing murder. It has neither color nor smell. 60 mg is a lethal dose; symptoms of poisoning are similar to those of cholera. With periodic or long-term use of small doses of quarantine, poisoning can be confused with HIV diseases. This is not surprising, because arsenic affects the gastrointestinal tract, nervous system, and causes diseases of the mucous membranes and skin. Arsenic, as a weapon of crime, will soon supplant the poisons of the ancient world.
The composition of the poison was probably unknown, and it was usually assumed that it was much more complex than what poisoners often used, but the properties of arsenic were already well studied by alchemists, doctors and pharmacists. In connection with this, laws tried to limit the sale of not only arsenic, but also poisonous mercuric chloride.
Apparently, the first legislative restrictions appeared in Italy. In 1365 in Siena, red arsenic (realgar) and sublimate were allowed to be sold by a pharmacist only to people whom he knew well, and in the 15th century the sale of these poisons was generally prohibited, and a pharmacist who violated this regulation was punished. A similar ban was passed in Germany in 1485. After examining the case of the Marquise de Brenvilliers, the French parliament also took measures against the free sale of arsenic. The decree stated that the sale of arsenic could be permitted to “doctors, pharmacists, goldsmiths, dyers and other persons in need of it after ascertaining their names, position and place of residence.” The buyer's name must be entered in a special book. But money did its job, and poisons were secretly sold.
Sulfur dioxide (sulfur dioxide)
This harmful substance is released into the environment due to the combustion of products that contain sulfur fuel, for example, coal, coke, oil shale, and sulfurous oil. The toxic effect of sulfur dioxide on humans is very diverse. If you breathe even small doses of sulfur dioxide, you will soon develop bronchitis and respiratory disease. The effects of sulfur dioxide can be enhanced by exposure to other substances, such as carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxides. In the air of large cities and industrial centers, the content of sulfur dioxide exceeds the norm.
Pesticides
A number of researchers place this large group of chemical plant protection products in first place in terms of the intensity of environmental pollution. And not by chance. The scale of their production and use is rapidly increasing. It is generally accepted that increasing the productivity of agricultural crops is practically impossible without their widespread use.
Pesticides are truly dangerous for the biosphere. However, this should be specially emphasized, although they belong to the substances that most pollute the natural environment, their “leading” position is temporary. The development of more “short-lived” drugs, as well as substances that are less toxic to humans and warm-blooded animals, and the wider use of biological plant protection products will inevitably “pull” pesticides to a lower level in terms of the degree of danger for a number of pollutants.
If we exclude from consideration the danger associated with the possibility of a nuclear catastrophe or chemical war, then, apparently, in the peaceful conditions of human existence on Earth, the greatest danger in the foreseeable future will be represented by heavy metals. Everything that was said as examples about environmental pollution with harmful substances can be conditionally called everyday pollution associated with the activities of the chemical industry, with the combustion of fuel in transport, industry and public utilities, with the use of chemicals in agricultural production and in everyday life. This kind of everyday pollution still occurs, unfortunately, in all countries of the world. However, in capitalist countries such pollution is often extremely intense.
The world-famous chemical concern Montadison, the largest company in Italy, located in Lombardy, has so heavily polluted at least three rivers flowing in this province - Olona, Seveso and Lambro. A study showed that a glass of water taken from the Lambro River could kill a bull within half an hour. The Bormidadi Spigno River is so poisoned by the discharge of various harmful substances from the enterprises of this company that fish released into it die instantly, faster than they can be pulled out of the water. Dead Lake Orta due to the release of copper by the Chatillon company (part of the Montadison concern).
Pesticides are a serious problem. However, it is also obvious that the solution to the problem is not illusory. The introduction of low-waste and non-waste technologies, the use of biological means of controlling agricultural pests and much more testify to the possibilities of scientific and technological progress to solve this global problem. It is also quite obvious that the arms race is a serious obstacle to its solution. It diverts enormous material resources. After the Second World War, humanity spent an astronomical amount on weapons - 6 trillion dollars. This is money thrown away, as the Soviet scientist G.L. Yagodin rightly points out, down the drain. An increase in arms costs inevitably entails a decrease in other items, including the item “Environmental Protection.”
Here is an example given by G.L. Yagodin (1985) for the USA:
- 1982 - environmental protection ($5 billion), military spending ($187.4 billion);
- 1983 - environmental protection ($4.3 billion), military spending ($214.8 billion);
- 1984 - environmental protection ($4.1 billion), military spending ($245.3 billion).
And one cannot but agree with the conclusion made by G.L. Yagodin: “Humanity has put itself before a choice - either learn to live in peace and good cooperation, or perish.”
What do you think is the secret weapon of weak women and the most powerful men, obvious enemies and close friends? What, as world experience shows, is most effective in resolving conflicts? Without a doubt, the answer will be poison. It would not be an exaggeration to say that, as long as we know human civilization, there is just as many years of history of poisoning. Tangled and never-ending. There are few other areas of knowledge in which so many outstanding discoveries have been made, essentially criminal and inhumane, and apparently for this reason they are most in demand by the powers that be...
We find the first information about the use of poisons in ancient Greek myths. The greatest heroes of Hellas - the Argonaut Jason and the warrior Hercules - were poisoned by their loving wives. They suffered a painful death from clothes soaked in poison, paying for adultery at the highest price - their lives. Thus, women for the first time proved their undoubted superiority over the stronger sex and opened the hunting season for unfaithful husbands, who from now on had to think hard when starting an affair on the side, since its ending could be very sad.
The most ancient poisons, without a doubt, were poisons of plant and animal origin. Many dangerous creatures - snakes, spiders, scolopendras - have coexisted with man from time immemorial, and over time he learned to use their deadly weapons to his advantage. It is to the East - the focus of all conceivable poisonous creatures - that humanity owes the emergence of the most sophisticated methods of dealing with undesirables.
The following method can be considered one of the oldest: at night, several snakes were thrown into the enemy’s tent, which, in search of warmth, crawled under a person sleeping on the ground. As soon as he moved, the disturbed snakes bit him. For the fellow tribesmen of the stung man, his death seemed natural and accidental. The likelihood of success increased many times over if a king cobra was used as a weapon. The amount of poison she injects is extremely large. She simply “pumped” the victim with poison until convulsions and paralysis appeared. Death occurred almost instantly. An equally deadly weapon was the chain viper, the venom of which caused a person to bleed profusely from the nose, mouth, and eyes, usually ending in death.
With the advent of papyrus and parchment, this technique changed: poisonous insects or young kraits and pamas began to be wrapped in a scroll intended for the enemy. When trying to open it, there was a rapid attack by, to put it mildly, unfriendly and well-armed creatures. With all the ensuing consequences...
After some time, people learned to obtain venom from snakes and preserve it. In dry form, it can be stored for up to 20 years without losing any of its deadly properties. There was, however, one small catch: snake venom only worked if it got into the blood. It was necessary to inflict a wound in order to send his enemy to his forefathers, and the poison drunk did not produce any harmful effect.
Human thought found a worthy solution - poisons of plant origin were used. Our ancestors had an excellent understanding of the pharmacopoeia, distinguishing life-threatening plants - such as upas tree (anchara), strophanthus, strychnos, chilibukha - from safe ones. Already at the dawn of civilization, people knew how to make potions that acted as medicine in small doses, and as poison in large doses.
Since ancient times, the tribes of tropical Africa have used the fruits of Physostigma poisonosa as “judgment beans” called “ezera”. The suspect in a crime was given a decoction of these beans to drink. Death meant confirmation of the accusation, otherwise the subject was considered acquitted. Let us add that there were few such lucky ones: the fruits of physostigma (also known as Calabar beans) contain the strongest toxin “physostigmine”, which leaves practically no chance of survival.
The palm in the art of poisoning belonged to the Egyptian priests, who had solid knowledge of medicine. They developed a unique powder that is barely visible to the human eye. They put it in the bed, and as soon as you scratched it, it penetrated into the blood, causing it to become infected. The skin turned black, and after some time the person died. A mysterious death - at the behest of the Gods who did not know pity, who were on short terms with the clergy. Pharaohs came and went (sometimes suspiciously at a young age), but the priests remained the true rulers of Egypt. Their power rested on knowledge and superstition, and therefore they were omnipotent.
The sons of Hellas also preferred poisons of plant origin, such as hemlock or hemlock. Many noble citizens carried the roots of these poisonous plants with them, just in case of emergency. When the roots were taken internally, breathing stopped and death occurred from suffocation. Not the easiest death, but sure. The Greeks were even ready to give up their lives under a court verdict rather than be punished in any other way. In 399 BC. Socrates, the greatest philosopher of antiquity, was sentenced to civil execution by poisoning for “the introduction of new deities and for the corruption of youth.” The last thing he tasted was hemlock.
The knowledge of the Greeks in toxicology (from the Greek "toxicon" - poison) was drawn mainly from Asia and Egypt. There was a mutually beneficial exchange of recipes for toxic substances. The result of this “barter” was the death of one of the most talented commanders of antiquity - Alexander the Great. Most likely, he was poisoned with the Indian poison "bih" in 323 BC. at the age of 33 years. This poison is known for killing gradually, sucking out life, drop by drop, unnoticeably and painlessly.
At the same time, attempts were made to neutralize the effects of poisons. They are associated, first of all, with the name of the Pontic king Mithridates VI Eupator. In the 1st century BC. this glorious satrap, who was terribly afraid of poisoning, began to accustom his precious body to potent toxins, ingesting insignificant, over and over again increasing, doses of “arsinocone” - arsenic. Thus, Mithridates developed a strong immunity to most of the toxic substances known at that time, earning unfading fame in the memory of his contemporaries.
Less skillful rulers limited themselves to demanding that their entourage “kiss the cup” - that is, drink several sips of wine from it, thereby proving that it was not poisoned. Doctors of antiquity noticed that in case of poisoning, taking emetics, laxatives, bile and diuretics helps. They also knew adsorbent substances that absorb and remove poisons from the body.
In Ancient Egypt, Greece, Rome and India, patients with poisoning were prescribed charcoal, clay, and crushed peat. In China, thick rice broth was used for the same purposes, enveloping and protecting the mucous membranes of the stomach and intestines. For snake bites, the root of the Asia Minor plant was used as an antidote. He is mentioned by Theophrastus, “the father of botany.”
Poison not only saved from enemies, but also saved from shame. He killed without pain, did not maim, which is probably why the fairer sex was so fond of him. Women preferred to die beautiful and young, and only poison could guarantee them this. Thus the sun set for Cleopatra, heiress of the ancient pharaohs. She let herself be bitten by an Egyptian cobra hidden in a fruit basket. She was forced to commit suicide by the complete impossibility of breaking free. Cleopatra chose to die so as not to be dishonored by the Roman legionnaires. A beautiful woman, she died beautifully - like a king, with her head held high.
Toxicology was further developed in the works of the Roman physician Galen. His compatriots borrowed a lot from the conquered peoples of Asia Minor. They were the first to turn ordinary poisoning into a real science. The Romans discovered a method of food poisoning. River lamprey soup, prepared in a certain way, completely replaced the poisonous drugs of the priests. A personal chef could turn out to be a tool in the hands of ill-wishers, and then it would be impossible to escape.
The first decades of the new era were marked by a series of suspicious deaths of august persons. In the year 23, the son of Emperor Tiberius, Julius Drusus, died, then Britannicus, the son of Emperor Claudius. In the year 54, Claudius himself died under strange circumstances. All of them were poisoned, the last two by the same woman. Her name is Agrippina. The greatest poisoner of the Roman Empire was not insane or pathologically bloodthirsty, she did it for the sake of her own child, whom she had from Claudius. Having eliminated Britannicus, the emperor's son from his first marriage, and then Claudius himself, she was going to clear his path to the throne. Despite all the tricks, Agrippina's son never became Caesar.
The way Agrippina eliminated her competitors cannot but cause admiration: she fed both father and son toxic mushrooms. Their effect turned out to be too weak. Then the “loving wife” called her aesculapian. He injected a bird's feather into Claudia's throat as an emetic. The emperor and his son did not even suspect that it was saturated with the poison “akanite”. Blue buttercup - its second name - has been known since time immemorial. In China it was used to poison arrows, in Nepal they poisoned water wells (so that they would not fall to the enemy), in Tibet this plant was recognized as the “king of medicine”. The alkaloid "akanitin" is found in all parts of the flower. Even honey containing acanitine pollen is poisonous. Apparently this made him popular among poisoners. Cheap, convenient and practical!
The achievements of ancient toxicologists would have sunk into oblivion if they had not been in demand by barbarians striving for civilization. Poisons served equally faithfully both the Roman Caesars and the leaders of the Hunnic tribes. Poisoning as a form of political struggle reached its true scale in Asian countries. Sending your closest relative to your ancestors in Heaven has always been considered in the East as something taken for granted. Elderly fathers, without any twinge of conscience, killed newly born children, and young heirs of parents who had stayed too long on the throne, and all for the sake of power.
In 1227, Jochi, the eldest son of the Shaker of the Universe, Genghis Khan, suddenly passed away. The beloved son, the most talented and capable, was cunningly given a potion. On whose conscience his death is on - only God knows, but the fact that the younger sons of the Kagan were the winner is an indisputable fact. Someone from their circle - either on their own initiative or following an order - tried very hard to eliminate a dangerous competitor.
By this time, Chinese poisons were in vogue. They acted for sure. Some poisons killed immediately after consumption, others decomposed the body for months and even years, bringing unbearable pain and suffering. The Chinese were considered unsurpassed experts in the field of toxicology. They knew how to compose complex compositions from many herbs, roots, fruits, and process them in a special way, achieving the desired effect. The belief in the omnipotence of the pharmacologists of the Celestial Empire was so strong that many believed in the existence of a poison they had invented that turned people into dwarfs. Legends about this terrible potion were passed down from century to century, disturbing the minds of ordinary people.
Chilling stories were also told about the secret Muslim order of assassins. This underground organization terrified the entire Middle East with its political murders. At the head of the order was Shah al-Jabal - the Old Man of the Mountain. For almost 200 years (from the 11th to the 13th centuries), the assassins terrorized the rulers of the Central Asian states, delivering punitive blows where no one expected them. They even penetrated Europe, spreading fear and death around them. The Assassins actively used poisons to achieve their political goals. One of the order’s many victims was the legendary Mamluk Sultan Baybars, who was killed in 1277 in Damascus. The poison was trivially poured into his cup of wine. The audacity with which this was done apparently contributed to the success. The most banal thing, needless to say, is poisoning, although the simplest solutions, as history shows, are often the most effective...
A new word in the art of poisoning was introduced by the Japanese brothers of assassins - ninjutsu spies. The masters of this school developed the secret technique of “death touches”. It consisted in the fact that the scouts covered their brush with a special strengthening composition prepared on the basis of milkweed juice, after which they applied a thin layer of transparent poison. As soon as, during a conversation or fight, one touched the enemy’s mucous membrane with a “poisoned hand” - lips, eyes, tongue - he received an incompatible portion of poison isolated from shikishima fruits or daffniphyllum seeds. A balm based on milkweed served as protection against the pervasive poison, preventing it from being absorbed into the skin of the hand. The balm held the poison for only 4 hours. The slightest delay threatened the ninja himself with death.
The Spaniards and Italians - Borgia, Medici, Sforza - gained sad fame as the best European poisoners. The first place, of course, belongs to the aristocrats of the Borgia family. Their cunning was incredible: they easily and with extraordinary creativity sent their opponents to the next world, regardless of their age or their social position in society. The poisoning turned Borgia into a carefully choreographed performance, where evening horseback rides, luxurious feasts, hugs and kisses were only a prelude to a sophisticated murder.
The Borgias were Spanish by origin, but made their name in Italy, occupying the highest positions in this country for almost two centuries. They got the secrets of reliable poisons from the Moors, who in turn took them from Arabia. Having cut a peach in half, Caesar Borgia ate half of it himself and offered the other half to his guest. When he died, as they say “under strange circumstances,” Caesar, in response to all reproaches and accusations, pointed to himself, cheerful and healthy.
The highest-ranking poisoner in the family was Rodrigo Borgia (Caesar's father), also known as Pope Alexander VI. This vicious and voluptuous old man amused himself by poisoning the cardinals subordinate to him, testing on them the intricate recipes of old alchemists, like Nicholas Mireps, Paracelsus or Arnaldo de Vilanova. Guests invited to dinner with the pope sat down at the table with great caution, for his skill in poisoning was unsurpassed. It was this that destroyed him. Alexander VI died in August 1503, poisoned by his own poison, which was intended for Cardinal de Carnetto, but which mistakenly ended up on the table of the pope. With his death, the Borgia family withered away from the historical scene.
The baton was intercepted by the Florentine Medici - bankers, dukes and rich people. Their family coat of arms featured red balls - a reminder of their origin. For they were pharmacists. The Medici family recipe has been preserved: “If you make a hole in a peach tree and drive arsenic and realgar, sublimated and infused in vodka, into it, this has the power to make its fruit poisonous.” In a similar way, in the 16th century, his own nephew Alessandro Cardinal Ippolito Medici was poisoned.
Similar techniques were also used by the “dogs of God” - the monks of the Catholic Jesuit order. They never skimped on their means, fighting apostates with all available means. Among them is this: a person sentenced to death by a secret Jesuit court was given a gift of a precious tome, the leaves of which had previously been treated with a tasteless poison. By picking through the stuck pages and wetting his fingers with saliva, the bookworm was killing himself without even knowing it. Poisoned weapons were intended to eliminate knights and hunting enthusiasts, and cosmetics and clothing treated with poison were intended for dandies and women.
Truly, rings filled with a deadly potion have become a universal means of poisoning. Some of them had barely noticeable thorns, upon which one could prick oneself into eternal sleep. The poison could be anywhere: in a scarf, in a button on a camisole, under a cuff or on the tip of a knife. Many aristocrats got rid of annoying suitors in the simplest way, as it seemed to them, by pouring an explosive decoction of henbane and belladonna into a glass of wine. By the way, belladona means “beautiful lady” in Italian, which indicates its wide popularity among loving Italian women.
But the French women were no slouch either. Four years apart, 17th-century France was rocked by two criminal trials involving two frail women. The first criminal case concerned Marie Madeleine de Brenvilliers, née d'Aubray. Her story resembles an adventure novel. A very young Marie Madeleine marries the elderly Marquis de Brenvilliers. She then takes on a lover named Sainte-Croix, but he is soon put behind bars. There he meets an Italian alchemist, a great expert in poisons. Sainte-Croix receives some secrets from him and conveys them to Marie Madeleine.
Soon, an incomprehensible illness begins to worry the marquise’s father, Mr. d’Aubray. He dies suddenly, transferring all his property not to his daughter, but to his sons. One after another they die painfully, going to the next world young and full of strength. This becomes suspicious, the corpses are opened, but nothing is found. And only by chance does the solution to the mysterious deaths of the men of the d’Aubray family become known. Sainte-Croix dies after carelessly inhaling mercury vapor in his secret laboratory. Investigators find a box of poisons in his office. In Sainte-Croix's will, only one name was indicated - to transfer the box to Marie Madeleine. The young marquise was arrested, but with bribes she managed to escape from prison and hide abroad. A few years later she was nevertheless arrested, and in 1676 she was sentenced by the Supreme Court to be beheaded.
A year later, the famous “case of poisons” began in Paris. Marguerite Monvoisin, the jeweler's wife, appeared before the secret tribunal of France. She was found guilty of manufacturing and selling toxic substances. The process was made scandalous by the fact that the main customers of the poisons were the courtiers of Louis XIV. Among the customers were the king's favorites - Madame de Montespan and Madame de Soissons. At the Monvoisin estate, investigators discovered a rich collection of potions and embryos of 2,500 miscarriages, cured by aristocrats with the help of “medicines” from an enterprising jeweler. Having received a royal order to “not look at faces,” Marguerite Monvoisin was sentenced to death in 1680.
However, the dubious honor of the largest poisoner of all times belongs not to a Frenchwoman, but to an Italian. Signora Tofana managed to send about 600 people to Heaven in her life. With a significant lag behind her are Catherine de Medici and Bona Sforza. Brilliant women and outstanding poisoners. Each of them has a good dozen corpses. They actively fought for power, and chose only those who interfered with them as victims of their intrigues. Nothing personal - only state interests. Despite all the similarities, the methods they used differed. Catherine de Medici preferred poisonous perfumes and poisoned gloves, and Bona Sforza preferred classic powders, roots and drops.
One of the popular and sought-after poisons of that era was Anamyrtus cocculus. The fruits of this tree were exported from India and were called “fructus coculi” in Medieval Europe. The pyrotoxin they contained caused convulsions, which resulted in inevitable death. This poison was widespread in the south.
The northern kingdoms - Denmark, Norway, Sweden, England - made do with available “remedies”: poisonous mushrooms and plants of local flora. Let's remember Shakespeare: Hamlet's father accepted his death, being poisoned by the "cursed juice of henbane." Whose property So deeply hostile to our blood, What, quick as mercury, it penetrates In suitable gates and passages of the body And it turns abruptly and suddenly, Living blood... A stunningly dramatic medical report on toxic poisoning. However, in the lines above, Shakespeare made a serious mistake: henbane juice does not clot blood. The alkaloids it contains - atropine, hyoscyamine, scopolamine - are poisons that do not have a hemolytic, but a nerve-paralytic effect. The symptoms of poisoning for the father of the Danish prince would have been completely different - delirium, sudden excitation of the central nervous system, convulsions, and only then death.
If for Shakespeare the murderer of the king was his own brother, then among the Spaniards, as a rule, the current monarch was responsible for the poisoning. With the help of an ordinary apothecary enema and a family poison called "Recuscat in Pase", King Philip II disavowed the claims of his son Don Carlos to the throne. The young man gave his soul to God, and the fanatical father himself was subsequently “fed” poison by his last wife, who did not forgive Philip for his frequent adultery. It is difficult to remember another case where a murderer was punished with the same weapon with which he himself killed. Justice triumphs. Sometimes...
At the same time, methods of protection were also improved. Medieval medicine recommended extensive bloodletting to remove poison from the body. Two or three cups of blood released from a vein increased the likelihood of recovery, although not always. The most prudent nobles tested suspicious food and drink on dogs, considering them the best indicators of the presence of poison. In the XVII-XVIII centuries. The fashion for licking arsenic, bequeathed once by King Mithridates, has returned. The desired effect was achieved after months of exercise, when the number of licks reached 40-50 per day. Only after this the body acquired immunity to poisons. This science was comprehended mainly by diplomats who were at the forefront of political struggle and therefore risked their own lives more than others.
At other times, the confrontation between European powers over spheres of influence acquired a clearly toxicological character. In 1748, knowledge of the characteristics of tropical fish helped the French defend an island in the Indian Ocean from the claims of the British crown. The 1,500 British soldiers preparing for the assault were cordially fed with reef perches, unusual in taste and... inedible. This is exactly how - without unnecessary costs or shots - several natives hired by the French easily knocked out a full-blooded regiment of the royal army.
The British turned out to be unusually vindictive and patient, for they waited 70 years to get even for their humiliating defeat. In 1821, Napoleon Bonaparte dies on the island of St. Helena. Somehow too fleeting. Even then, suspicions arose that he died a violent death. This was a blow to the very heart of France, which idolized its genius. Indirect confirmation of this version is the fact that in our time an increased concentration of arsenic was discovered in Napoleon’s hair.
The mechanism of poisoning was most likely the following: small doses of arsenic were added to food and drink by the retinue general Charles Montolon. This caused stomach pain, and doctors prescribed Napoleon mercuric chloride - calomel - as a painkiller. In combination with hydrocyanic acid, which is found in almonds, calomel becomes poisonous. And in March 1821, almonds suddenly began to be added to Napoleon’s syrup. On May 3 of the same year, the emperor was given 10 grains of mercury chloride at once - three times the maximum dose! On May 5, 1821 he died. And a healthier person would not have withstood such concentrations, what can we say about the sick and no longer young Napoleon Bonaparte...
By that time, Europe was experiencing a sharp surge in interest in poisons. Such powerful toxins as strychnine, brucine, and hydrocyanic acid have already been synthesized. Classic poisons - like hemlock and curare - were seeing their last days, relegated to the world of legends and legends. Private initiative gave way to state interests, and the development of poisons began to be taken seriously.
The peak of discoveries occurred in the 20th century. Poisons turned out to be the most effective tool for dealing with political opponents - cheap to produce and absolutely reliable to use. It is not surprising that research in this area was assigned to the special services.
Within the walls of the RSHA - the Main Imperial Security Office of Nazi Germany - the toxin felosylaskinase was developed. Death occurred with symptoms similar to typhus, but what is most interesting is that the presence of poison could not be determined by any examination. Felozilaskinase was supposed to be used to eliminate the enemies of Germany, but the outbreak of the war and the fall of the National Socialist regime did not allow the leaders of the Third Reich to take full advantage of this formidable weapon.
In the thirties, a closed special laboratory “X” was formed under the central apparatus of the NKVD of the USSR, which was personally patronized by G.G. Yagoda and L.P. Beria. The topic of research by Chekist toxicologists, as hard as it may be to guess, is poisons. Moreover, such, the presence of which in the blood cannot be determined by any pathological autopsies. The laboratory was headed by a certain doctor of medical sciences, part-time state security major Maryanovsky.
The poisons he developed worked flawlessly because they were tested on prisoners sentenced to death in the Lubyanka internal prison. They caused death through paralysis of the heart muscle, hemorrhage in the brain or blockage of blood vessels. Judging by some data, Menzhinsky, Kuibyshev, and Gorky were killed with the products of this special laboratory.
Special drugs were also used to eliminate “enemies of the people” who had taken refuge in the West. In 1957, the ideologist of the People's Labor Union, Lev Rebet, was eliminated - a stream of some poisonous gas was sprayed in his face, causing cardiac arrest. In October 1959, KGB agents killed OUN leader Stepan Bandera using the same method. The public outcry caused by these operations in Western European countries forced the KGB leadership to abandon the practice of political assassinations outside the USSR. But a holy place is never empty. The Americans picked up the baton.
Interested in the experience of the Soviet intelligence services, the CIA began research in the field of creating instantaneous toxic substances. The first order for such drugs came in the summer of 1960, when the White House ordered the removal of Fidel Castro. Cigars, the favorite variety of the Cuban leader, were chosen as a means of liquidation. CIA pharmacologists proposed treating them with poison and presenting them through an agent embedded in his circle as a gift from his Latin American comrades.
The Central Intelligence Agency had in its arsenal such highly effective poisons as fluacetate soda, lead tetraethyl, and potassium cyanide, but the choice fell on botulinum toxin type "D" - the strongest of all currently known animal toxins. 10 milligrams of this substance can kill the entire population of the globe. Fidel died immediately, as soon as he put a poisoned cigar in his mouth. But the secret operation failed - Cuban counterintelligence officers worked professionally and managed to reliably block all approaches to Castro.
There was a lull for 18 long years, until dissident Georgiy Markov died in London in September 1978 at the hands of Bulgarian intelligence. He was killed by an umbrella shot with a tiny bullet poisoned by a ricin derivative. This poison is known for the fact that there is no antidote for it, and the symptoms of poisoning resemble the flu, which makes its identification extremely difficult. The iridium-platinum ball, smaller than the head of a pin, was filled with one milligram of ricin. And although Markov was immediately taken to the clinic, it was no longer possible to save him.
Suspicions immediately fell on the KGB - the Bulgarians did not have such sophisticated technology, but its functions (as it turned out later) were limited only to technical support for the operation. At the request of the Bulgarian comrades, they were provided with an umbrella-blowpipe and a micro-bullet with ricin. This was the end of the KGB's participation in Markov's murder. But the story did not end with the “Camera” - a semi-mythical unit of the First Main Directorate of the KGB of the USSR, which, according to defectors, was engaged in the development of special drugs.
Officially, all structures in the state security agencies responsible for the creation of toxins and poisons were closed in 1953, but whether this was actually the case is unknown. For “this mystery is great.” And we will find out about it, at best, in about 100 years, when all the direct participants in the events and their closest relatives have passed on to another world, and the archives have been thoroughly cleaned out. From time immemorial, everything that, in one way or another, relates to poisons has been considered classified information, not intended for publicity. This is an unwritten, but strictly enforced taboo, the violation of which is akin to a death sentence. And that’s why there are so many fables on this topic, and so little truth...
What do you think is the secret weapon of weak women and the most powerful men, obvious enemies and close friends? What, as world experience shows, is most effective in resolving conflicts? Without a doubt, the answer will be poison. It would not be an exaggeration to say that, as long as we know human civilization, there is just as many years of history of poisoning. Tangled and never-ending. There are few other areas of knowledge in which so many outstanding discoveries have been made, essentially criminal and inhumane, and apparently for this reason they are most in demand by the powers that be...
We find the first information about the use of poisons in ancient Greek myths. The greatest heroes of Hellas - the Argonaut Jason and the warrior Hercules - were poisoned by their loving wives. They suffered a painful death from clothes soaked in poison, paying for adultery at the highest price - their lives. Thus, women for the first time proved their undoubted superiority over the stronger sex and opened the hunting season for unfaithful husbands, who from now on had to think hard when starting an affair on the side, since its ending could be very sad.
The most ancient poisons, without a doubt, were poisons of plant and animal origin. Many dangerous creatures - snakes, spiders, scolopendras - have coexisted with man from time immemorial, and over time he learned to use their deadly weapons to his advantage. It is to the East - the focus of all conceivable poisonous creatures - that humanity owes the emergence of the most sophisticated methods of dealing with undesirables.
The following method can be considered one of the oldest: at night, several snakes were thrown into the enemy’s tent, which, in search of warmth, crawled under a person sleeping on the ground. As soon as he moved, the disturbed snakes bit him. For the fellow tribesmen of the stung man, his death seemed natural and accidental. The likelihood of success increased many times over if a king cobra was used as a weapon. The amount of poison she injects is extremely large. She simply “pumped” the victim with poison until convulsions and paralysis appeared. Death occurred almost instantly. An equally deadly weapon was the chain viper, the venom of which caused a person to bleed profusely from the nose, mouth, and eyes, usually ending in death.
With the advent of papyrus and parchment, this technique changed: poisonous insects or young kraits and pamas began to be wrapped in a scroll intended for the enemy. When trying to open it, there was a rapid attack by, to put it mildly, unfriendly and well-armed creatures. With all the ensuing consequences...
After some time, people learned to obtain venom from snakes and preserve it. In dry form, it can be stored for up to 20 years without losing any of its deadly properties. There was, however, one small catch: snake venom only worked if it got into the blood. It was necessary to inflict a wound in order to send his enemy to his forefathers, and the poison drunk did not produce any harmful effect.
Human thought found a worthy solution - poisons of plant origin were used. Our ancestors had an excellent understanding of the pharmacopoeia, distinguishing life-threatening plants - such as upas tree (anchara), strophanthus, strychnos, chilibukha - from safe ones. Already at the dawn of civilization, people knew how to make potions that acted as medicine in small doses, and as poison in large doses.
Since ancient times, the tribes of tropical Africa have used the fruits of Physostigma poisonosa as “judgment beans” called “ezera”. The suspect in a crime was given a decoction of these beans to drink. Death meant confirmation of the accusation, otherwise the subject was considered acquitted. Let us add that there were few such lucky ones: the fruits of physostigma (also known as Calabar beans) contain the strongest toxin “physostigmine”, which leaves practically no chance of survival.
The palm in the art of poisoning belonged to the Egyptian priests, who had solid knowledge of medicine. They developed a unique powder that is barely visible to the human eye. They put it in the bed, and as soon as you scratched it, it penetrated into the blood, causing it to become infected. The skin turned black, and after some time the person died. A mysterious death - at the behest of the Gods who did not know pity, who were on short terms with the clergy. Pharaohs came and went (sometimes suspiciously at a young age), but the priests remained the true rulers of Egypt. Their power rested on knowledge and superstition, and therefore they were omnipotent.
The sons of Hellas also preferred poisons of plant origin, such as hemlock or hemlock. Many noble citizens carried the roots of these poisonous plants with them, just in case of emergency. When the roots were taken internally, breathing stopped and death occurred from suffocation. Not the easiest death, but sure. The Greeks were even ready to give up their lives under a court verdict rather than be punished in any other way. In 399 BC. Socrates, the greatest philosopher of antiquity, was sentenced to civil execution by poisoning for “the introduction of new deities and for the corruption of youth.” The last thing he tasted was hemlock.
The knowledge of the Greeks in toxicology (from the Greek "toxicon" - poison) was drawn mainly from Asia and Egypt. There was a mutually beneficial exchange of recipes for toxic substances. The result of this “barter” was the death of one of the most talented commanders of antiquity - Alexander the Great. Most likely, he was poisoned with the Indian poison "bih" in 323 BC. at the age of 33 years. This poison is known for killing gradually, sucking out life, drop by drop, unnoticeably and painlessly.
At the same time, attempts were made to neutralize the effects of poisons. They are associated, first of all, with the name of the Pontic king Mithridates VI Eupator. In the 1st century BC. this glorious satrap, who was terribly afraid of poisoning, began to accustom his precious body to potent toxins, ingesting insignificant, over and over again increasing, doses of “arsinocone” - arsenic. Thus, Mithridates developed a strong immunity to most of the toxic substances known at that time, earning unfading fame in the memory of his contemporaries.
Less skillful rulers limited themselves to demanding that their entourage “kiss the cup” - that is, drink several sips of wine from it, thereby proving that it was not poisoned. Doctors of antiquity noticed that in case of poisoning, taking emetics, laxatives, bile and diuretics helps. They also knew adsorbent substances that absorb and remove poisons from the body.
In Ancient Egypt, Greece, Rome and India, patients with poisoning were prescribed charcoal, clay, and crushed peat. In China, thick rice broth was used for the same purposes, enveloping and protecting the mucous membranes of the stomach and intestines. For snake bites, the root of the Asia Minor plant was used as an antidote. He is mentioned by Theophrastus, “the father of botany.”
Poison not only saved from enemies, but also saved from shame. He killed without pain, did not maim, which is probably why the fairer sex was so fond of him. Women preferred to die beautiful and young, and only poison could guarantee them this. Thus the sun set for Cleopatra, heiress of the ancient pharaohs. She let herself be bitten by an Egyptian cobra hidden in a fruit basket. She was forced to commit suicide by the complete impossibility of breaking free. Cleopatra chose to die so as not to be dishonored by the Roman legionnaires. A beautiful woman, she died beautifully - like a king, with her head held high.
Toxicology was further developed in the works of the Roman physician Galen. His compatriots borrowed a lot from the conquered peoples of Asia Minor. They were the first to turn ordinary poisoning into a real science. The Romans discovered a method of food poisoning. River lamprey soup, prepared in a certain way, completely replaced the poisonous drugs of the priests. A personal chef could turn out to be a tool in the hands of ill-wishers, and then it would be impossible to escape.
The first decades of the new era were marked by a series of suspicious deaths of august persons. In the year 23, the son of Emperor Tiberius, Julius Drusus, died, then Britannicus, the son of Emperor Claudius. In the year 54, Claudius himself died under strange circumstances. All of them were poisoned, the last two by the same woman. Her name is Agrippina. The greatest poisoner of the Roman Empire was not insane or pathologically bloodthirsty, she did it for the sake of her own child, whom she had from Claudius. Having eliminated Britannicus, the emperor's son from his first marriage, and then Claudius himself, she was going to clear his path to the throne. Despite all the tricks, Agrippina's son never became Caesar.
The way Agrippina eliminated her competitors cannot but cause admiration: she fed both father and son toxic mushrooms. Their effect turned out to be too weak. Then the “loving wife” called her aesculapian. He injected a bird's feather into Claudia's throat as an emetic. The emperor and his son did not even suspect that it was saturated with the poison “akanite”. Blue buttercup - its second name - has been known since time immemorial. In China it was used to poison arrows, in Nepal they poisoned water wells (so that they would not fall to the enemy), in Tibet this plant was recognized as the “king of medicine”. The alkaloid "akanitin" is found in all parts of the flower. Even honey containing acanitine pollen is poisonous. Apparently this made him popular among poisoners. Cheap, convenient and practical!
The achievements of ancient toxicologists would have sunk into oblivion if they had not been in demand by barbarians striving for civilization. Poisons served equally faithfully both the Roman Caesars and the leaders of the Hunnic tribes. Poisoning as a form of political struggle reached its true scale in Asian countries. Sending your closest relative to your ancestors in Heaven has always been considered in the East as something taken for granted. Elderly fathers, without any twinge of conscience, killed newly born children, and young heirs of parents who had stayed too long on the throne, and all for the sake of power.
In 1227, Jochi, the eldest son of the Shaker of the Universe, Genghis Khan, suddenly passed away. The beloved son, the most talented and capable, was cunningly given a potion. On whose conscience his death is on - only God knows, but the fact that the younger sons of the Kagan were the winner is an indisputable fact. Someone from their circle - either on their own initiative or following an order - tried very hard to eliminate a dangerous competitor.
By this time, Chinese poisons were in vogue. They acted for sure. Some poisons killed immediately after consumption, others decomposed the body for months and even years, bringing unbearable pain and suffering. The Chinese were considered unsurpassed experts in the field of toxicology. They knew how to compose complex compositions from many herbs, roots, fruits, and process them in a special way, achieving the desired effect. The belief in the omnipotence of the pharmacologists of the Celestial Empire was so strong that many believed in the existence of a poison they had invented that turned people into dwarfs. Legends about this terrible potion were passed down from century to century, disturbing the minds of ordinary people.
Chilling stories were also told about the secret Muslim order of assassins. This underground organization terrified the entire Middle East with its political murders. At the head of the order was Shah al-Jabal - the Old Man of the Mountain. For almost 200 years (from the 11th to the 13th centuries), the assassins terrorized the rulers of the Central Asian states, delivering punitive blows where no one expected them. They even penetrated Europe, spreading fear and death around them. The Assassins actively used poisons to achieve their political goals. One of the order’s many victims was the legendary Mamluk Sultan Baybars, who was killed in 1277 in Damascus. The poison was trivially poured into his cup of wine. The audacity with which this was done apparently contributed to the success. The most banal thing, needless to say, is poisoning, although the simplest solutions, as history shows, are often the most effective...
A new word in the art of poisoning was introduced by the Japanese brothers of assassins - ninjutsu spies. The masters of this school developed the secret technique of “death touches”. It consisted in the fact that the scouts covered their brush with a special strengthening composition prepared on the basis of milkweed juice, after which they applied a thin layer of transparent poison. As soon as, during a conversation or fight, one touched the enemy’s mucous membrane with a “poisoned hand” - lips, eyes, tongue - he received an incompatible portion of poison isolated from shikishima fruits or daffniphyllum seeds. A balm based on milkweed served as protection against the pervasive poison, preventing it from being absorbed into the skin of the hand. The balm held the poison for only 4 hours. The slightest delay threatened the ninja himself with death.
The Spaniards and Italians - Borgia, Medici, Sforza - gained sad fame as the best European poisoners. The first place, of course, belongs to the aristocrats of the Borgia family. Their cunning was incredible: they easily and with extraordinary creativity sent their opponents to the next world, regardless of their age or their social position in society. The poisoning turned Borgia into a carefully choreographed performance, where evening horseback rides, luxurious feasts, hugs and kisses were only a prelude to a sophisticated murder.
The Borgias were Spanish by origin, but made their name in Italy, occupying the highest positions in this country for almost two centuries. They got the secrets of reliable poisons from the Moors, who in turn took them from Arabia. Having cut a peach in half, Caesar Borgia ate half of it himself and offered the other half to his guest. When he died, as they say “under strange circumstances,” Caesar, in response to all reproaches and accusations, pointed to himself, cheerful and healthy.
The highest-ranking poisoner in the family was Rodrigo Borgia (Caesar's father), also known as Pope Alexander VI. This vicious and voluptuous old man amused himself by poisoning the cardinals subordinate to him, testing on them the intricate recipes of old alchemists, like Nicholas Mireps, Paracelsus or Arnaldo de Vilanova. Guests invited to dinner with the pope sat down at the table with great caution, for his skill in poisoning was unsurpassed. It was this that destroyed him. Alexander VI died in August 1503, poisoned by his own poison, which was intended for Cardinal de Carnetto, but which mistakenly ended up on the table of the pope. With his death, the Borgia family withered away from the historical scene.
The baton was intercepted by the Florentine Medici - bankers, dukes and rich people. Their family coat of arms featured red balls - a reminder of their origin. For they were pharmacists. The Medici family recipe has been preserved: “If you make a hole in a peach tree and drive arsenic and realgar, sublimated and infused in vodka, into it, this has the power to make its fruit poisonous.” In a similar way, in the 16th century, his own nephew Alessandro Cardinal Ippolito Medici was poisoned.
Similar techniques were also used by the “dogs of God” - the monks of the Catholic Jesuit order. They never skimped on their means, fighting apostates with all available means. Among them is this: a person sentenced to death by a secret Jesuit court was given a gift of a precious tome, the leaves of which had previously been treated with a tasteless poison. By picking through the stuck pages and wetting his fingers with saliva, the bookworm was killing himself without even knowing it. Poisoned weapons were intended to eliminate knights and hunting enthusiasts, and cosmetics and clothing treated with poison were intended for dandies and women.
Truly, rings filled with a deadly potion have become a universal means of poisoning. Some of them had barely noticeable thorns, upon which one could prick oneself into eternal sleep. The poison could be anywhere: in a scarf, in a button on a camisole, under a cuff or on the tip of a knife. Many aristocrats got rid of annoying suitors in the simplest way, as it seemed to them, by pouring an explosive decoction of henbane and belladonna into a glass of wine. By the way, belladona means “beautiful lady” in Italian, which indicates its wide popularity among loving Italian women.
But the French women were no slouch either. Four years apart, 17th-century France was rocked by two criminal trials involving two frail women. The first criminal case concerned Marie Madeleine de Brenvilliers, née d'Aubray. Her story resembles an adventure novel. A very young Marie Madeleine marries the elderly Marquis de Brenvilliers. She then takes on a lover named Sainte-Croix, but he is soon put behind bars. There he meets an Italian alchemist, a great expert in poisons. Sainte-Croix receives some secrets from him and conveys them to Marie Madeleine.
Soon, an incomprehensible illness begins to worry the marquise’s father, Mr. d’Aubray. He dies suddenly, transferring all his property not to his daughter, but to his sons. One after another they die painfully, going to the next world young and full of strength. This becomes suspicious, the corpses are opened, but nothing is found. And only by chance does the solution to the mysterious deaths of the men of the d’Aubray family become known. Sainte-Croix dies after carelessly inhaling mercury vapor in his secret laboratory. Investigators find a box of poisons in his office. In Sainte-Croix's will, only one name was indicated - to transfer the box to Marie Madeleine. The young marquise was arrested, but with bribes she managed to escape from prison and hide abroad. A few years later she was nevertheless arrested, and in 1676 she was sentenced by the Supreme Court to be beheaded.
A year later, the famous “case of poisons” began in Paris. Marguerite Monvoisin, the jeweler's wife, appeared before the secret tribunal of France. She was found guilty of manufacturing and selling toxic substances. The process was made scandalous by the fact that the main customers of the poisons were the courtiers of Louis XIV. Among the customers were the king's favorites - Madame de Montespan and Madame de Soissons. At the Monvoisin estate, investigators discovered a rich collection of potions and embryos of 2,500 miscarriages, cured by aristocrats with the help of “medicines” from an enterprising jeweler. Having received a royal order to “not look at faces,” Marguerite Monvoisin was sentenced to death in 1680.
However, the dubious honor of the largest poisoner of all times belongs not to a Frenchwoman, but to an Italian. Signora Tofana managed to send about 600 people to Heaven in her life. With a significant lag behind her are Catherine de Medici and Bona Sforza. Brilliant women and outstanding poisoners. Each of them has a good dozen corpses. They actively fought for power, and chose only those who interfered with them as victims of their intrigues. Nothing personal - only state interests. Despite all the similarities, the methods they used differed. Catherine de Medici preferred poisonous perfumes and poisoned gloves, and Bona Sforza preferred classic powders, roots and drops.
One of the popular and sought-after poisons of that era was Anamyrtus cocculus. The fruits of this tree were exported from India and were called “fructus coculi” in Medieval Europe. The pyrotoxin they contained caused convulsions, which resulted in inevitable death. This poison was widespread in the south.
The northern kingdoms - Denmark, Norway, Sweden, England - made do with available “remedies”: poisonous mushrooms and plants of local flora. Let's remember Shakespeare: Hamlet's father accepted his death, being poisoned by the "cursed juice of henbane."
Whose property
So deeply hostile to our blood,
What, quick as mercury, it penetrates
In suitable gates and passages of the body
And it turns abruptly and suddenly,
Living blood...
A stunningly dramatic medical report on toxic poisoning. However, in the lines above, Shakespeare made a serious mistake: henbane juice does not clot blood. The alkaloids it contains - atropine, hyoscyamine, scopolamine - are poisons that do not have a hemolytic, but a nerve-paralytic effect. The symptoms of poisoning for the father of the Danish prince would have been completely different - delirium, sudden excitation of the central nervous system, convulsions, and only then death.
If for Shakespeare the murderer of the king was his own brother, then among the Spaniards, as a rule, the current monarch was responsible for the poisoning. With the help of an ordinary apothecary enema and a family poison called "Recuscat in Pase", King Philip II disavowed the claims of his son Don Carlos to the throne. The young man gave his soul to God, and the fanatical father himself was subsequently “fed” poison by his last wife, who did not forgive Philip for his frequent adultery. It is difficult to remember another case where a murderer was punished with the same weapon with which he himself killed. Justice triumphs. Sometimes...
At the same time, methods of protection were also improved. Medieval medicine recommended extensive bloodletting to remove poison from the body. Two or three cups of blood released from a vein increased the likelihood of recovery, although not always. The most prudent nobles tested suspicious food and drink on dogs, considering them the best indicators of the presence of poison. In the XVII-XVIII centuries. The fashion for licking arsenic, bequeathed once by King Mithridates, has returned. The desired effect was achieved after months of exercise, when the number of licks reached 40-50 per day. Only after this the body acquired immunity to poisons. This science was comprehended mainly by diplomats who were at the forefront of political struggle and therefore risked their own lives more than others.
At other times, the confrontation between European powers over spheres of influence acquired a clearly toxicological character. In 1748, knowledge of the characteristics of tropical fish helped the French defend an island in the Indian Ocean from the claims of the British crown. The 1,500 British soldiers preparing for the assault were cordially fed with reef perches, unusual in taste and... inedible. This is exactly how - without unnecessary costs or shots - several natives hired by the French easily knocked out a full-blooded regiment of the royal army.
The British turned out to be unusually vindictive and patient, for they waited 70 years to get even for their humiliating defeat. In 1821, Napoleon Bonaparte dies on the island of St. Helena. Somehow too fleeting. Even then, suspicions arose that he died a violent death. This was a blow to the very heart of France, which idolized its genius. Indirect confirmation of this version is the fact that in our time an increased concentration of arsenic was discovered in Napoleon’s hair.
The mechanism of poisoning was most likely the following: small doses of arsenic were added to food and drink by the retinue general Charles Montolon. This caused stomach pain, and doctors prescribed Napoleon mercuric chloride - calomel - as a painkiller. In combination with hydrocyanic acid, which is found in almonds, calomel becomes poisonous. And in March 1821, almonds suddenly began to be added to Napoleon’s syrup. On May 3 of the same year, the emperor was given 10 grains of mercury chloride at once - three times the maximum dose! On May 5, 1821 he died. And a healthier person would not have withstood such concentrations, what can we say about the sick and no longer young Napoleon Bonaparte...
By that time, Europe was experiencing a sharp surge in interest in poisons. Such powerful toxins as strychnine, brucine, and hydrocyanic acid have already been synthesized. Classic poisons - like hemlock and curare - were seeing their last days, relegated to the world of legends and legends. Private initiative gave way to state interests, and the development of poisons began to be taken seriously.
The peak of discoveries occurred in the 20th century. Poisons turned out to be the most effective tool for dealing with political opponents - cheap to produce and absolutely reliable to use. It is not surprising that research in this area was assigned to the special services.
Within the walls of the RSHA - the Main Imperial Security Office of Nazi Germany - the toxin felosylaskinase was developed. Death occurred with symptoms similar to typhus, but what is most interesting is that the presence of poison could not be determined by any examination. Felozilaskinase was supposed to be used to eliminate the enemies of Germany, but the outbreak of the war and the fall of the National Socialist regime did not allow the leaders of the Third Reich to take full advantage of this formidable weapon.
In the thirties, a closed special laboratory “X” was formed under the central apparatus of the NKVD of the USSR, which was personally patronized by G.G. Yagoda and L.P. Beria. The topic of research by Chekist toxicologists, as hard as it may be to guess, is poisons. Moreover, such, the presence of which in the blood cannot be determined by any pathological autopsies. The laboratory was headed by a certain doctor of medical sciences, part-time state security major Maryanovsky.
The poisons he developed worked flawlessly because they were tested on prisoners sentenced to death in the Lubyanka internal prison. They caused death through paralysis of the heart muscle, hemorrhage in the brain or blockage of blood vessels. Judging by some data, Menzhinsky, Kuibyshev, and Gorky were killed with the products of this special laboratory.
Special drugs were also used to eliminate “enemies of the people” who had taken refuge in the West. In 1957, the ideologist of the People's Labor Union, Lev Rebet, was eliminated - a stream of some poisonous gas was sprayed in his face, causing cardiac arrest. In October 1959, KGB agents killed OUN leader Stepan Bandera using the same method. The public outcry caused by these operations in Western European countries forced the KGB leadership to abandon the practice of political assassinations outside the USSR. But a holy place is never empty. The Americans picked up the baton.
Interested in the experience of the Soviet intelligence services, the CIA began research in the field of creating instantaneous toxic substances. The first order for such drugs came in the summer of 1960, when the White House ordered the removal of Fidel Castro. Cigars, the favorite variety of the Cuban leader, were chosen as a means of liquidation. CIA pharmacologists proposed treating them with poison and presenting them through an agent embedded in his circle as a gift from his Latin American comrades.
The Central Intelligence Agency had in its arsenal such highly effective poisons as fluacetate soda, lead tetraethyl, and potassium cyanide, but the choice fell on botulinum toxin type "D" - the strongest of all currently known animal toxins. 10 milligrams of this substance can kill the entire population of the globe. Fidel died immediately, as soon as he put a poisoned cigar in his mouth. But the secret operation failed - Cuban counterintelligence officers worked professionally and managed to reliably block all approaches to Castro.
There was a lull for 18 long years, until dissident Georgiy Markov died in London in September 1978 at the hands of Bulgarian intelligence. He was killed by an umbrella shot with a tiny bullet poisoned by a ricin derivative. This poison is known for the fact that there is no antidote for it, and the symptoms of poisoning resemble the flu, which makes its identification extremely difficult. The iridium-platinum ball, smaller than the head of a pin, was filled with one milligram of ricin. And although Markov was immediately taken to the clinic, it was no longer possible to save him.
Suspicions immediately fell on the KGB - the Bulgarians did not have such sophisticated technology, but its functions (as it turned out later) were limited only to technical support for the operation. At the request of the Bulgarian comrades, they were provided with an umbrella-blowpipe and a micro-bullet with ricin. This was the end of the KGB's participation in Markov's murder. But the story did not end with the “Camera” - a semi-mythical unit of the First Main Directorate of the KGB of the USSR, which, according to defectors, was engaged in the development of special drugs.
Officially, all structures in the state security agencies responsible for the creation of toxins and poisons were closed in 1953, but whether this was actually the case is unknown. For “this mystery is great.” And we will find out about it, at best, in about 100 years, when all the direct participants in the events and their closest relatives have passed on to another world, and the archives have been thoroughly cleaned out. From time immemorial, everything that, in one way or another, relates to poisons has been considered classified information, not intended for publicity. This is an unwritten, but strictly enforced taboo, the violation of which is akin to a death sentence. And that’s why there are so many fables on this topic, and so little truth...
Our world is toxic. Oxygen in the air, water in the tap and salt in soup can send you to the next world if consumed in excess. However, in living and inanimate nature there are substances that are not only harmful if you put them in your mouth, but even if you take them in your hands. At the same time, they are very useful. The same compounds can be used to produce alcohol, fertilizers, medicines, and, if the wind direction is favorable, to destroy an entire army on the battlefield. They are very practical. Just one drop in a glass of wine is enough to change the ruling dynasty and change the course of history. They are cheap and can literally be made from toothpaste. They must be taken into account.
The historical career of poisons began with arrows poisoned by the mucus of frogs and led to secret military substances, one drop of which could destroy an entire city. These are no longer the romantic poisons of Shakespeare, conjuring up deadly charades for us in the spirit of Agatha Christie. Modern poisons make no difference between Hitler and Tokyo subway passengers. They surround us everywhere. Prepare for a journey through the poisoned history of mankind.
Why are you poisoning?
Strychonos is poisonous, the main component of curare. |
The simplest poisons have been known to mankind since the dawn of its existence, when someone very observant noticed that small animals that ate berries in that clearing died after five steps, and people clutch their stomachs and do not crawl out of the bushes for hours.
The idea of using the destructive properties of plants and animals first came to the minds of hunters. Our distant ancestors went out not just to hunt, but rather to fight. There were still lions in Europe, and the number of animals on the planet was such that they considered man only as an annoying obstacle on the way from point A to point B.
At first, people could only oppose the animal kingdom with spears and clubs. Any increase in their effectiveness made the hunter's life a little longer. Archaeological excavations show that some ancient tools had grooves - possibly for poison. However, in Northern Europe there were no available natural substances capable of killing large animals outright and, moreover, safe for ingesting poisoned meat.
The greatest experience of using poisons in hunting belongs to Asian, South American and African peoples, who had access to strong natural poisons. However, there is no exact dating of this “invention”. Based on the fact that projectiles were almost always the means of delivering poison, we can estimate the age of poisonous arrows and darts at approximately 6 thousand years.
The most “advertised” hunting poison is considered to be the South American one. curare- a muscle relaxant of plant origin that stops breathing. It is valuable because it does not penetrate the mucous membrane well and is relatively safe for using killed prey for food. Half a century ago it was used as an anesthesia.
In Africa and Asia, during hunting, and subsequently in war, plant juices with a high content of strophanin, which affected the central nervous system, were used. For example, the Ainu (Japan) lubricated arrows with aconite milk and went with them to kill the bear. One of the first - however, as always - was the Chinese who thought of using poisonous arrows in war.
Oh yes Pushkin!Thanks to Pushkin, the poison of anchar (antiaris - literally “against the tip”) or upas tree, originally from Indonesia, is well known in Russia. The legends about the barren desert and bones around the anchor, as well as the fact that birds flying over it die, are clearly of a fairy-tale nature. The fact is that in Java, anchar grew in volcanic valleys, replete with sulfurous secretions - barren and lifeless places. However, the milky juice of the anchar had nothing to do with it. The only risk for a person climbing an anchor is to fall and break his neck. Some types of anchar are used to make crafts, bags, and even construction veneer. |
South American Indians extracted poison by roasting poisonous frogs over coals. The slime on the skin of the terrible leaf climber contained so much batrachotoxin that it was enough to just lightly run a dart over it.
The least powerful poisons were those from insects. In the Kalahari Desert (Africa), diamphidia larvae were squeezed onto arrowheads. Their toxins acted very slowly, and a wounded animal could move up to 100 kilometers away from the hunter.
The custom of using poisons in hunting persisted even when it ceased to serve as the main source of food. It is known that in 1143, the Byzantine emperor John the Handsome (named as such as a joke due to his rare ugliness) died while hunting a boar, accidentally poking himself in the arm with his own poisoned arrow.
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Peach Punishment
The most ancient civilizations on the planet cannot boast of good knowledge of poisons. In Mesopotamia, the gods of medicine often “combined” these functions with the patronage of war, so doctors had no illusions about their profession and limited themselves only to spells and herbs*. The development of medicine in Mesopotamia was so weak that, according to Herodotus, the Babylonians brought the sick to the market and asked passers-by what they would recommend treating them with. Archaeologist Leonard Woolley suggested that poisons could have been used at Ur during the king's funeral to voluntarily kill his retinue in a common grave.
*In Babylon, shamma meant both medicine and herb.
The Egyptians had a much better understanding of toxins. They knew henbane, strychnine and opium. Medicine was prepared from the pulp of peaches, and hydrocyanic acid was expelled from their pits, which was apparently used to execute overly talkative priests. There is a papyrus in the Louvre that reads: “Do not pronounce the name of Iao under penalty of punishment with a peach.”
The Greeks and Romans became the true masters of poisons. According to Homer, the Greeks used poisoned arrows during the siege of Troy. Paris was wounded by a poisoned arrow on Mount Ida. Hercules imbued his arrows with the poison of the Lernaean hydra, and during his battle with Cerberus, the caustic saliva from the latter’s mouth watered the ground so abundantly that aconite (wrestler) grew in that place - the herb from which the poison was prepared.
The Greek words for "poison" and "onion" have the same root. However, the use of poisons in war (lubricating weapons or poisoning water) was condemned for the reason that hidden killing does not honor a warrior. Both the Greeks and Romans despised barbarians because they soaked their arrows in poison. At the same time, the Greeks were not at all shy about poisoning each other “in the rear.”
Poisons were the “last argument of kings.” Cleopatra died due to the bite of a viper. And the king Mithridates He was so afraid of poisoners that from childhood he began to develop immunity by taking a special mixture of poisons and antidotes. When a rebellion arose against him, Mithridates tried to poison himself - but not a single train would take him. The difficulty was resolved by the guard piercing the king with a sword.
The recipe for Mithridates’ wonderful mixture was allegedly taken to Rome by the commander Pompey. Since then, legends have circulated throughout Europe about “mitridatum” - a powder of 65 ingredients that helped against any ailment. Doctors prescribed this dubious mixture of herbs and dried lizards until the 18th century.
Plutarch in Artaxerxes talks about the deadly feud between the wife of the Persian king Stateira and his mother Parysatis. Women were wary of each other and ate the same food from the same plates. Precautions did not help - the mother cut the game with a knife, one side of which was smeared with poison, and swallowed a safe piece. Having eaten the poison, Stateira died. The enraged Artaxerxes ordered the execution of the entire retinue of Parysatis (according to the customs of Persia, the poisoner was placed with his head on a stone and beaten with another stone until the skull was flattened).
In Athens there was a state poison - hemlock (hemlock juice, paralyzing the endings of motor nerves, causing convulsions and suffocation). It was “prescribed” to criminals. Hemlock went down in history as Socrates' poison. The most democratic city of Hellas sentenced the great thinker to death on the absurd charge of denying the gods and corrupting youth. According to the execution regulations, after taking the poison, the convicts were asked to lie down, as their limbs quickly became numb. When the cold reached the heart, death occurred.
An equally famous victim of democratic justice was Demosthenes. The people of Athens sentenced him to death, but the orator got ahead of the “man hunters” sent after him, hid in the temple of Poseidon and took a writing stick into which hemlock was poured. Feeling death, Demosthenes approached the altar, said a few words and fell.
Death of Demosthenes. |
Rome was a real paradise for poisoners. Everyone and everything was poisoned here. During the period of civil wars, suicide was actually legalized: if there were good reasons, one could receive a decoction of aconite or hemlock from the state. Tacitus says that during the trial, the accused often drank poison immediately after the prosecutor spoke.
Poison in a cup was considered the main way to move up the social ladder. The tasters were so in demand that they united into a special panel. To gain the throne, Caligula poisoned his uncle Tiberius (by strangling him, while still alive, with a pile of clothes). “The Boot” amused himself by sending poisoned delicacies to many Romans and testing new compounds on slaves. After his death, a large chest of poisons was discovered in the emperor’s chambers. According to legend, Claudius ordered this box to be thrown into the sea, after which dead fish washed ashore for a long time.
Claudius died from the poison of the famous poisoner Locusta, hired by his wife Agrippina. According to rumors, the murder instrument could have been either mushrooms or a poisoned feather, which was used to tickle the throat to induce vomiting after heavy feasting. Agrippina's son, the notorious Nero, also resorted to the services of Locusta to get rid of the rightful heir to the throne - young Britannicus. The first dose of poison was too weak - the guy only became weaker. Enraged, Nero beat Locusta and forced her to cook poison right in her bedroom. The taster's check was bypassed by poisoning the water used to dilute the wine (the taster did not taste it). The victim died within a few hours.
The scale of poisoning was so great that Emperor Trajan banned the cultivation of aconite, the juice of which was the main component of poisons of that time. With the transfer of the capital of the empire to Byzantium, poisoning began to decline. The Greeks preferred to blind their competitors rather than poison them.
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Paracelsus taught that medicine differs from poison only in dose. Aspirin, iodine, caffeine and nicotine are poisonous. For obvious reasons, we do not indicate lethal doses. You can even get poisoned by water if you drink an incredibly large amount of it in a very short time. Most often this happens in the USA during idiotic competitions (who can eat or drink the most), during the punishment of children, during student initiation or drug intoxication. The cause of death was a drop in the level of electrolytes in the blood plasma. Symptoms include fatigue, confusion, nausea, vomiting, and convulsions. An adult needs about 2 liters of water per day, but even if you drink more, poisoning will not occur. The “lethal” dose of water is about 10 liters per hour. In the 14th century, Chinese strategist Chiao Yu proposed filling metal hand grenades with gunpowder mixed with poison to increase their killing effect. Meanwhile, arsenic* (arsenic oxide, also known as white arsenic) came from the East to Europe - the ideal weapon of a medieval killer, dissolving in water without color or odor, deadly at a dose of over 60 milligrams and giving symptoms of poisoning that are easily confused with cholera . In those days, it was considered good form to poison people not immediately, but gradually, in small doses, so doctors diagnosed many poisonings as other diseases (even venereal). *Arsenicon, from the Greek “arsen” - strong, courageous (it was considered a medicine for a long time). The Russian name “arsenic” comes from the custom of poisoning mice with it.
Poorly educated Europeans knew nothing about poisons - except that the easiest way to get poisoned was with pharmaceutical drugs. Naturally, there were clever businessmen who sold magical amulets against poisoning (it was assumed that jasper or crystal darkened upon contact with poison, and “safe” bowls were made from them). The Italians were the least likely to spare each other arsenic. The Borgia family especially distinguished itself in this field. For example, Pope Alexander VI (in the world Rodrigo de Borgia) received the nickname “Satan’s apothecary.” He turned his yard into a nest of debauchery, simultaneously cohabiting with three women (according to other versions, there were many more cohabitants) and, according to rumors, with his own daughter (a poisoner like her father). The Pope also succeeded in creating poisons, which he generously “treated” to his ill-wishers. Dad’s favorite hellish cocktail was “cantarella” - arsenic, copper salts and phosphorus. In those days, many courtiers could boast: “Today I am dining with the Borgia,” but few could say, “I was dining with the Borgia.” The Borgia family had ingenious murder weapons in their arsenal. Alexander VI had a key with which he offered his guests to open one of the palace rooms. The key contained a tip rubbed with poison. Likewise, the Borgias used poisoned needles to surreptitiously prick victims in a festive crowd. There were also rings with hidden containers that poured poison into the glass being served, or with spikes on the back that injected poison when shaking hands. The death of Alexander VI was absurd - he planned to kill three unwanted cardinals, but mistakenly drank the poison himself. The son, Cesare Borgia, diluted the wine with water, so he suffered for a long time from the consequences of poisoning, but remained alive. However, there are other versions that reject the idea of a mistake and develop the idea that the famous hunter eventually became the victim himself. There were also poisoners who were less noble, but more deadly. A certain Tofana from Naples started selling “healing” bottles with the image of St. Nicholas of Bari. 600 people died before doctors inquired about the contents of the “medicine” and found out that it was an arsenic solution. In 1589, a certain Giovanni Porta published a practical guide to poisons, recommending treating enemies with pills made from aconite juice, lime, arsenic, bitter almonds and crushed glass. Non-standard long-term poisonings were carried out by coating a coin, letter or saddle with poison (the Spaniards tried to get rid of Queen Elizabeth I in this way). The baton was taken over by Catherine de Medici, who brought the poisonous customs of Spain to France. She had a whole staff of dubious “perfumers” who made perfumes and gloves. The Queen of Navarre died from a pair of such gloves (doctors wrote that the poison penetrated “from the gloves into the brain,” but modern researchers suspect more prosaic arsenic in food). It got to the point that Henry IV, during his stay in the Louvre, ate only eggs he prepared with his own hands and drank water that he collected from the Seine. Noble poisoners became so reckless that the king had to establish a secret court for aristocrats in cases of alchemy, black magic and poisoning. Bans on the free circulation of poisons were issued in accordance with the prevalence of poisoning in countries. The first were, naturally, the Italians. In 1365, pharmacists in Siena were required to sell arsenic and sublimate only to people they knew. In France, poisons were banned in 1662. But in our country such a law was issued only in 1733. It was forbidden to sell to private individuals “vitriol and amber oil, strong vodka, arsenic and celibate*.” *“Vomit nut” containing strychnine. By the 18th century, the need for “countermeasures” had become not just urgent, but desperate. Since ancient times, the diagnosis of poisoning has been made based on cadaveric changes. If the body of the deceased turned blue (like Britannicus, who had to paint his face before the funeral), his nails fell off (like Maria Louise, the wife of the Spanish King Carlos II) or decomposition, on the contrary, proceeded very slowly, doctors concluded that he was poisoned. The 19th century presented chemists with many surprises. While researching poisons, they made valuable discoveries one after another. In 1803, morphine was isolated from opium, strychnine was obtained in 1818, quinine in 1820, and caffeine in 1826. Next, coniine was obtained from hemlock, nicotine from tobacco and atropine from belladonna. Scientists have learned to detect arsenic and mercury in hair, which raised doubts about the natural causes of Napoleon's death (1821). It would seem that scientific progress would stand in the way of the poisoners - however, Paracelsus’ formula worked here too. Chemists created new medicines and new poisons. At the end of the 18th century, cyanide was obtained - the favorite poison of characters in spy and detective stories. During the First World War, ricin entered the arena, which later became a poison for the military and intelligence services.
***Fortunately, the time of mass poisonings has passed. The vast majority of mineral and organic poisons are well known to modern toxicologists. Poisoners can no longer act with impunity, as in the era of arsenic. Poisons for the most part became the lot of doctors, military and intelligence services. These days you can only get poisoned by accident. But the danger still remains. Progress has brought upon us an avalanche of household substances that are “one step away” from poisons. Artificial dyes, insecticides, food additives... Children are especially vulnerable - according to statistics, poisoning is the 4th leading cause of child mortality. Be careful and remember: medicine differs from poison only in dose. |
History of the use of poisons
Venom poisoning is often called the “weapon of cowards.” But, if you trace the history of the use of poisons, then such a definition does not seem flawless. We know from archaeological evidence that primitive people sought to find weapons that would be more effective against animals and enemies. In their search, in addition to healing substances, poisonous (poisonous) substances were found that could be used as weapons.
Archaeological finds of hunting tools that contained harmful substances, such as tubocurarine, prove this
Information about toxic substances was kept secret; only some members of the tribe owned the secret. This gave them power and authority. The ritual of preparing poisons was considered the most important step in the act of poisoning.
Toxicology, the name given to the study of poisons, comes from the Greek word, toxon. This is a bow and arrow. The word toxeuma meant arrow, and toxicos - an arrow poisoned with poison, which in ancient times was often used as the most deadly weapon.
In ancient times, poisons were viewed primarily as "mysterious" substances and were defined as substances that kill. However, a typical example is that table salt in large quantities also kills. But is salt poison? Maybe it's all about microdoses? So what is poison?
The use of poisons dates back to ancient times of mythological beliefs. Perhaps the first records of them appeared among the Sumerians in Mesopotamia (modern Iraq). There are references to poison in Greek mythology, although there is no obvious reference to specific poisons. For example, that Theseus returned to Athens to claim his rights; and Medea, according to the myth, indignant at this, tried to poison Theseus with a poisoned cup.
Or here, Menes is an early record of an Egyptian king about the properties of poisonous plants. Detailed recording was not typical in these times, since it was forbidden to reveal any secrets taught in the temples. Exposing these secrets was punishable by death. There is, however, ample evidence, from various papyri, that the Egyptians were versed in antimony, copper, raw arsenic, lead, opium, mandrake, and other poisonous substances.
Some papyri also show how the Egyptians were probably the first people to master distillation and discover a way to extract the powerful poison from peach pits. A translation of Duteuil, on a papyrus in the Louvre, shows the earliest records of the drug for lethal purposes. Today, this extract is known as hydrocyanic acid (potassium cyanide). Peach kernels contain “cyanogenic glycosides” and release toxic substances in the presence of water.
The ancient Greeks had an understanding of arsenic and of metals such as lead, mercury, gold, silver, copper and their properties to some extent. As for plant poisons, the Greeks mainly used Hemlock. It was poison for suicidal purposes.
Under certain conditions, suicide at this time was noted to be noble, and the use of the "poisoned cup" was often sanctioned as a form of capital punishment. "State Poison" is a species of Hemlock, known as Poison Hemlock.
The dose, however, was not always lethal, and a repeat dose was often required. The Phocian describes it this way: “having drunk all the juice of Hemlock, the quantity was considered insufficient, and the executioner refused to cook more unless he was paid 12 drachmas.” A more famous case of execution is described by Plato: Socrates was found guilty of corrupting the youth of Athens with his philosophical teachings; and the State Poison was made for him to drink.
There is a record in later history of the use of government poison. Dioscorides, in his work Materia Medica, made a valuable contribution to the classification of poisons, distinguishing between poisons of plant, animal and mineral origin. This work remained the most authoritative, for fifteen centuries or more, in the field of toxicology.
Knowledge of poisons seems to have been a common race among the eastern races. The Persians were very interested in the art of poisoning. Both Plutarch and Ctesias describe an incident that occurred during the reign of Artaxerxes II (405 - 359BC). Queen Parysatis allegedly poisoned her daughter-in-law Stateira using a poisoned knife. A knife used to cut poultry at the dinner table - one of its sides was smeared with poison. Using the blade of the untainted half, Parysatis remained alive while her daughter-in-law died.
Poisoning at the dinner table was, of course, not uncommon, especially in ancient Roman times. According to the writer Livy, murder by poisoning occurred constantly in high circles of Roman society. There have been notorious cases of "disposal" of unwanted families using Locusta poison. And Locasta was used on behalf of Agrippa, the wife of Claudius, to kill him. Nero killed his brother Britanicus with cyanide. Belladonna was also a favorite poison of ancient society.
A custom adopted by the Chinese in 246 BC that still exists today is the Zhou ritual (Dough Tube Ritual). Of the 5 poisons used, 4 are known; cinnabar (mercury), realger (arsenic), ferrous sulfate (copper sulfate) and loadstone (lodestone). (Thompson, 1931)
Soon after the discovery of the properties of toxic substances, people began to look for antidotes - methods of preventing their fatal consequences. Mithridates was the king of Pontus (Türkiye) during 114-63 BC. He is believed to have lived in constant fear of being poisoned by his enemies, having studied the subject of antidotes quite extensively.
He tested the potency of various poisons on convicted criminals and experimented with various poisons to find antidotes for them. He took small doses of poisons daily in an attempt to make himself invulnerable. The formula for his antidote was known as Mithridatum, the secret of which he guarded. Pliny describes 54 different poisons, and he also mentions “a Duck that lived on poisonous food; and the blood of this duck was subsequently used in the preparation of Mithridatum."
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