It has long been established that the invention of a perpetual motion machine is impossible. In a broad sense, a perpetual motion machine refers to a mechanism that continuously moves itself. But this is far from a sufficient definition. Thanks to centuries of fruitless attempts to create a miracle machine, today it is possible to precisely define the very concept of a “perpetual motion machine” and the reasons for its impracticability. Moreover, such attempts left a significant mark on history and confirmed the existence of the most important laws of physics. We will consider and analyze which ones below.
Definition and classification of perpetual motion machines
So, a perpetual motion machine, as is already known, is an imaginary device. The nature of the work performed can be classified as follows:
- A perpetual motion machine of the first kind (physical\mechanical, hydraulic, magnetic) is a continuously operating machine that, when started once, does work without receiving energy from the outside. These are devices of a mechanical nature, the principle of operation of which is based on the use of certain physical phenomena, for example, the action of gravity, Archimedes' law, capillary phenomena in liquids.
- A perpetual motion machine of the second kind (natural) is a heat engine that, as a result of a cycle, completely converts the heat received from any one “inexhaustible” source (ocean, atmosphere, etc.) into work. They are associated with cyclically repeating natural phenomena or with the principles of celestial mechanics.
This classification is common and is found in old scientific literature. Later researchers have another definition. It comes from the idea of an ideal machine that operates without loss and converts all supplied energy into useful work or some other type of energy.
Scientists from different times have come a long way to these definitions. They subjected them to detailed analysis and were not always unanimous. The problem was whether it is possible to consider a perpetual motion machine only that machine, which, when fully assembled, will immediately begin to work on its own, or is it permissible to impart an initial motor impulse to the device. There was also a debate about whether the main characteristics of a perpetual motion machine include the condition that, when set in motion, it simultaneously performs some useful work.
Reasons for the idea of creation
The first mention of a perpetual motion machine dates back to 1150. But does this mean that ancient mechanics were not interested in perpetual motion? On the contrary, this was one of those traditional problems to which science paid a lot of attention in connection with the study of physical phenomena. But when studying the conditions determining the circular motion of bodies, the Greeks came to conclusions that theoretically excluded any possibility of the existence of artificially created perpetual motion on Earth. For example, Aristotle argued that the movement of bodies accelerates towards its center. About bodies with truly circular motion, he writes: “They can be neither heavy nor light, since they are not capable of approaching the center or moving away from it in a natural or forced way.” Only celestial bodies satisfy this condition.
But the founder of the idea of a perpetual motion machine is considered to be the Indian poet, mathematician and astronomer Bhaskar Acharya (1114-1185), who described in his poem a kind of eternally moving wheel. Note that the body is round in shape. According to ancient Indian philosophy, regularly repeating events that make up a circular cycle are for him a symbol of eternity and perfection. That is, the progenitors of the idea of perpetual motion were motivated not by practical, but by religious needs. The idea of a perpetual motion machine reached its apogee in the Middle Ages in Europe, during the period of intensive construction of temples, cathedrals and princely palaces, and then the creators, of course, were interested in the practical use of the machine.
Some models of perpetual motion machines of the first kind
Wheel with unbalanced weights
Picture 1
Figure 2
Figure 3
Here is a model of Bhaskara's perpetual motion machine (Fig. No. 1) with long narrow vessels half filled with mercury attached obliquely along the inner side of the circle. Bhaskara justifies the rotation of the wheel as follows: “The wheel thus filled with liquid, being mounted on an axle lying on two fixed supports, continuously rotates on its own.”
Two more models, similar in principle of operation, were invented in medieval Europe. The role of vessels partially filled with mercury is played by convex-concave sectors inside the wheel, inside of which there are heavy balls (Fig. No. 2) or rods movably attached to the outer part of the wheel with weights at the ends (Fig. No. 3).
The principle of operation of these engines is to create a constant imbalance of gravity on the wheel, as a result of which the wheel must rotate. Let's consider why this calculation is not justified using the example of a regular wheel. Here it is assumed that the work is done by gravity, that is, under normal conditions (at short distances and near the Earth’s surface) it is constant and always directed in the same direction.
Figure 4
F T is the weight of the load, F P is the force with which the lever acts on the hinge (compensated by the support reaction force), F B is the turning force, R is the distance from the hinge (pivot axis) to the trajectory of the center of mass of the load.
When the lever is positioned strictly vertically upward, the weight of the load is transferred to the hinge and is compensated by the reaction of the support. The force is directed normal to the circle, the tangential component
is absent, which means the moment of force is zero. This position is called top dead center (TDC). If the lever deviates, the reaction of the support no longer compensates for the weight, a tangential component of the force appears, and the normal component begins to decrease. This will continue only until the lever reaches a horizontal position. When the moment of force reaches its maximum value, the lever will again begin to act on the load, the normal force will change its sign relative to the lever. The tangential force will begin to decrease until the lever is in a vertical down position (bottom dead center (BDC)).
Thus, as can be seen from Fig. No. 4, for half of the working cycle the load accelerates, moving from top dead center (TDC) to bottom dead center (BDC), and for half it slows down. After making several revolutions, the wheel with unbalanced loads will reach a state of equilibrium.
Chain on an inclined plane
Figure 5
Another type of mechanical perpetual motion machine is a heavy chain with the longer side thrown through a system of pulleys. Theoretically, it was assumed that the part on which there are more links will begin to slide off the inclined plane, as a result of which the closed chain will move continuously. However, it is known that the chain will be at rest. This type of engine is interesting primarily because, from the impossibility of its perpetual motion, the engineer, mechanic and mathematician Simon Stevin (1548-1620) proved the law of equilibrium of a body on an inclined plane. One chain is heavier than the other by the same number of times the larger face (AB in Fig. No. 5) of the prism is longer than the short one (BC in Fig. No. 5). It follows that two connected loads balance each other on inclined planes if their masses are proportional to the lengths of these planes.
A mechanism similar in principle (Fig. No. 6): a heavy chain is thrown over the wheels so that its right half is always longer than the left. Therefore, it must fall down, causing the chain to rotate. But the chain on the left side is stretched vertically, and the right side is stretched at a certain angle and curved. Similarly, perpetual motion of this mechanism is impossible.
Figure 6
Hydraulic perpetual motion machine with Archimedes screw
In the vast majority of perpetual hydraulic engines, inventors tried to use a mechanism known since the times of Ancient Greece - the Archimedes screw - a hollow tube with a spiral plane inside, designed to lift water from a vessel to a vessel of the greatest height.
Figure 7
The liquid from the vessel rises with wicks first into the upper vessel, from there with other wicks even higher; the upper vessel has a drainage chute, which falls onto the wheel blades, causing it to rotate. The liquid in the lower tier rises again through the wicks to the upper vessel. Thus, the stream flowing down the chute onto the wheel is not interrupted, and the wheel must always be in motion (Fig. No. 7).
Only the wheel of this machine will never rotate, since there will be no water in the upper vessel. This will happen because capillary forces caused by the curvature of the surface of the liquid, although they allow one to overcome the force of gravity, raising the liquid in the wick fabric, but they also hold it in the pores of the fabric, preventing it from flowing out of them.
Denny Papen's Vessel
Figure 8
Denny Papen's design for a hydraulic perpetual motion machine is a vessel tapered into a tube and bent in such a way that the free end of the tube with a smaller radius is located within the large “neck” of the vessel (Fig. No. 8). The author assumed that the weight of water in the wider part of the vessel would exceed the weight of the liquid in the tube in the narrower part. Thus, fluid circulation should have occurred due to the pressure difference. In fact, the basic law of hydrostatics works in this case: the pressure exerted on the fluid is transmitted without change in all directions. The surface of the liquid in a thin tube will be at the same level as in the vessel, as in any communicating vessels.
Previously, similar vessels, differently oriented in space, were proposed for this engine. They were based on the principle of operation of a siphon: in it (in a curved tube with elbows of different lengths, through which liquid flows from a vessel with a higher to a vessel with a lower liquid level), the work spent on raising the liquid is produced by atmospheric pressure. At the same time, in order for liquid to flow through the siphon, the maximum height of its bend should not exceed the height of the liquid column balanced by the pressure of the external air. For water, this height at normal barometric pressure is approximately 10 m - this fact was not taken into account and led to incorrect conclusions about the perpetual motion of such an engine.
Other hydraulic motors
Figure 9
Among the many projects of a perpetual motion machine, there were many based on Archimedes' law. One of these projects looks like this: a tall vessel (20 m), filled with water, has pulleys located on one face at different ends, through which a strong endless rope with fourteen fixed hollow cubic boxes is thrown. The boxes are identical, equidistant, waterproof and have sides of 1 m (Fig. No. 9).
Indeed, boxes located in water will tend to float up. They are subject to a force equal to the weight of the water displaced by the boxes.
But even if this rope is infinite, the effect is not justified, because in order for the rope to rotate, the boxes must enter the vessel from the bottom, and for this they must overcome the pressure of the water column, which will be much greater than the force of Archimedes.
Figure 10
A simplified version of a perpetual motion machine of the hydraulic type (Fig. No. 10), the idea of which comes from a gross violation of the interpretation of Archimedes’ law. The part of the wooden drum immersed in water, according to Archimedes' law, is subject to buoyant force. Of course, the wheel will not rotate, because the force will not be directed upward (as intended by the inventor), but towards the center of the wheel.
Magnetic perpetual motion machine
Figure 11
A simple but original model of a perpetual motion machine with magnets. Two inclined grooves lead to the ball magnet located on the stand: one straight, installed above, the other curved (Fig. No. 11). An iron ball placed on the upper chute will be attracted by a magnet, then along the way it will fall into the hole, roll down the lower chute and go back to the upper chute.
However, if the magnet is strong enough to pull the ball away from the bottom point, it will prevent it from falling through the hole located very close by. If, on the contrary, the force of attraction is insufficient, then the ball will not be attracted at all.
Perpetual motion machine of the first kind in contradiction with the law of conservation of energy
The final approval of the law of conservation of energy in the 40-70s of the 19th century was based on the work of Sadi Carnot, Robert Mayer, James Joule and Hermann Helmholtz, who showed the connection between various forms of energy (mechanical, thermal, electrical, etc.). The law of conservation of energy is formulated as follows: in an isolated system, energy can move from one form to another, but its total amount remains constant.
As a rule, the impossibility of a perpetual motion machine is considered as a consequence of the law of conservation of energy. Mayer's reasoning and Joule's experiments proved the equivalence of mechanical work and heat, showing that the amount of heat released is equal to the work done and vice versa; Helmholtz was the first to formulate the law of conservation of energy in precise terms. Unlike his predecessors, he connected the law of conservation of energy with the impossibility of the existence of perpetual motion machines. The principle of the impossibility of perpetual motion was used by Mayer and Helmholtz as the basis for the analysis of various energy transformations. Max Planck in his work “The Principle of Conservation of Energy” placed special emphasis on the equivalence (rather than a causal relationship) of the principle of the impossibility of a perpetual motion machine and the principle of conservation of energy.
In thermodynamics, the conservation law is historically formulated in the form of the first law of thermodynamics: the change in the internal energy of a thermodynamic system during its transition from one state to another is equal to the sum of the work of external forces on the system and the amount of heat transferred to the system, and does not depend on the method by which this transition is carried out, i.e. Q = ΔU + A. The first law of thermodynamics is often formulated as the impossibility of the existence of a perpetual motion machine of the first kind, which would do work without drawing energy from any source.
Perpetual motion machines of the second kind
The classic perpetual motion machine of the second kind provides for the possibility of accumulating heat through work, the cost of which is less than the heat received, and using part of this heat to re-perform work in a new cycle. Thus, there must be a surplus of work. Another version of this engine involves the ordering of the chaotic thermal movement of molecules, resulting in a directed movement of the substance, accompanied by a decrease in its thermodynamic temperature. There are not as many widely known projects of such engines invented as, for example, engines of the first type, and information about them is not sufficient for a description. The vast majority of ideas for such machines are absurd and contradictory, or belong to the class of imaginary perpetual motion machines (in fact, they are not eternal), and have low efficiency.
The second law of thermodynamics, formulated by Rudolf Clausius, clearly states: a process is impossible whose only result would be the transfer of heat from a colder body to a hotter one. Which also means that in a closed system, entropy during any real process either increases or remains unchanged (i.e. ΔS ≥ 0). The second law of thermodynamics is a postulate that cannot be proven within the framework of thermodynamics. It was created on the basis of a generalization of experimental facts and has received numerous experimental confirmations.
The possibility of using the energy of thermal motion of body particles (heat reservoir) to obtain mechanical work (without changing the state of other bodies) would mean the possibility of realizing a perpetual motion machine of the second kind, the work of which would not contradict the law of conservation of energy. For example, the operation of a ship's engine by cooling ocean water (an accessible and practically inexhaustible reservoir of internal energy) does not contradict the law of conservation of energy, but if, apart from cooling the water, there are no other changes, then the operation of such an engine contradicts the second law of thermodynamics. In a real heat engine, the process of converting heat into work involves the transfer of a certain amount of heat to the external environment. As a result, the engine's thermal reservoir is cooled, and the colder external environment is heated, which is in agreement with the second law of thermodynamics.
Imaginary perpetual motion machine
Figure 12
In the 60s XX century The toy, which in the USSR received the name “eternally drinking bird” or “Hottabych’s bird,” created a world sensation. A thin glass flask with a horizontal axis in the middle is sealed into a small container. The free end of the cone almost touches its bottom. The flask contains a certain amount of ether (in the lower part), the upper empty part of the flask is covered with a thin layer of cotton wool on the outside. A vessel with water is placed in front of the toy and tilted, forcing it to “drink” (Fig. No. 12). Then the mechanism works independently: it leans towards the vessel with water several times a minute until the water runs out.
The mechanism of this phenomenon is clear: the liquid in the lower cavity evaporates under the influence of room heat, the pressure increases and displaces the liquid into the tube. The upper part of the structure outweighs, tilts, and steam moves into the upper ball. The pressure is equalized, the liquid returns to the lower volume, which outweighs and returns the “bird” to its original position.
At first glance, the second law of thermodynamics is violated here: there is no temperature difference, the machine only takes heat from the air. But when the flask reaches a vessel with water, the water from the wet cotton wool intensively evaporates, cooling the top ball. A temperature difference between the upper and lower vessels arises, due to which movement occurs. If evaporation stops (the cotton wool dries out or the air humidity reaches the dew point, that is, the temperature to which the air must cool for the water vapor contained in it to reach a state of saturation and begin to condense into dew), the machine, in full accordance with the second law of thermodynamics, will stop moving. The power of such an engine is very low due to the insignificant difference in temperature and pressure at which the “bird” operates.
Perpetual motion machines as commercial projects
Perpetual motion machines, shrouded in the mystery of invention and operation since ancient times, were undoubtedly created not only for practical use. At all times there have been scammers and dreamers who intended to extract not only energy greater than 100%.
One of the most famous “scams of the century” is the perpetual motion machine of Johann Bessler (1680-1745).
Figure 13
Figure 14
Under the pseudonym Orfireus, this Saxon engineer, on November 17, 1717, in the presence of famous physicists, demonstrated a machine with a shaft diameter of more than 3.5 m. The engine was put into operation and locked in a room, and after checking after a month and a half, they were convinced that the engine wheel was rotating at the same speed.
When the same thing happened two months later, Bessler's fame thundered throughout Europe. The inventor agreed to sell the car to Peter I, but this did not happen. However, this did not stop Bessler from living comfortably on the funds received through demonstrating the engine. The engine is a large wheel that rotates and lifts a heavy load to a considerable height (Fig. No. 13).
The invention caused a lot of controversy and unresolved questions. The most important of them - the principle of operation - was not known to the general public. Therefore, incredulous skeptics concluded that the secret lies in the fact that a skillfully hidden person pulls on a rope wound, unnoticed by the observer, on a hidden part of the wheel axle. And their expectations were justified: soon Bessler’s maid revealed the secret:
the engine really only worked with the help of third parties (Fig. No. 14).
Another well-known case of using a perpetual motion machine “for other purposes”: in one of the cities, in order to attract customers, a “perpetually” rotating wheel was installed near a cafe, which, of course, was started using a mechanism.
Some developers of the ideas of perpetual motion machines in chronological order:
- Bhaskara Acharya (1114-1185), poet, astronomer, mathematician.
- Villars de Honnecourt (XIII century), architect.
- Nicholas of Cusa (1401-1464), philosopher, theologian, church and political figure.
- Francesco di Giorgio (1439-1501), artist, sculptor, architect, inventor, military engineer.
- Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), artist, sculptor, architect, mathematician, physicist, anatomist, natural scientist.
- Giambattista Porta (1538 - 1615), philosopher, optician, astrologer, mathematician, meteorologist.
- Cornelius Drebbel (1572 - 1633), physicist, inventor.
- Athanasius Kircher (1602-1680), physicist, linguist, theologian, mathematician.
- John Wilkins (1614-1672), philosopher, linguist.
- Denny Papin (1647-1712), mathematician, physicist, inventor.
- Johann Bessler (1680-1745), mechanical engineer, doctor, fraudster.
- David Brewster (1781-1868), physicist.
- Wilhelm Friedrich Ostwald (1853-1932), physicist, chemist, idealist philosopher.
- Victor Schauberger (1885-1958), inventor.
Conclusion
In 1775, the French Academy decided not to consider proposals for perpetual motion machines, putting forward a final verdict: the construction of a perpetual motion machine is absolutely impossible. Over the entire history of perpetual motion, more than 600 projects were invented, and most of them occurred at the time when the laws of thermodynamics and conservation of energy became known.
Of course, the efforts of numerous creators of perpetual motion machines were not in vain. Trying to construct the impossible, they found many interesting technical solutions and came up with mechanisms and devices that are still used in mechanical engineering. In the fruitless search for perpetual motion, the foundations of engineering science were born and the laws denying its existence were confirmed.
Humanity has been obsessed with the idea of inventing a perpetual motion machine since time immemorial. We even find in Pushkin, far from technology: “Perpetuum mobile, that is, perpetual motion. If I find perpetual motion, then I see no limits to human creativity,” also in other Russian writers of the 19th century, for example, in A. Ostrovsky, one can find similar mentions. Thus, the history of perpetual motion is not some special part of the history of science, but a very large part of world culture and philosophy.
The first vague dreams about an engine in general are found in Roger Bacon. In his notes, he wrote “it is possible to create large river and ocean vessels with engines and without rowers... you can create a chariot that moves with incomprehensible speed, without harnessing animals to it... and flying machines... a machine that lifts and lowers large loads." Such ideas appeared already in the 13th century, and a little later some of them, at least in projects, would be hypothetically embodied by the great Leonardo. Bacon understood that for the appearance of such machines and devices, energy, some kind of engine, was needed. At the same time, ideas from enthusiasts about creating a perpetual motion machine were already appearing. In the Middle Ages, labor was more important than ever, the number of cities grew, and slave society was replaced by feudal society. Literacy was relatively widespread. Medieval Europe was interested in technical innovations from all over the world (the east was the most technically developed at that time). Universities were opened (in 1209 - Cambridge, in 1222 - Padua, Naples - in 1227, and Oxford was founded back in 1167), the first inventions appeared - a compass, paper, gunpowder, watches, glasses, mirrors, many inventions for shipping. In Ancient Greece, where the level of development of science was high and there were also plenty of brilliant inventors, there was not even a hint of such devices. Heron invented a steam turbine (a prototype of an engine; a ball was driven by the power of steam), but no information has been preserved about its use to facilitate the work of slaves.
Now every schoolchild knows that it is unrealistic to invent such a device. This violates either the first or second law of thermodynamics. However, centuries ago they did not have such knowledge. In the 13th century, people knew that the natural processes occurring on earth (ebb and flow, sunset and dawn) could be continuous, that is, eternal, and eternal movement seemed quite real to them. The question of where the engine would get energy to operate did not worry anyone then.
Around the 16th century, some mechanical scientists began to understand that it would not be possible to create such a device; no force could arise from nothing. But this opinion was held by a very narrow circle of particularly talented scientists. But later official science began to adhere to this opinion. In 1775, the Paris Academy of Sciences stopped seriously considering any ppm (Perpetuum mobile) projects. This ends the first “mechanical” period of development of the “perpetual motion machine”, violators of the first law of thermodynamics.
The second period lasted until the last quarter of the 19th century. At this time, fundamental science advanced, the concept of energy was defined, the basics of thermodynamics were already known, but this did not bother the romantic inventors. This is how the story of a perpetual motion machine of the first kind ends, violating the first law of thermodynamics. And it says that the total amount of energy entering the engine is equal to the amount of energy leaving it.
The third period of development continues to this day. Modern scientists know hundreds of times more than their predecessors. And, of course, they know that projects, for example, of a mechanical type, with flowing liquids, plates or balls, are unworkable. They are exploring other options, such as converting one type of energy into another. However, this does not allow us to make the second law of thermodynamics, which limits the transition of one form of energy to another, but not everyone wants to recognize this law. For example, in 1972 in France, a certain J. Lelande calmly patented one such “engine using gravity.” But if earlier dreams and projects about ppm greatly contributed to the development of science, now such developments cannot give anything.
Historians of technology argue a lot about who was the first to propose the perpetuum mobile model? The Indian mathematician and astronomer Bhaskara Acharya (1114 - 1185) mentioned this in his writings; he proposed a “liquid mechanical engine” and around 1200 there are mentions in the works of another Arab scientist. In Europe, it was Villard d'Honnecourt - a French engineer and architect. Like most scientists of that time, he studied several sciences at the same time. His drawing and the text relating to him have been preserved. “For some time, masters have been arguing how it would be possible to make the wheel rotate on its own yourself. This can be achieved by means of an odd number of hammers or mercury in the following manner."
Another perpetual motion project proposed by Peter Pilgrim in the 13th century was based on magnets. It should be noted that this all happened at a time when alchemy and magic were quite authoritative and recognized. Peter believed that the mysterious forces that cause a magnet to attract iron are similar to those that cause celestial bodies to move around the earth (in those days the earth was considered the center of the universe). This means that if a magnet is allowed to move in a circle without obstacles, then with the appropriate design it will realize this possibility. In his “drawing” the engine consists of 2 parts. The moving part is a rod on the outer end of which a magnet is fixed, and the other is mounted on a fixed axis. The rod should move in a circle like the hand of a clock. The fixed part consists of two rings - outer and inner, between which there is a magnet with an inner surface in the form of oblique teeth. “North pole” is written on the movable magnet mounted on the rod, and “south pole” is written on the magnetic ring. Most likely, the author believed that the magnet on the rod would be attracted in turn to the teeth of the magnets, thereby causing continuous movement in a circle. Although the real existence of such a motor is doubtful, the idea of using a magnet is very interesting, because even a modern electric motor operates on the magnetic interaction of the stator and rotor. In general, there were 3 types of “perpetual motion machines” - mechanical, magnetic and hydraulic. Also, mechanical ppm can be divided into two types - those using loads made of solid material, and those in which liquids served as the load.
Further, in 1438, the Italian mechanic Mariano di Jacopo from the city of Siena described an engine that repeated d'Honnecourt's idea, but with detailed elaboration. Thick plates used as a load are fixed so that they should tilt to one side, creating movement. Their number is odd , this balance cannot be achieved; in any position of the wheel on the left there will be more plates.
In 1620, the Englishman Edward Sommerset not only developed a perpetual motion machine of a mechanical type, in the form of a wheel with solid weights, but also brought his invention to life. Edward belonged to the highest strata of society, and was also a courtier of King Charles I, which guaranteed an idle, comfortable life, but he was seriously involved in mechanics and technical projects. He held a public presentation of his project at the Tower of London, making a four-meter model, which delighted those present. But the drawings, alas, have not survived.
Alexandro Capra from Italy described another version of ppm in the form of a wheel with weights. Along the perimeter of the circle there are weights on levers. They had to continuously rotate the circle clockwise. There were also projects for liquid engines. They all developed one idea of the Indian Bhaskar. Closed tubes with mercury are attached to the wheel at a certain angle to the radii. When the wheel moved, the mercury shimmered and created a weight difference. And all subsequent projects were associated with an advantage. There was also a crazy idea to make the wheel roll by making it in the form of a drum into which 2 liquids of different densities would be poured. Already at this stage, more and more scientists were inclined to believe that such a device could not move - it would reach equilibrium and would not rotate. The famous physicist of that time, Giovanni Borelli, proved the inoperability of such a device. In 1660, the German Johann Becher worked for a decade on a project for an engine in which the movement of weights would drive gears and a clock mechanism; they even began to build a tower for the promised clock, but, of course, he failed and publicly admitted it.
This article, of course, describes only a small part of these utopian projects. In reality there are many more. If you are interested in this topic, I recommend the book “Perpetual Motion Machine - Before and Now”, there you will find all the detailed information
Even though a perpetual motion machine has never been found, you can buy an electric motor, an electric drive, or, for example, a screw jack for your equipment from NPP Servomechanizmy and enjoy its stable operation for a long time. Italian quality and high-quality assembly pays off. And no utopias, everything is real, you just need to contact our managers.
Perpetual motion machine, perp e tum-m O bile (Latin perpetuum mobile translated perpetual motion) - an imaginary machine that, once put into operation, would do work for an unlimited time without borrowing energy from the outside. The ability to operate such a machine indefinitely would mean obtaining energy from nothing.
The idea of a perpetual motion machine apparently originated in Europe in the 13th century (although there is evidence that the first design of a perpetual motion machine was proposed by the Indian Bhaskara in the 12th century). Before this, projects of perpetual motion machines were unknown. The Greeks and Romans did not have them, who developed many effective mechanisms and laid the foundations for scientific approaches to the study of nature. Scientists suggest that cheap and virtually unlimited labor in the form of slaves slowed down the development of cheap energy sources in antiquity.
Why did people so persistently want to build a perpetual motion machine?
There is nothing surprising. In the XII-XIII centuries, the Crusades began and European society began to move. The craft began to develop faster and the machines that set the mechanisms in motion were improved. These were mainly water wheels and wheels driven by animals (horses, mules, bulls walking in a circle). So the idea arose to come up with an efficient machine driven by cheaper energy. If energy is taken from nothing, then it costs nothing and this is an extreme special case of cheapness - for nothing.
The idea of a perpetual motion machine became even more popular in the 16th-17th centuries, during the era of the transition to machine production. The number of known perpetual motion projects has exceeded a thousand. Not only poorly educated artisans dreamed of creating a perpetual motion machine, but also some prominent scientists of their time, since at that time there was no fundamental scientific prohibition on the creation of such a device.
Already in the 15th-17th centuries, visionary naturalists such as Leonardo da Vinci, Girolamo Cardano, Simon Stevin, Galileo Galilei formulated the principle: “It is impossible to create a perpetual motion machine.” Simon Stevin was the first to derive, on the basis of this principle, the law of equilibrium of forces on an inclined plane, which ultimately led him to the discovery of the law of addition of forces according to the triangle rule (addition of vectors).
By the middle of the 18th century, after centuries of attempts to create a perpetual motion machine, most scientists began to believe that this was impossible. It was just an experimental fact.
Since 1775, the French Academy of Sciences refused to consider perpetual motion projects, although even at that time French academicians had no solid scientific grounds to fundamentally deny the possibility of drawing energy from nothing.
The impossibility of obtaining additional work from nothing was firmly substantiated only with the creation and approval of the “law of conservation of energy” as a universal and one of the most fundamental laws of nature.
First, Gottfried Leibniz formulated the law of conservation of mechanical energy in 1686. And the law of conservation of energy as a universal law of nature was formulated independently by Julius Mayer (1845), James Joule (1843–50) and Hermann Helmholtz (1847).
Doctor Mayer and physiologist Helmholtz took the last important step. They found that the law of conservation of energy is true for animals and plants. Before this, the concept of “living force” existed and it was believed that the laws of physics may not be fulfilled for animals and plants. Thus, the law of conservation of energy was the first principle established for the entire known Universe.
The final touch in generalizing the law of conservation of energy was Albert Einstein's special theory of relativity (1905). He showed that the law of conservation of mass (there was such a law) is part of the law of conservation of energy. Energy and mass are equivalent according to the formula E = mс 2, Where With - speed of light.
It seems to all of us that we live in an era when it is almost impossible to come up with something new, and the unique and main inventions of mankind are already in operation or are at least being considered in the project. People have learned to create wireless communications, robots and even artificial organs, but there is still one thing that remains a mystery that excites the minds of scientists.
Many generations of researchers and inventors chased the illusory thought of creating a perpetual motion machine, and although in our time scientists have hypothesized that this is just a myth, and the existence of such technology is unrealistic, there are people who, with their inventions, have gone down in history forever, breaking all written and the unwritten laws of physics and breaking through. Are these ideas genius or crazy? Judge for yourself.
Wheel of Bhaskar
One of the most ancient references to the mechanism of a perpetual motion machine were the works of the famous mathematician and astronomer Bhaskar II. The concept of his amazing creation for that time was described back in 1150. The scientist’s invention consists of a simple design: spokes concave inward and filled with mercury are attached to the wheel. When rotated lightly, the mercury begins to move in a direction, thereby causing the wheel to become unbalanced. Trying to achieve rest, the wheel will be in constant motion.
Over many centuries, thousands of scientists and researchers have tried to improve and modify the Bhaskara wheel, some of them believed so strongly in the genius of this idea that they even came up with special brakes to control the mechanism.
Nowadays, we understand that this idea is too simple and banal. We will not be able to obtain the necessary energy thanks to the operation of such a mechanism. But for that time, Bhaksara's wheel became an amazing discovery that excited and fascinated people who did not know the elementary laws of physics. People began to describe the idea of a wheel-shaped eternal energy flow in many works of European and Islamic inventors, and Hindus confidently insisted that the invention was associated with the circle of life and human reincarnation.
"Perpetuum Mobile"
One of the most mysterious mechanisms that played the role of a potential perpetual motion machine and inexhaustible energy was an invention called Perpetuum mobile. Back in 1604, the famous alchemist and inventor Cornellius Drebbl demonstrated the mechanism of a perpetual motion machine to the English court, which amazed all his contemporaries.
Until now, no one can describe Drebell’s perpetual motion machine, and all because, being an alchemist to the core, the scientist constantly repeated that the mechanism is the result of taming the “fiery spirit of the air.” The concept of the mechanism was vaguely reminiscent of a chronometer and did not need to be wound, while showing the current phase of the moon and the exact date.
Unfortunately, modern scientists do not have the opportunity to study this invention. The only thing they can rely on are ancient records and paintings by famous artists such as Rubens, who depicted the "Perpetuum Mobile" on their canvases.
Although the invention caused a huge stir throughout Europe, bringing Drebell fame, the inventor died in complete poverty. The most amazing and inexplicable thing about Cornelius Drebbel's perpetual motion machine is that, although we don't know how or why it worked, you definitely saw it more often than you might imagine.
The scientist has come a long way from the son of a simple farmer to the inventor of the world's first submarine. But over the years, he increasingly began to visit eateries and pubs, getting involved with dubious “inventors” who thoroughly ruined his reputation.
Water screw
Fludd's "perpetual motion machine", built in 1618. Woodcut. 1660
Like all his scientific predecessors, Robert Fludd was a typical inventor of his time. A society that believed in the existence of dark magic, the philosopher's stone and alchemy, of course, tried to find a way to develop the perfect recipe for perpetual motion.
Robert Fludd (1574 - 1637).
Fludd, even for his time, was a rather eccentric person and completely indulged in his guesses and assumptions, firmly believing that all the laws of nature, science and physics are just the tricks of God, who tirelessly monitors humanity.
His invention of the "Water Screw", dating back to 1618, was aimed at helping farmers of the time, who worked in inhumane conditions and, in order to process large quantities of grain, had to take it to water mills, process it and transport it back.
The concept of the "Water Screw" was the perpetual movement of a water wheel under the influence of water circulation. Such an invention completely destroyed all known laws of physics, but there were those who supported such an idea and tried to develop it.
Bessler wheel
Johann Bessler (1680 - 1745).
The eighteenth century gave the world a great and, in his own way, crazy scientist named Johann Bessler. His perpetual motion mechanism was based on Bhaskara's previously presented research. The scientist argued that perpetual motion requires an elementary imbalance, which would force the object to be in constant motion.
In 1717, Bessler decided to test the device he had invented. He placed the 4-meter wheel in a closed room, placing guards on it for greater security, and did not allow anyone to approach the invention for two weeks.
The first ever working example of Bessler’s “perpetual motion machine”.
When the room was opened, the wheel rotated at the same speed. They decided to repeat the scheme for greater reliability, for this purpose they closed the room for almost three months, but when the scientist returned to his invention, nothing had changed, and the wheel was in motion.
Even after a global breakthrough in the field of perpetual motion, Bessler remained a secretive and completely closed person. He did not want to talk in detail about the principles of operation of his wheel, while repeating that every smart and savvy person can create the same device, and the principle of operation of his mechanism is based on a simple imbalance.
Unable to withstand the pressure and constant interest of the press of that time, Bessler broke the wheel and erased all information about its operating principles, taking the secret with him to the grave. However, scientists of our time do not reject Bessler’s hypothesis, and at the beginning of 2014, the famous engineer and researcher John Collins announced that he was getting closer to solving the mystery of the Bessler wheel.
Cox watch
The famous James Cox watch became an amazing invention. The scientist first presented this unique device to the public in 1774. The watch was accompanied by documentation, which stated that it was created using mechanical and philosophical teachings, and also explained the principles of operation, which confirmed the fact that the watch did not require additional winding.
If you rely on the mechanism described in the instructions, the perpetual motion machine of Cox's watch works thanks to diamond, which reduces the friction of metals inside the structure, which is why the watch is practically eternal. In addition, the scientist stated that he used mysticism when creating the device.
Also, the genius of Cox's invention lies in the fact that the watch was covered with thick glass, which did not allow dust to penetrate inside, and the operation of the device depended on atmospheric pressure. James Cox left his mark on mechanical history as a brilliant inventor who gave the world a watch that did not require any maintenance and could, in the truest sense of the word, repair itself.
"Testatika"
One of the most dubious, secret and incredible mechanisms of a perpetual motion machine was the invention of the famous watchmaker and founder of the Meternitha religious sect Paul Baumann. Baumann was inspired to create such a mechanism by the insufficient lighting in his cell, in which he was serving a sentence for molesting an underage girl.
As the inventor himself said, a vision appeared before him that told him the secret of a perpetual motion machine and inspired him to create a religious community. After being released from prison in 1950, Baumann began to preach a healthy lifestyle along with the dogmas of society. To create an ecologically clean zone, minions of the Meternitha religion use Baumann's perpetual motion machine, which, according to them, absorbed the electrical energy of nature.
The machine was called “Testatika” and became a cult symbol for all followers of the sect. The secret of the mechanism is under the mysterious protection of mystical forces, and no outsider can find out information about the method of its operation. Although there is a short documentary film made in 1999, it, unfortunately, does not reveal all the secrets. Another mysterious circumstance was the suicide of a Bulgarian physicist who, in the early 90s, tried to find an explanation for the work of Testatika.
Battery Nicolae Carpena
The National Technical Museum of Romania houses the unique legacy left to the world by the brilliant engineer and physicist Nicolae Vasilescu-Carpen. In the 50s of the last century, a scientist invented a battery that continues to function today. Scientists around the world are puzzling over the mystery of this mechanism, but even now they have not reached a consensus.
The battery was forgotten by scientists for a long time, and was remembered only separately in the twenty-first century, when the museum found the place and means to present the exhibit. But what was the surprise of scientists when they discovered that after 60 years the battery works and, as before, provides a stable voltage.
Karpen was known as an incredibly smart scientist. The modern world will remember him for his unique achievements in the field of telegraphs and signal transmission over vast distances. Perhaps his battery will soon lead to a significant breakthrough in human technology. But even if a breakthrough does not happen, each of us will not be against such a device that has been working for 60 years.
Joe Newman's Energy Machine
The late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries were a peak time for various inventions that would create eternal energy. But each of these mechanisms turned out to be another failed fraudulent device from which they only wanted to profit. Due to such a surge, since 1911 it has become almost impossible to obtain a patent for perpetual motion and inexhaustible energy.
But even this did not stop one researcher. In 1984, an amateur scientist who didn't even graduate from high school tried to patent his perpetual motion machine by appearing on the evening news program on the CMS television channel. Joe Newman presented a device consisting of batteries and many coils.
People could not believe their eyes, but after carefully studying the mechanism, scientists rejected all of Newman's arguments. Even after such a global fiasco, Joe did not give up and until the very end insisted that the idea of a perpetual motion machine was sent to him by God himself.
Alien Machine by David Hamel
Another incredible story of our time was the story of the self-proclaimed keeper of eternal energy and spacecraft, David Hamel.
The inventor proves to everyone that he is the son of a simple carpenter, that he never graduated from any higher educational institution, and that he was stolen by aliens. If the first two facts can be called true, then it is impossible to judge the reliability of the third.
Spacecraft drawing by David Hamel.
However, Hamel himself claims that he met with beings from a planet called Kladen, and they assured him that he must create a spaceship and change the world.
According to his “theory,” the “perpetual energy accumulator” works exactly like a simple earth spider. David also tells the story that the first spaceship he built flew away.
According to his legend, after the machine was launched, it took off on its own and set off on a flight over the Pacific Ocean, and that is why the researcher began building the ship again. Unfortunately or fortunately, David’s ship has no scientific explanation.Perhaps, soon, thanks to the legacy left by scientists, humanity will discover the secret of the perpetual motion machine. But, unfortunately, at this stage of development, scientists claim that a source of eternal energy cannot exist.
Today everyone knows that a perpetual motion machine is impossible. But the question arises as to how scientists reached this understanding. It was necessary to formulate the concept of energy, the first and second laws of thermodynamics, and the laws of conservation of energy. But in the beginning there was nothing like that, and the inventors of perpetuum mobile grew like mushrooms after rain.
The first major inventor was Bessler, or under his creative pseudonym Orffireus. It took place in Germany in the 18th century. They say that this mysterious gentleman appeared in 1712 in the town of Gera. He had a strange toy with him: a thick wooden wheel, one and a half meters in diameter, wrapped in an oiled piece of leather. A massive axle protruded in the center of the wheel and a strong rope was tied to it. Standing in front of the public, Bessler gave a slight push and the wheel began to spin, the creaks of rolling wheels could be heard balls. The wheel pumped water using a small pump and also lifted weights.
The only surviving drawing of the Bessler wheel.
In total, the inventor created 4 machines. But he was very eccentric and suffered from a strong form of paranoia. Unfortunately, he left no records of the internal structure of the mechanism. In each of the devices, there was a part that he never showed, when he tried to open it, a wave of paranoia covered him, and he destroyed his machine in order to build an even bigger one in the future. At some point he was favored by Landgrave Karl of Hesse-Kassel. But the patron wanted to make sure that Bessler really invented a perpetual motion machine. Karl invited Leibniz, one of the greatest scientists in Europe at that time. Until the end, Leibniz could not be convinced that this was truly a perpetual motion machine, but he was very impressed and recommended the machine. They say that Leibniz was so impressed that he tried to attract Newton to the machine. But Newton did not answer the letter, or he generally disdained attempts to create a perpetual motion machine.
Then the Landgrave decided to conduct an additional check. Bessler was given a large room, in the center of which he built another machine. Two guards were posted at the door of the room. At the end of the work, the room was sealed and a month later they opened it and made sure that the wheel was still spinning. But as always, Bessler’s condition was that part of the device was closed, that is, it was impossible to be completely sure of the authenticity of the discovery.
At some point, the maid's testimony appeared that she helped run the wheel. But there is an opinion that this is perjury, because of the small salary.
Apart from the drawing, nothing has survived from that invention. Most likely, the mechanism worked on the principle of a gear wheel, in the recesses of which weights that hinged were attached. The geometry of the teeth is such that the weights on the left side of the wheel are always closer to the axle than on the right. According to the author, this, in accordance with the law of the lever, should cause the wheel to constantly rotate. When rotating, the weights would swing out to the right and maintain the driving force.
However, if such a wheel is made, it will remain motionless. The reason for this fact is that although the weights on the right have a longer lever, on the left there are more in number. As a result, the moments of forces on the right and left are equal.
Later in the 19th century, Thomas Young formulated the concept of energy as the ability to do work. Julius von Meyer, a physician and physicist, comes to the conclusion that energy is conserved, it simply changes its form. James Joule came to the same conclusion. And the third scientist who came up with the idea of energy conservation was Hermann von Helmholtz, also a doctor and physicist. In his article, Helmholtz formulated the impossibility of a perpetual motion machine of the first kind, that is, a mechanism that violates the law of conservation of energy. Energy doesn't come from nowhere.
Keely in his laboratory. 1889
The next major “inventor” of a perpetual motion machine was the American Keely with his Keely engine. He lived in Philadelphia. For the time being, he was a completely unknown person; he made small toys and sold them at the local market. Around 1874, rumors began to spread around Philadelphia about a new invention using a new, unknown force. We must remember that these were the times of Edison, with his light bulb, Nobel and dynamite, Maxwell and the theory of electromagnetism. Quite quickly, many investors were found who were willing to invest a lot of money in this device. Investors were from Philadelphia and New York. The Keely Motor Company was founded.
Keely and the board of directors of the Keely Motor Company.
But you need to understand that Kili could speak beautifully, but very incomprehensibly. Nobody could understand him. He loved to make beautiful demonstrations, explained a lot, but did not show the structure of the mechanism. And all the time he promised that a new engine design would be invented soon. And so it went on for almost 10 years. Investors went to court twice, expert witnesses were invited, but nothing helped. The problem was that the company was named after him and everything depended on the inventor. And investors didn’t really have any rights. And to prevent Keeley from running away, investors had to make compromises with him. There was even a joke saying that Keeley-powered ships would sail through the Panama Canal.
At the most difficult moment, Keely found a sponsor: the widow Clara Bloomfield-Mohr. She helped him with money and PR. Because of strong criticism, she wanted to conduct a check. Alexander Scott, an electrical engineer, was invited.
One of Keely's demonstration mechanisms was the so-called levitation experiment, or chord-mass. 
Killy played a couple of chords and a heavy weight, defying the force of gravity, floated inside the glass tube. A “repeater” was connected to the tube using an electrical cord. And Scott suspected that it was a hollow tube and the mechanism was powered by compressed air. And he suggested that Keely conduct an experiment without a wire. To which Kili refused.
After Keely's death, in the basement of the house, investors discovered a large vessel with compressed air, with which he launched one of his mechanisms.
They say that before his death he was asked how he would like to be remembered. To which he replied that he was the biggest schemer of the 19th century.
Discovery of the second law of thermodynamics, entropy, Sadi Carnot...
I'll continue later because the post is getting too long.
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