The International Space Station ISS is the embodiment of the most ambitious and progressive technical achievement on a cosmic scale on our planet. This is a huge space research laboratory for studying, conducting experiments, observing both the surface of our planet Earth, and for astronomical observations of deep space without exposure to the earth’s atmosphere. At the same time, it is both a home for the cosmonauts and astronauts working on it, where they live and work, and a port for berthing space cargo and transport ships. Raising his head and looking up at the sky, a person saw the endless expanses of space and always dreamed of, if not conquering, then learning as much as possible about it and comprehending all its secrets. The flight of the first cosmonaut into earth orbit and the launch of satellites gave a powerful impetus to the development of astronautics and further flights into space. But simply human flight into near space is no longer enough. Eyes are directed further, to other planets, and to achieve this, much more needs to be explored, learned and understood. And the most important thing for long-term human space flights is the need to establish the nature and consequences of the long-term influence on health of long-term weightlessness during flights, the possibility of life support for a long stay on spacecraft and the exclusion of all negative factors affecting the health and life of people, both near and far. outer space, identifying dangerous collisions of spacecraft with other space objects and ensuring safety measures.
For this purpose, they began to build, first, simply long-term manned orbital stations of the Salyut series, then a more advanced one, with a complex modular architecture, “MIR”. Such stations could be constantly in Earth orbit and receive cosmonauts and astronauts delivered by spacecraft. But, having achieved certain results in space exploration, thanks to space stations, time inexorably demanded further, increasingly improved methods for studying space and the possibility of human life while flying in it. The construction of a new space station required huge, even greater capital investments than previous ones, and it was already economically difficult for one country to advance space science and technology. It should be noted that the former USSR (now the Russian Federation) and the United States of America took the leading positions in space technology achievements at the level of orbital stations. Despite the contradictions in political views, these two powers understood the need for cooperation in space issues, and in particular, in the construction of a new orbital station, especially since the previous experience of joint cooperation during the flights of American astronauts to the Russian space station "Mir" produced tangible positive results . Therefore, since 1993, representatives of the Russian Federation and the United States have been negotiating the joint design, construction and operation of a new International Space Station. The planned “Detailed Work Plan for the ISS” has been signed.
In 1995 In Houston, the basic preliminary design of the station was approved. The adopted project for the modular architecture of the orbital station makes it possible to carry out its phased construction in space, adding more and more new sections of modules to the main already operating module, making its construction more accessible, easier and flexible, making it possible to change the architecture in connection with emerging needs and capabilities of countries -participants.
The basic configuration of the station was approved and signed in 1996. It consisted of two main segments: Russian and American. Countries such as Japan, Canada and the countries of the European Space Union also take part, deploy their scientific space equipment and conduct research.
01/28/1998 In Washington, an agreement was finally signed to begin construction of a new long-term, modular architecture International Space Station, and already on November 2 of the same year, the first multifunctional module of the ISS was launched into orbit by a Russian launch vehicle. Zarya».
(FGB- functional cargo block) - launched into orbit by the Proton-K rocket on November 2, 1998. From the moment the Zarya module was launched into low-Earth orbit, the actual construction of the ISS began, i.e. Assembly of the entire station begins. At the very beginning of construction, this module was necessary as a base module for supplying electricity, maintaining temperature conditions, establishing communications and controlling orientation in orbit, and as a docking module for other modules and ships. It is fundamental for further construction. Currently, Zarya is used mainly as a warehouse, and its engines adjust the altitude of the station's orbit.
The ISS Zarya module consists of two main compartments: a large instrument and cargo compartment and a sealed adapter, separated by a partition with a hatch 0.8 m in diameter. for passage. One part is sealed and contains an instrument and cargo compartment with a volume of 64.5 cubic meters, which, in turn, is divided into an instrument room with on-board systems units and a living area for work. These zones are separated by an interior partition. The sealed adapter compartment is equipped with on-board systems for mechanical docking with other modules.
The unit has three docking gates: active and passive at the ends and one on the side for connection with other modules. There are also antennas for communication, tanks with fuel, solar panels that generate energy, and instruments for orientation to the Earth. It has 24 large engines, 12 small ones, and 2 engines for maneuvering and maintaining the desired altitude. This module can independently perform unmanned flights in space.
ISS Unity module (NODE 1 - connecting)
The Unity module is the first American connecting module, which was launched into orbit on December 4, 1998 by the Space Shuttle Endever and docked with Zarya on December 1, 1998. This module has 6 docking gateways for further connection of ISS modules and berthing of spacecraft. It is a corridor between the other modules and their living and working spaces and a place for communications: gas and water pipelines, various communication systems, electrical cables, data transmission and other life-supporting communications.
ISS module "Zvezda" (SM - service module)
The Zvezda module is a Russian module launched into orbit by the Proton spacecraft on July 12, 2000 and docked to Zarya on July 26, 2000. Thanks to this module, already in July 2000, the ISS was able to receive on board the first space crew consisting of Sergei Krikalov, Yuri Gidzenko and American William Shepard.
The block itself consists of 4 compartments: a sealed transition chamber, a sealed working compartment, a sealed intermediate chamber and a non-sealed aggregate chamber. The transition compartment with four windows serves as a corridor for astronauts to move from different modules and compartments and to exit the station into outer space thanks to an airlock with a pressure relief valve installed here. Docking units are attached to the outer part of the compartment: one axial and two lateral. The Zvezda axial unit is connected to the Zarya, and the upper and lower axial units are connected to other modules. Also installed on the outer surface of the compartment are brackets and handrails, new sets of antennas of the Kurs-NA system, docking targets, television cameras, a refueling unit and other units.
The working compartment has a total length of 7.7 m, has 8 portholes and consists of two cylinders of different diameters, equipped with carefully designed means of ensuring work and life. The larger diameter cylinder contains a living area with a volume of 35.1 cubic meters. meters. There are two cabins, a sanitary compartment, a kitchen with a refrigerator and a table for fixing objects, medical equipment and exercise equipment.
In a cylinder of smaller diameter there is a working area in which instruments, equipment and the main station control post are located. There are also control systems, emergency and warning manual control panels.
Intermediate chamber with a volume of 7.0 cubic meters. meters with two windows serves as a transition between the service block and the spacecraft that dock at the stern. The docking station provides docking of the Russian spacecraft Soyuz TM, Soyuz TMA, Progress M, Progress M2, as well as the European automatic spacecraft ATV.
In the Zvezda assembly compartment there are two correction engines at the stern, and four blocks of attitude control engines on the side. Sensors and antennas are attached to the outside. As you can see, the Zvezda module has taken over some of the functions of the Zarya block.
ISS module "Destiny" translated as "Destiny" (LAB - laboratory)
Module "Destiny" - on 02/08/2001 the space shuttle Atlantis was launched into orbit, and on 02/10/2002 the American scientific module "Destiny" was docked to the ISS at the forward docking port of the Unity module. Astronaut Marsha Ivin removed the module from the Atlantis spacecraft using a 15-meter “arm,” although the gaps between the ship and the module were only five centimeters. It was the space station's first laboratory and, at one time, its nerve center and largest habitable unit. The module was manufactured by the well-known American company Boeing. It consists of three connected cylinders. The ends of the module are made in the form of trimmed cones with sealed hatches that serve as entrances for astronauts. The module itself is intended mainly for conducting scientific research in medicine, materials science, biotechnology, physics, astronomy and many other fields of science. For this purpose there are 23 units equipped with instruments. They are arranged in groups of six along the sides, six on the ceiling and five blocks on the floor. The supports have routes for pipelines and cables; they connect different racks. The module also has the following life support systems: power supply, a sensor system for monitoring humidity, temperature and air quality. Thanks to this module and the equipment it contains, it became possible to conduct unique research in space on board the ISS in various fields of science.
ISS module "Quest" (A/L - universal airlock)
The Quest module was launched into orbit by the Atlantis Shuttle on 07/12/2001 and docked to the Unity module on 07/15/2001 at the right docking port using the Canadarm 2 manipulator. This unit is primarily designed to provide spacewalks in both Russian-made Orland spacesuits with an oxygen pressure of 0.4 atm, and in American EMU spacesuits with a pressure of 0.3 atm. The fact is that before this, representatives of space crews could only use Russian spacesuits when exiting the Zarya block and American ones when exiting through the Shuttle. Reduced pressure in spacesuits is used to make the suits more elastic, which creates significant comfort when moving.
The ISS Quest module consists of two rooms. These are the crew quarters and the equipment room. Crew quarters with a hermetic volume of 4.25 cubic meters. designed for exit into space with hatches provided with comfortable handrails, lighting, and connectors for oxygen supply, water, devices for reducing pressure before exit, etc.
The equipment room is much larger in volume and its size is 29.75 cubic meters. m. It is intended for the necessary equipment for putting on and taking off spacesuits, their storage and denitrogenation of the blood of station employees going into space.
ISS module "Pirs" (CO1 - docking compartment)
The Pirs module was launched into orbit on September 15, 2001 and docked with the Zarya module on September 17, 2001. Pirs was launched into space for docking with the ISS as an integral part of the specialized Progress M-S01 truck. Basically, "Pirs" plays the role of an airlock compartment for two people to go into outer space in Russian spacesuits of the "Orlan-M" type. The second purpose of the Pirs is additional berthing space for spacecraft of such types as Soyuz TM and Progress M trucks. The third purpose of the Pirs is to refuel the tanks of the Russian segments of the ISS with fuel, oxidizer and other propellant components. The dimensions of this module are relatively small: length with docking units is 4.91 m, diameter is 2.55 m and the volume of the sealed compartment is 13 cubic meters. m. In the center, on opposite sides of the sealed body with two circular frames, there are 2 identical hatches with a diameter of 1.0 m with small portholes. This makes it possible to enter space from different angles, depending on the need. Convenient handrails are provided inside and outside the hatches. Inside there is also equipment, airlock control panels, communications, power supplies, and pipeline routes for fuel transit. Communication antennas, antenna protection screens, and a fuel transfer unit are installed outside.
There are two docking nodes located along the axis: active and passive. The active node "Pirs" is docked with the module "Zarya", and the passive one on the opposite side is used for mooring spaceships.
ISS module “Harmony”, “Harmony” (Node 2 - connecting)
Module "Harmony" - launched into orbit on October 23, 2007 by the Discovery shuttle from Cape Canavery launch pad 39 and docked on October 26, 2007 with the ISS. "Harmony" was made in Italy for NASA. The docking of the module with the ISS itself was stage-by-stage: first, astronauts of the 16th crew Tani and Wilson temporarily docked the module with the ISS Unity module on the left using the Canadian manipulator Canadarm-2, and after the shuttle departed and the RMA-2 adapter was reinstalled, the module was reinstalled by the operator Tanya was disconnected from Unity and moved to its permanent location at the forward docking station of Destiny. The final installation of "Harmony" was completed on November 14, 2007.
The module has main dimensions: length 7.3 m, diameter 4.4 m, its sealed volume is 75 cubic meters. m. The most important feature of the module is 6 docking nodes for further connections with other modules and construction of the ISS. The nodes are located along the anterior and posterior axis, nadir at the bottom, anti-aircraft at the top and lateral left and right. It should be noted that thanks to the additional hermetic volume created in the module, three additional sleeping places were created for the crew, equipped with all life support systems.
The main purpose of the Harmony module is the role of a connecting node for the further expansion of the International Space Station and, in particular, for creating attachment points and connecting the European Columbus and Japanese Kibo space laboratories to it.
ISS module "Columbus", "Columbus" (COL)
The Columbus module is the first European module launched into orbit by the Atlantis shuttle on 02/07/2008. and installed on the right connecting node of the “Harmony” module 02/12/2008. Columbus was built for the European Space Agency in Italy, whose space agency has extensive experience building pressurized modules for the space station.
"Columbus" is a cylinder 6.9 m long and 4.5 m in diameter, where a laboratory with a volume of 80 cubic meters is located. meters with 10 workplaces. Each workplace is a rack with cells where instruments and equipment for certain studies are located. The racks are each equipped with a separate power supply, computers with the necessary software, communications, an air conditioning system and all the equipment necessary for research. At each workplace, a group of research and experiments are carried out in a certain direction. For example, the Biolab workstation is equipped to conduct experiments in the fields of space biotechnology, cell biology, developmental biology, skeletal disease, neurobiology, and human life support for long-duration interplanetary flights. There is a device for diagnosing protein crystallization and others. In addition to 10 racks with workstations in the pressurized compartment, there are four more places equipped for scientific space research on the outer open side of the module in space under vacuum conditions. This allows us to conduct experiments on the state of bacteria in very extreme conditions, understand the possibility of the emergence of life on other planets, and conduct astronomical observations. Thanks to the SOLAR solar instrument complex, solar activity and the degree of exposure of the Sun to our Earth are monitored, and solar radiation is monitored. The Diarad radiometer, along with other space radiometers, measures solar activity. The SOLSPEC spectrometer studies the solar spectrum and its light through the earth's atmosphere. The uniqueness of the research lies in the fact that it can be carried out simultaneously on the ISS and on Earth, immediately comparing the results. Columbus makes it possible to conduct video conferencing and high-speed data exchange. Monitoring of the module and coordination of work is carried out by the European Space Agency from the Center located in the city of Oberpfaffenhofen, located 60 km from Munich.
ISS module "Kibo" Japanese, translated as "Hope" (JEM-Japanese Experiment Module)
The Kibo module was launched into orbit by the Endeavor shuttle, first with only one part of it on 03/11/2008 and docked with the ISS on 03/14/2008. Despite the fact that Japan has its own spaceport on Tanegashima, due to the lack of delivery ships, Kibo was launched piecemeal from the American spaceport at Cape Canaveral. In general, Kibo is the largest laboratory module on the ISS today. It was developed by the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency and consists of four main parts: the PM Science Laboratory, the Experimental Cargo Module (which in turn has an ELM-PS pressurized part and an ELM-ES unpressurized part), the JEMRMS Remote Manipulator and the EF External Unpressurized Platform.
"Sealed Compartment" or Scientific Laboratory of the "Kibo" Module JEM PM- delivered and docked on 07/02/2008 by the Discovery shuttle - this is one of the compartments of the Kibo module, in the form of a sealed cylindrical structure measuring 11.2 m * 4.4 m with 10 universal racks adapted for scientific instruments . Five racks belong to America in payment for delivery, but any astronauts or cosmonauts can conduct scientific experiments at the request of any countries. Climate parameters: temperature and humidity, air composition and pressure correspond to earthly conditions, which makes it possible to work comfortably in ordinary, familiar clothes and conduct experiments without special conditions. Here, in a sealed compartment of a scientific laboratory, not only experiments are carried out, but also control over the entire laboratory complex, especially over the devices of the External Experimental Platform, is established.
"Experimental Cargo Bay" ELM- one of the compartments of the Kibo module has a sealed part ELM - PS and a non-sealed part ELM - ES. Its sealed part is docked with the upper hatch of the laboratory module PM and has the shape of a 4.2 m cylinder with a diameter of 4.4 m. The inhabitants of the station freely pass here from the laboratory, since the climate conditions are the same here. The sealed part is mainly used as an addition to the sealed laboratory and is intended for storing equipment, tools, and experimental results. There are 8 universal racks, which can be used for experiments if necessary. Initially, on 03/14/2008, ELM-PS was docked with the Harmony module, and on 06/06/2008, by astronauts of expedition No. 17, it was reinstalled to its permanent location in the Pressurized compartment of the laboratory.
The leaky part is the outer section of the cargo module and at the same time a component of the “External Experimental Platform”, since it is attached to its end. Its dimensions are: length 4.2 m, width 4.9 m and height 2.2 m. The purpose of this site is the storage of equipment, experimental results, samples and their transportation. This part with the results of experiments and used equipment can be undocked, if necessary, from the unpressurized Kibo platform and delivered to Earth.
"External experimental platform» JEM EF or, as it is also called, “Terrace” - delivered to the ISS on March 12, 2009. and is located immediately behind the laboratory module, representing the leaky part of the “Kibo”, with platform dimensions: 5.6 m length, 5.0 m width and 4.0 m height. Here, various numerous experiments are carried out directly in outer space in different areas of science to study the external influences of space. The platform is located immediately behind the sealed laboratory compartment and is connected to it by an airtight hatch. The manipulator located at the end of the laboratory module can install the necessary equipment for experiments and remove unnecessary equipment from the experimental platform. The platform has 10 experimental compartments, it is well lit and there are video cameras recording everything that happens.
Remote manipulator(JEM RMS) - a manipulator or mechanical arm that is mounted in the bow of a pressurized compartment of a scientific laboratory and serves to move cargo between the experimental cargo compartment and an external unpressurized platform. In general, the arm consists of two parts, a large ten-meter one for heavy loads and a removable short one 2.2 meters long for more precise work. Both types of arms have 6 rotating joints to perform various movements. The main manipulator was delivered in June 2008, and the second in July 2009.
The entire operation of this Japanese Kibo module is managed by the Control Center in the city of Tsukuba, north of Tokyo. Scientific experiments and research conducted in the Kibo laboratory significantly expand the scope of scientific activity in space. The modular principle of constructing the laboratory itself and a large number of universal racks provide ample opportunities for constructing a variety of studies.
Racks for conducting biological experiments are equipped with furnaces that set the required temperature conditions, which makes it possible to conduct experiments on growing various crystals, including biological ones. There are also incubators, aquariums and sterile facilities for animals, fish, amphibians and the cultivation of a variety of plant cells and organisms. The effects of different levels of radiation on them are being studied. The laboratory is equipped with dosimeters and other state-of-the-art instruments.
ISS module “Poisk” (MIM2 small research module)
The Poisk module is a Russian module launched into orbit from the Baikonur cosmodrome by a Soyuz-U launch vehicle, delivered by a specially upgraded cargo ship by the Progress M-MIM2 module on November 10, 2009, and was docked to the upper anti-aircraft docking port of the Zvezda module. two days later, November 12, 2009. The docking was carried out only using the Russian manipulator, abandoning Canadarm2, since financial issues had not been resolved with the Americans. “Poisk” was developed and built in Russia by RSC “Energia” on the basis of the previous module “Pirs” with the completion of all shortcomings and significant improvements. “Search” has a cylindrical shape with dimensions: 4.04 m long and 2.5 m in diameter. It has two docking units, active and passive, located along the longitudinal axis, and on the left and right sides there are two hatches with small windows and handrails for going into outer space. In general, it is almost like “Pierce”, but more advanced. In its space there are two workstations for conducting scientific tests, there are mechanical adapters with the help of which the necessary equipment is installed. Inside the pressurized compartment there is a volume of 0.2 cubic meters. m. for instruments, and a universal workplace was created on the outside of the module.
In general, this multifunctional module is intended: for additional docking points with the Soyuz and Progress spacecraft, for providing additional spacewalks, for housing scientific equipment and conducting scientific tests inside and outside the module, for refueling from transport ships and, ultimately, this module should take over the functions of the Zvezda service module.
ISS module “Transquility” or “Tranquility” (NODE3)
The Transquility module - an American connecting habitable module was launched into orbit on 02/08/2010 from the launch pad LC-39 (Kennedy Space Center) by the Endeavor shuttle and docked with the ISS on 08/10/2010 to the Unity module. Tranquility, commissioned by NASA, was manufactured in Italy. The module was named after the Sea of Tranquility on the Moon, where the first astronaut landed from Apollo 11. With the advent of this module, life on the ISS has truly become calmer and much more comfortable. Firstly, an internal useful volume of 74 cubic meters was added, the length of the module was 6.7 m with a diameter of 4.4 m. The dimensions of the module made it possible to create in it the most modern life support system, from the toilet to the provision and control of the highest levels of inhaled air. There are 16 racks with various equipment for air circulation systems, purification systems for removing contaminants from it, systems for processing liquid waste into water, and other systems to create a comfortable environmental environment for life on the ISS. The module provides everything down to the smallest detail, equipped with exercise equipment, all kinds of holders for objects, all conditions for work, training and relaxation. In addition to the high life support system, the design provides 6 docking nodes: two axial and 4 lateral for docking with spacecraft and improving the ability to reinstall modules in various combinations. The Dome module is attached to one of the Tranquility docking stations for a wide panoramic view.
ISS module "Dome" (cupola)
The Dome module was delivered to the ISS together with the Tranquility module and, as mentioned above, docked with its lower connecting node. This is the smallest module of the ISS with dimensions of 1.5 m in height and 2 m in diameter. But there are 7 windows that allow you to observe both the work on the ISS and the Earth. Workplaces for monitoring and controlling the Canadarm-2 manipulator, as well as monitoring systems for station modes, are equipped here. The portholes, made of 10 cm quartz glass, are arranged in the form of a dome: in the center there is a large round one with a diameter of 80 cm and around it there are 6 trapezoidal ones. This place is also a favorite place to relax.
ISS module "Rassvet" (MIM 1)
Module "Rassvet" - 05/14/2010 launched into orbit and delivered by the American shuttle "Atlantis" and docked with the ISS with the nadir docking port "Zarya" on 05/18/2011. This is the first Russian module that was delivered to the ISS not by a Russian spacecraft, but by an American one. The docking of the module was carried out by American astronauts Garrett Reisman and Piers Sellers within three hours. The module itself, like previous modules of the Russian segment of the ISS, was manufactured in Russia by the Energia Rocket and Space Corporation. The module is very similar to previous Russian modules, but with significant improvements. It has five workplaces: a glove box, low-temperature and high-temperature biothermostats, a vibration-proof platform, and a universal workplace with the necessary equipment for scientific and applied research. The module has dimensions of 6.0 m by 2.2 m and is intended, in addition to carrying out research work in the fields of biotechnology and materials science, for additional storage of cargo, for the possibility of use as a berthing port for spacecraft and for additional refueling of the station. As part of the Rassvet module, an airlock chamber, an additional radiator-heat exchanger, a portable workstation and a spare element of the ERA robotic manipulator for the future scientific laboratory Russian module were sent.
Multifunctional module "Leonardo" (RMM-permanent multipurpose module)
The Leonardo module was launched into orbit and delivered by the Discovery shuttle on 05/24/10 and docked to the ISS on 03/01/2011. This module formerly belonged to three multi-purpose logistics modules, Leonardo, Raffaello and Donatello, manufactured in Italy to deliver necessary cargo to the ISS. They carried cargo and were delivered by the Discovery and Atlantis shuttles, docking with the Unity module. But the Leonardo module was re-equipped with the installation of life support systems, power supply, thermal control, fire extinguishing, data transmission and processing and, starting in March 2011, began to be part of the ISS as a baggage Sealed multifunctional module for permanent cargo placement. The module has dimensions of a cylindrical part of 4.8 m by a diameter of 4.57 m with an internal living volume of 30.1 cubic meters. meters and serves as a good additional volume for the American segment of the ISS.
ISS Bigelow Expandable Activity Module (BEAM)
The BEAM module is an American experimental inflatable module created by Bigelow Aerospace. The head of the company, Robber Bigelow, is a billionaire in the hotel system and at the same time a passionate fan of space. The company is engaged in space tourism. Robber Bigelow's dream is a hotel system in space, on the Moon and Mars. Creating an inflatable housing and hotel complex in space turned out to be an excellent idea that has a number of advantages over modules made from heavy iron rigid structures. Inflatable modules of the BEAM type are much lighter, small-sized for transportation and much more economical financially. NASA deservedly appreciated this company's idea and in December 2012 signed a contract with the company for 17.8 million to create an inflatable module for the ISS, and in 2013 a contract was signed with Sierra Nevada Corporatio to create a docking mechanism for Beam and the ISS. In 2015, the BEAM module was built and on April 16, 2016, the SpaceX Dragon spacecraft in its container in the cargo bay delivered it to the ISS where it was successfully docked behind the Tranquility module. On the ISS, the cosmonauts deployed the module, inflated it with air, checked it for leaks, and on June 6, American ISS astronaut Jeffrey Williams and Russian cosmonaut Oleg Skripochka entered it and installed all the necessary equipment there. The BEAM module on the ISS, when deployed, is an interior windowless room up to 16 cubic meters in size. Its dimensions are 5.2 meters in diameter and 6.5 meters in length. Weight 1360 kg. The module body consists of 8 air tanks made of metal bulkheads, an aluminum folding structure and several layers of strong elastic fabric located at a certain distance from each other. Inside, the module, as mentioned above, was equipped with the necessary research equipment. The pressure is set to the same as on the ISS. BEAM is planned to remain on the space station for 2 years and will be largely closed, with astronauts only visiting it to check for leaks and its general structural integrity in space conditions only 4 times a year. In 2 years, I plan to undock the BEAM module from the ISS, after which it will burn up in the outer layers of the atmosphere. The main purpose of the presence of the BEAM module on the ISS is to test its design for strength, tightness and operation in harsh space conditions. Over the course of 2 years, it is planned to test its protection against radiation and other types of cosmic radiation and its resistance to small space debris. Since in the future it is planned to use inflatable modules for astronauts to live in, the results of the conditions for maintaining comfortable conditions (temperature, pressure, air, tightness) will answer the questions of further development and structure of such modules. At the moment, Bigelow Aerospace is already developing the next version of a similar, but already habitable inflatable module with windows and a much larger volume “B-330”, which can be used on the Lunar Space Station and on Mars.
Today, anyone on Earth can look at the ISS in the night sky with the naked eye as a luminous moving star moving at an angular velocity of about 4 degrees per minute. Its greatest magnitude is observed from 0m to -04m. The ISS moves around the Earth and at the same time makes one revolution every 90 minutes or 16 revolutions per day. The height of the ISS above the Earth is approximately 410-430 km, but due to friction in the remnants of the atmosphere, due to the influence of the Earth's gravitational forces, to avoid a dangerous collision with space debris and for successful docking with delivery ships, the height of the ISS is constantly adjusted. Altitude adjustment occurs using the engines of the Zarya module. The initially planned service life of the station was 15 years, and has now been extended until approximately 2020.
Based on materials from http://www.mcc.rsa.ru
Most space flights are carried out not in circular orbits, but in elliptical orbits, the altitude of which varies depending on the location above the Earth. The altitude of the so-called “low reference” orbit, from which most spacecraft “push off”, is approximately 200 kilometers above sea level. To be precise, the perigee of such an orbit is 193 kilometers, and the apogee is 220 kilometers. However, in the reference orbit there is a large amount of debris left behind by half a century of space exploration, so modern spacecraft, turning on their engines, move to a higher orbit. For example, the International Space Station ( ISS) in 2017 rotated at an altitude of about 417 kilometers, that is, twice as high as the reference orbit.
The orbital altitude of most spacecraft depends on the mass of the ship, its launch site, and the power of its engines. For astronauts it varies from 150 to 500 kilometers. For example, Yuri Gagarin flew in orbit at perigee 175 km and apogee at 320 km. The second Soviet cosmonaut German Titov flew in an orbit with a perigee of 183 km and an apogee of 244 km. American shuttles flew in orbit altitude from 400 to 500 kilometers. All modern spacecraft delivering people and cargo to the ISS have approximately the same height.
Unlike manned spacecraft, which need to return astronauts to Earth, artificial satellites fly in much higher orbits. The orbital altitude of a satellite orbiting in geostationary orbit can be calculated based on data about the mass and diameter of the Earth. As a result of simple physical calculations, we can find out that geostationary orbit altitude, that is, one in which the satellite “hangs” over one point on the earth’s surface, is equal to 35,786 kilometers. This is a very large distance from the Earth, so the signal exchange time with such a satellite can reach 0.5 seconds, which makes it unsuitable, for example, for servicing online games.
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Manned orbital multi-purpose space research complex
The International Space Station (ISS), created to conduct scientific research in space. Construction began in 1998 and is being carried out in collaboration with the aerospace agencies of Russia, the USA, Japan, Canada, Brazil and the European Union, and is scheduled to be completed by 2013. The weight of the station after its completion will be approximately 400 tons. The ISS orbits the Earth at an altitude of about 340 kilometers, making 16 revolutions per day. The station will approximately operate in orbit until 2016-2020.
10 years after the first space flight by Yuri Gagarin, in April 1971, the world's first space orbital station, Salyut-1, was launched into orbit. Long-term manned stations (LOS) were necessary for scientific research. Their creation was a necessary step in preparing future human flights to other planets. During the Salyut program from 1971 to 1986, the USSR had the opportunity to test the main architectural elements of space stations and subsequently use them in the project of a new long-term orbital station - Mir.
The collapse of the Soviet Union led to a reduction in funding for the space program, so Russia alone could not not only build a new orbital station, but also maintain the operation of the Mir station. At that time, the Americans had virtually no experience in creating DOS. In 1993, US Vice President Al Gore and Russian Prime Minister Viktor Chernomyrdin signed the Mir-Shuttle space cooperation agreement. The Americans agreed to finance the construction of the last two modules of the Mir station: Spectrum and Priroda. In addition, from 1994 to 1998, the United States made 11 flights to Mir. The agreement also provided for the creation of a joint project - the International Space Station (ISS). In addition to the Russian Federal Space Agency (Roscosmos) and the US National Aerospace Agency (NASA), the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), the European Space Agency (ESA, which includes 17 participating countries), and the Canadian Space Agency (CSA) took part in the project. , as well as the Brazilian Space Agency (AEB). India and China have expressed interest in participating in the ISS project. On January 28, 1998, a final agreement was signed in Washington to begin construction of the ISS.
The ISS has a modular structure: its different segments were created by the efforts of the countries participating in the project and have their own specific function: research, residential, or used as storage facilities. Some of the modules, such as the American Unity series modules, are jumpers or are used for docking with transport ships. When completed, the ISS will consist of 14 main modules with a total volume of 1000 cubic meters; a crew of 6 or 7 people will always be on board the station.
The weight of the ISS after its completion is planned to be more than 400 tons. The station is roughly the size of a football field. In the starry sky it can be observed with the naked eye - sometimes the station is the brightest celestial body after the Sun and Moon.
The ISS orbits the Earth at an altitude of about 340 kilometers, making 16 revolutions per day. Scientific experiments are carried out on board the station in the following areas:
- Research into new medical methods of therapy and diagnostics and life support in zero gravity conditions
- Research in the field of biology, the functioning of living organisms in outer space under the influence of solar radiation
- Experiments to study the earth's atmosphere, cosmic rays, cosmic dust and dark matter
- Study of the properties of matter, including superconductivity.
The first module of the station, Zarya (weighs 19.323 tons), was launched into orbit by a Proton-K launch vehicle on November 20, 1998. This module was used at the early stage of construction of the station as a source of electricity, also to control orientation in space and maintain temperature conditions. Subsequently, these functions were transferred to other modules, and Zarya began to be used as a warehouse.
The Zvezda module is the main residential module of the station; on board there are life support and station control systems. The Russian transport ships Soyuz and Progress dock with it. The module, with a delay of two years, was launched into orbit by the Proton-K launch vehicle on July 12, 2000 and docked on July 26 with Zarya and the previously launched into orbit by the American docking module Unity-1.
The Pirs docking module (weighs 3,480 tons) was launched into orbit in September 2001 and is used for docking the Soyuz and Progress spacecraft, as well as for spacewalks. In November 2009, the Poisk module, almost identical to Pirs, docked with the station.
Russia plans to dock a Multifunctional Laboratory Module (MLM) to the station; when launched in 2012, it should become the station's largest laboratory module, weighing more than 20 tons.
The ISS already has laboratory modules from the USA (Destiny), ESA (Columbus) and Japan (Kibo). They and the main hub segments Harmony, Quest and Unnity were launched into orbit by shuttles.
During the first 10 years of operation, the ISS was visited by more than 200 people from 28 expeditions, which is a record for space stations (only 104 people visited Mir). The ISS was the first example of the commercialization of space flight. Roscosmos, together with the Space Adventures company, sent space tourists into orbit for the first time. In addition, as part of a contract for the purchase of Russian weapons by Malaysia, Roscosmos in 2007 organized the flight of the first Malaysian cosmonaut, Sheikh Muszaphar Shukor, to the ISS.
Among the most serious incidents on the ISS is the landing disaster of the space shuttle Columbia ("Columbia", "Columbia") on February 1, 2003. Although Columbia did not dock with the ISS while conducting an independent exploration mission, the disaster led to the grounding of shuttle flights and did not resume until July 2005. This delayed the completion of the station and made the Russian Soyuz and Progress spacecraft the only means of delivering cosmonauts and cargo to the station. In addition, smoke occurred in the Russian segment of the station in 2006, and computer failures were recorded in the Russian and American segments in 2001 and twice in 2007. In the fall of 2007, the station crew was busy repairing a solar panel rupture that occurred during its installation.
According to the agreement, each project participant owns its segments on the ISS. Russia owns the Zvezda and Pirs modules, Japan owns the Kibo module, and ESA owns the Columbus module. The solar panels, which upon completion of the station will generate 110 kilowatts per hour, and the remaining modules belong to NASA.
Completion of construction of the ISS is scheduled for 2013. Thanks to new equipment delivered aboard the ISS by the Endeavor shuttle expedition in November 2008, the station's crew will be increased in 2009 from 3 to 6 people. It was initially planned that the ISS station should operate in orbit until 2010; in 2008, a different date was given - 2016 or 2020. According to experts, the ISS, unlike the Mir station, will not be sunk in the ocean; it is intended to be used as a base for assembling interplanetary spacecraft. Despite the fact that NASA spoke in favor of reducing funding for the station, the head of the agency, Michael Griffin, promised to fulfill all US obligations to complete its construction. However, after the war in South Ossetia, many experts, including Griffin, stated that the cooling of relations between Russia and the United States could lead to Roscosmos ceasing cooperation with NASA and the Americans would lose the opportunity to send expeditions to the station. In 2010, US President Barack Obama announced the end of funding for the Constellation program, which was supposed to replace the shuttles. In July 2011, the Atlantis shuttle made its final flight, after which the Americans had to rely indefinitely on their Russian, European and Japanese counterparts to deliver cargo and astronauts to the station. In May 2012, the Dragon spacecraft, owned by the private American company SpaceX, docked with the ISS for the first time.
The International Space Station (ISS), the successor to the Soviet Mir station, is celebrating its 10th anniversary. The agreement on the creation of the ISS was signed on January 29, 1998 in Washington by representatives of Canada, the governments of member states of the European Space Agency (ESA), Japan, Russia and the United States.
Work on the international space station began in 1993.
On March 15, 1993, RKA General Director Yu.N. Koptev and general designer of NPO ENERGY Yu.P. Semenov approached NASA head D. Goldin with a proposal to create an International Space Station.
On September 2, 1993, Chairman of the Government of the Russian Federation V.S. Chernomyrdin and US Vice President A. Gore signed a “Joint Statement on Cooperation in Space,” which also provided for the creation of a joint station. In its development, RSA and NASA developed and on November 1, 1993 signed a “Detailed Work Plan for the International Space Station.” This made it possible in June 1994 to sign a contract between NASA and RSA “On supplies and services for the Mir station and the International Space Station.”
Taking into account certain changes at joint meetings of the Russian and American sides in 1994, the ISS had the following structure and organization of work:
In addition to Russia and the USA, Canada, Japan and European Cooperation countries are participating in the creation of the station;
The station will consist of 2 integrated segments (Russian and American) and will be gradually assembled in orbit from separate modules.
Construction of the ISS in low-Earth orbit began on November 20, 1998 with the launch of the Zarya functional cargo block.
Already on December 7, 1998, the American connecting module Unity was docked to it, delivered into orbit by the Endeavor shuttle.
On December 10, the hatches to the new station were opened for the first time. The first to enter it were Russian cosmonaut Sergei Krikalev and American astronaut Robert Cabana.
On July 26, 2000, the Zvezda service module was introduced into the ISS, which at the station deployment stage became its base unit, the main place for the crew to live and work.
In November 2000, the crew of the first long-term expedition arrived at the ISS: William Shepherd (commander), Yuri Gidzenko (pilot) and Sergei Krikalev (flight engineer). Since then the station has been permanently inhabited.
During the deployment of the station, 15 main expeditions and 13 visiting expeditions visited the ISS. Currently, the crew of the 16th main expedition is at the station - the first American female commander of the ISS, Peggy Whitson, ISS flight engineers Russian Yuri Malenchenko and American Daniel Tani.
As part of a separate agreement with ESA, six flights of European astronauts were carried out to the ISS: Claudie Haignere (France) - in 2001, Roberto Vittori (Italy) - in 2002 and 2005, Frank de Vinna (Belgium) - in 2002, Pedro Duque (Spain) - in 2003, Andre Kuipers (Netherlands) - in 2004.
A new page in the commercial use of space was opened after the flights of the first space tourists to the Russian segment of the ISS - American Denis Tito (in 2001) and South African Mark Shuttleworth (in 2002). For the first time, non-professional cosmonauts visited the station.
The creation of the ISS is by far the largest project implemented jointly by Roscosmos, NASA, ESA, the Canadian Space Agency and the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA).
On behalf of the Russian side, RSC Energia and the Khrunichev Center are participating in the project. The Cosmonaut Training Center (CPC) named after Gagarin, TsNIIMASH, Institute of Medical and Biological Problems of the Russian Academy of Sciences (IMBP), JSC NPP Zvezda and other leading organizations of the rocket and space industry of the Russian Federation.
The material was prepared by the online editors of www.rian.ru based on information from open sources
The boundary between the Earth's atmosphere and space runs along the Karman line, at an altitude of 100 km above sea level.
Space is very close, do you realize?
So, the atmosphere. An ocean of air that splashes above our heads, and we live at its very bottom. In other words, the gas shell, rotating with the Earth, is our cradle and protection from destructive ultraviolet radiation. Here's what it looks like schematically:
Scheme of the structure of the atmosphereTroposphere. Extends to an altitude of 6-10 km in polar latitudes, and 16-20 km in the tropics. In winter the limit is lower than in summer. The temperature drops with altitude by 0.65°C every 100 meters. The troposphere contains 80% of the total mass of atmospheric air. Here, at an altitude of 9-12 km, passenger planes fly aircraft. The troposphere is separated from the stratosphere by the ozone layer, which serves as a shield that protects the Earth from destructive ultraviolet radiation (absorbs 98% of UV rays). There is no life beyond the ozone layer.
Stratosphere. From the ozone layer to an altitude of 50 km. The temperature continues to drop and, at an altitude of 40 km, reaches 0°C. For the next 15 km the temperature does not change (stratopause). They can fly here weather balloons And *.
Mesosphere. Extends to an altitude of 80-90 km. The temperature drops to -70°C. They burn in the mesosphere meteors, leaving a luminous trail in the night sky for several seconds. The mesosphere is too rarefied for aircraft, but at the same time too dense for artificial satellite flights. Of all the layers of the atmosphere, it is the most inaccessible and poorly studied, which is why it is called the “dead zone.” At an altitude of 100 km there is the Karman line, beyond which open space begins. This officially marks the end of aviation and the beginning of astronautics. By the way, the Karman line is legally considered the upper limit of the countries located below.
Thermosphere. Leaving behind the conditionally drawn Karman line, we go out into space. The air becomes even more rarefied, so flights here are only possible along ballistic trajectories. Temperatures range from -70 to 1500°C, solar radiation and cosmic radiation ionize the air. At the north and south poles of the planet, solar wind particles entering this layer cause visible radiation at low latitudes of the Earth. Here, at an altitude of 150-500 km, our satellites And spaceships, and a little higher (550 km above the Earth) - beautiful and inimitable (by the way, people climbed to it five times, because the telescope periodically required repairs and maintenance).
The thermosphere extends to an altitude of 690 km, then the exosphere begins.
Exosphere. This is the outer, diffuse part of the thermosphere. Consists of gas ions flying into outer space, because. The force of gravity of the Earth no longer acts on them. The exosphere of the planet is also called the “corona”. The Earth's "corona" is up to 200,000 km high, which is about half the distance from the Earth to the Moon. In the exosphere they can only fly unmanned satellites.
*Stratostat – a balloon for flights into the stratosphere. The record height for lifting a stratospheric balloon with a crew on board today is 19 km. The flight of the stratospheric balloon “USSR” with a crew of 3 people took place on September 30, 1933.
Stratospheric balloon **Perigee is the point of the orbit of a celestial body (natural or artificial satellite) closest to Earth.
***Apogee is the most distant point in the orbit of a celestial body from the Earth
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