The first empire in France. After the coup d'etat of 1799, Napoleon Bonaparte, who became the First Consul of France, legitimizing his power, decided to become the sole ruler of France. In 1804, by decree of the Senate, he was declared “Emperor of the French,” and then solemnly crowned. France became an empire. The monarchy was practically restored, but it now relied not on the nobles, but on the bourgeoisie, the army and government officials, and this was a military monarchy.
Wars of conquest. Napoleon waged wars of conquest. In 1805, Vienna, the capital of Austria, was taken. In 1806 he conquered the capital of Prussia, Berlin. Inspired by his victories, Napoleon signed a decree on a continental blockade of Great Britain. The decree prohibited the countries conquered by Napoleon from trading with Great Britain. Napoleon wanted to strangle England economically.
The continental blockade doomed Napoleon to a long and grueling war for dominance in Europe and the world. In 1807, the “Treaty of Tilsit” was signed. It was a peace treaty, according to which Russia recognized all of Napoleon’s conquests and became an ally of France against England, joining the continental blockade.
Weakening of the empire. Napoleon, who conquered all of Europe, turned out to be powerless before England and Russia. England's powerful navy did not allow France to bring it to its knees.
Russia retained its independence. Although she joined the continental blockade, she did not fulfill the agreement. Russia sent its goods to English markets by US ships.
The French people are also tired of continuous wars. The death of thousands of young people in the war, increased taxes, economic losses from the continental blockade - all this increased the people's dissatisfaction with Napoleon's policies. National liberation movements developed in countries subject to France. To suppress all these protests and regain the sympathy of the people, a great victorious war was needed. Only a war with Russia could bring such glory.
War of 1812 between France and Russia. On June 23, 1812, Napoleon invaded Russia. An army of up to 600 thousand people crossed the border. This war was a war of liberation for Russia and entered its history as the Patriotic War of 1812. Its outcome was decided by the Battle of Borodino, which took place on September 7, 1812 near the village of Borodino, 120 km from Moscow. There were many casualties on both sides, but Napoleon failed to defeat the Russian army. In order to preserve the surviving army, Moscow was surrendered without a fight, and they began to prepare for a decisive offensive.
Soon a disastrous retreat began for the French army, the collapse of which was completed by winter and famine. Of the 570,000-strong Napoleonic army that crossed the Russian border, 18,000 people survived. Napoleon's Grand Army, as the commander-in-chief of the Russian army M.I. wrote in his report to the tsar. Kutuzov, “was completely exterminated.” This was the collapse of the Napoleonic empire.
Fall of the Empire. The new coalition against France included Russia, Great Britain, Prussia, and Austria. The decisive battle between the French army and coalition forces took place in October 1813 near Leipzig, in which Napoleon's 190,000-strong army was defeated. This battle went down in history as the “Battle of the Nations.” In 1814, the coalition army entered Paris. Napoleon was overthrown. After abdicating the throne, he was exiled to the island of Elba. Napoleon's empire fell.
Bourbon Restoration. The victorious allied countries decided to restore the Bourbon dynasty in France. The Senate proclaimed Louis XVIII, the brother of Louis XVI, who was executed during the revolution, as king. But this was no longer an absolute monarchy. Absolutism could not be returned, since capitalist relations had taken deep root in society. Therefore, the king promulgated the Constitution. A peace treaty was concluded between France and the allies, according to which France lost all the territories conquered under Napoleon. The internal situation in the country has become more complicated. Supporters of the old feudal order demanded the restoration of absolutism and the return of lost property to them. This, in turn, worried the bourgeoisie and peasants. In addition, discontent throughout the country caused the dismissal of more than 10 thousand civil servants and 120 thousand officers who served under Napoleon. Napoleon, who was in exile, decided to take advantage of the situation. On his side were still the old guard and a part consisting of Corsicans - his fellow countrymen. In 1815, Napoleon sailed from Elba and landed in the south of France. The 30,000-strong army sent by Louis XVIII against Napoleon went over to Napoleon's side. On March 20, Napoleon captured Paris and took the throne. But this time he stayed in power for only 100 days.
They opposed Napoleon Anglo-Dutch army Wellington And Prussian army Blucher. The decisive battle between them took place on June 18, 1815 near the village of Waterloo (now the territory of Belgium). This battle went down in history as the “Battle of Waterloo.” In this battle, Napoleon suffered a crushing defeat. Napoleon again abdicated the throne and on June 22 of the same year was exiled to the island of St. Helena, where he died in 1821. The Bourbon dynasty again established itself in France.
Congress of Vienna. The victorious countries convened a Congress. It met in the capital of Austria, Vienna, from October 1814 to June 1815. The main goal of the Congress of Vienna was the division of Europe in the interests of the victorious countries.
In the summer of 1815, 8 European countries: Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, Russia, Spain, Sweden, Portugal and France signed the final document of the congress. The main goal of Great Britain was to weaken France and consolidate its dominance on the seas and in the conquered colonies. And she achieved it. She found Malta, the island of Ceylon, and the Cape Lands in southern Africa. Most of Poland was ceded to Russia. Germany, which consisted of 300 small states, united into the German Confederation, now consisting of 39 states. This union was led by Austria. The Rhineland and Westphalia were annexed to Prussia. The western part of Poland also became the property of Prussia. Austria gained a foothold in Eastern Italy. Belgium was annexed to Holland.
The independence of Switzerland was restored and it was declared an eternally neutral state. France was returned to its former borders. She was obliged to pay an indemnity in the amount of 700 million francs. Until the indemnity was paid in full, the northern part of France was occupied by allied troops. Thus, France was reduced to the level of a secondary state. The Congress of Vienna also adopted a declaration prohibiting slavery of blacks. Thus, the Congress of Vienna, by forcibly redrawing the map of Europe, changed its political state after the Napoleonic wars.
Holy Alliance. For the common struggle against revolutionary movements and to prevent future revolutions in Europe, the governments of three European states - Russia, Austria and Prussia - entered into a monarchical alliance, which went down in history as the Holy Alliance.
Contributions are forced payments levied from the defeated state in favor of the victorious state.
There have been two empires in the history of France. The first existed in 1804-1814 and 1815. It was created by the famous commander Napoleon Bonaparte. After his overthrow and exile in France, the monarchical system constantly alternated with the republican one. Period 1852-1870 considered to be the period of the Second Empire, when Napoleon I's nephew Napoleon III ruled.
Emperor of the French
The creator of the First Empire, Napoleon Bonaparte, established a new state on May 18, 1804. According to the revolutionary calendar, it was the 28th of Floreal. On that day, the Senate adopted a new Constitution, according to which Napoleon was officially proclaimed emperor. Some attributes of the old monarchy were restored (for example, the rank of marshal in the army).
The French empire was governed not only by the first person of the state, but also by the imperial council, which included several high dignitaries (these were the archchancellor, the supreme elector, the archtreasurer, the great admiral and the great constable). As before, Napoleon tried to make his individual decisions legitimate through popular vote. At the first plebiscite in the empire, for example, it was decided to return the coronation ceremony. She was returned despite the resistance of the State Council.
Third coalition
The First French Empire created by Napoleon from the very beginning of its existence opposed the entire Old World. Conservative European powers opposed the ideas that Bonaparte carried. For the monarchs, he was the heir to the revolution and a man who represented a danger to their existence. In 1805, according to the Treaty of St. Petersburg Union, the Third Union was formed. It included Great Britain, Russia, Austria, Sweden and the Kingdom of Naples.
This agreement united almost all European nations. A powerful conglomerate of opponents opposed the French Empire. At the same time, Paris managed to persuade Prussia to maintain its much-desired neutrality. Then another large-scale war began. Napoleon was the first to punish the Kingdom of Naples, whose monarch he made his brother Joseph.
New successes of the empire
In 1806, the First French Empire achieved the creation of German states vassal to Bonaparte: kingdoms, duchies and principalities. On their territory, Napoleon initiated reforms. He dreamed of establishing a new order throughout Europe according to his famous Code.
So, after the victory over the Third Coalition, the French Empire began to systematically increase its influence in disunited Germany. This turn of events did not please Prussia, which naturally considered its native country to be its area of responsibility. In Berlin, Bonaparte was given an ultimatum, according to which Paris was required to remove its army beyond the Rhine. Napoleon ignored this attack.
A new war has begun. And the French Empire won again. In the first battle near Saalfeld, the Prussians suffered a terrible defeat. As a result of the campaign, Napoleon triumphantly entered Berlin and secured the payment of a huge indemnity. The French Empire did not stop even after Russia intervened in the conflict. Soon the second most important city in Prussia, Koenigsberg, was taken. Bonaparte achieved the creation of a dependent Kingdom of Westphalia in Germany. In addition, Prussia lost its territories between the Elbe and the Rhine. Thus, the French Empire under Napoleon experienced the heyday of its territorial expansion in Europe.
Triumph and defeat of the Corsican
By 1812, the flag of the French Empire was flying over many European cities. Prussia and Austria were catastrophically weakened, Great Britain was under blockade. Under these conditions, Napoleon began his eastern campaign by attacking Russia.
The emperor considered three options as the route of advance of the Great Army: St. Petersburg, Moscow or Kyiv. Ultimately, Napoleon chose the Mother See. After the bloody Battle of Borodino with an uncertain outcome, the French army entered Moscow. However, the capture of the city gave nothing to the interventionists. The weakened army of the French and their allies had to retreat to their homeland.
Following the failure of the eastern campaign, the European powers united in a new coalition. This time luck turned against Napoleon. He suffered several serious defeats and was eventually removed from power. First he was sent into exile to Elba. However, after some time, in 1815, the restless Bonaparte returned to his homeland. After another 100 days of rule and an attempt to take revenge, his star finally set. The great commander spent the rest of his days on the First Empire was replaced by
New Empire
On December 2, 1852, the Second French Empire was formed. It appeared almost 40 years after the fall of its predecessor. The continuity of the two government systems was obvious. The Second French Empire received a monarch in the person of Louis Napoleon, the nephew of Napoleon I, who took the name Napoleon III.
Like his uncle, the new monarch initially used democratic institutions as his support. In 1852 it appeared according to the results of a national plebiscite. At the same time, Louis Napoleon, before becoming emperor, in 1848-1852. served as President of the Second Republic.
Controversial Monarch
At the first stage of his reign as monarch, Napoleon III was in fact an absolute autocrat. He determined the composition of the Senate and the State Council, appointed ministers and officials up to mayors. Only the Legislative Corps was elected, but the elections were full of contradictions and obstacles for candidates independent from the government. In addition, in 1858, an oath of allegiance to the emperor became mandatory for all deputies. All this eliminated the legal opposition from political life.
The style of government of the two Napoleons was somewhat different. The first came to power in the wake of the Great Revolution. He defended the new order that was then established. Under Napoleon, the former influence of the feudal lords was destroyed and the flourishing of the petty bourgeoisie began. His nephew defended the interests of big capital. At the same time, Napoleon III was a supporter of the principle of free trade. Under him, the Paris Bourse reached an unprecedented economic peak.
Worsening relations with Prussia
By the end of the reign of Napoleon III, France was experiencing a political decline caused by the inconsistent policies of the first person. Many sections of society were dissatisfied with the monarch, although for the time being these contradictions were reduced to nothing. However, the final nail in the coffin of the empire was the foreign policy of Napoleon III.
The Emperor, contrary to all the persuasion of his advisers, agreed to aggravate relations with Prussia. This kingdom has gained unprecedented economic and military potential. The proximity of the two countries was complicated by disputes over the border region of Alsace and Lorraine. Each state considered them their own. The conflict grew against the backdrop of an unresolved problem. Until recently, Austria and Prussia equally laid claim to the role of the leading force in this country, but the Prussians won this head-to-head struggle and were now preparing to proclaim their own empire.
End of the Empire
Not all of the above true historical reasons became the reason for the war between neighbors. It turned out to be a dispute over the Spanish heir to the throne. Although Napoleon III could have given up, he did not stop, hoping to demonstrate his power both to his own citizens and to the rest of the world. But contrary to his expectations, from the first days of the war, which began on July 19, 1870, the French suffered defeat after defeat. The initiative passed to the Germans, and they launched an offensive towards Paris.
The Battle of Sedan ended with a fatal collapse. After the defeat, Napoleon III had to surrender along with his army. The war continued, but the government in Paris decided not to wait for the monarch's return and announced his deposition. On September 4, 1870, a republic was proclaimed in France. She ended the war with the Germans. Released from captivity, but deprived of power, Napoleon III emigrated to Great Britain. There he died on January 9, 1873, becoming the last French monarch in history.
Napoleon Bonaparte was constantly on his feet. He lived according to an inhuman schedule. From this lifestyle, the commander developed the habit of sleeping in fits and starts, for 1-2 hours, between times. The story that happened in the midst of the battle, Napoleon ordered a bear skin to be spread next to him, became anecdotal. The emperor slept on it for 20 minutes, after which, as if nothing had happened, he continued to lead the battle.
Napoleon I and Adolf Hitler gained power at the age of 44. In addition, both declared war on Russia at age 52 and were completely defeated at age 56.
The common term “Latin America” was introduced into use by Emperor Napoleon III. The monarch believed that his country had legal rights to this region. The epithet “Latin” was supposed to emphasize the fact that the majority of the local population speaks Romance languages, to which French belongs.
When he was President of the Second Republic, Louis Napoleon was the only bachelor to hold this position in the history of the country. He married his wife Eugenia, having already become emperor. The crowned couple loved ice skating (it was Napoleon and Eugenia who popularized ice dancing).
Almost all European countries, at various stages of their development, tried to increase their power and wealth by conquering and ruling colonies. The greatest successes in conquering and developing new lands were achieved by Spain, Portugal and England. Competing with them: the Netherlands, France and Germany. Even countries such as Denmark and Sweden owned their own colonies.
The reasons that moved people to equip colonial expeditions were: trade, search for gold and other minerals, search for places to live, neutralization of pirate states, building a prestigious image.
The colonial empire of France arose gradually; it would be more correct to distinguish two long historical stages:
- The first colonial empire (XVI-XVIII centuries) was built mainly by large royal trading companies, such as the French trading West India Company. During her conquests, the country acquired a large part of North America, the Caribbean islands and a large part of India, a significant part of which passed to England in 1763.
- The Second Colonial Empire (late 19th century) was built primarily to challenge the power of the British Empire, and lasted until the 1960s. It included the lands of North Africa, a substantial piece of West and Central Africa, Indochina and a significant number of islands around the world.
At the peak of its conquests, the empire reached a total area of 12.3 million square kilometers, 25 times the area of the state itself. In terms of its scale, it was second only to the capabilities of Great Britain, which added 30 million square kilometers of colonized lands.
Colonies of France on the world map
Beginning of expansion
At the initial stage, which originated in the first third of the sixteenth century, there was a military annexation of territories, which was quite obviously beneficial from a political and economic point of view, which is an indisputable historical fact, without being a real priority for the development of the country.
The early travels of the Italian-born Giovanni da Verrazano, who served in France, led to the discovery of new lands. With his light hand, his places of residence were declared the property of the crown. The discoverer Jacques Cartier made three voyages along North America at the beginning of the 16th century, marking the beginning of its exploration by France.
Fishermen enjoyed visiting the Grand Bank off Newfoundland throughout the century, marking the beginning of the history of colonial expansion in North America. In 1534, the first French colonists settled in Canada. Fishing and the search for precious metals inspired the new arrivals. Spain's zealous defense of "its" American monopoly and internal religious war at the end of the 16th century prevented proper sustained efforts to gain a foothold in the region. There were early French attempts to establish colonies in Brazil in 1555, in São Luis in 1612 and in Florida, but these too were thwarted by Portuguese and Spanish vigilance.
First colonial empire of France
The history of the empire began in 1605 with the founding of Port Royal in modern Nova Scotia, Canada. Three years later, traveler Samuel Champlain founded the French settlement of Quebec, which was to become the capital of New France, a region rich in furs. By forming beneficial alliances with various Native American tribes, the French were free to rule most of the North American continent. For the time being, areas of French settlement were limited to the valley of the St. Lawrence River. And before the creation of the Sovereign Council in 1663, the territory of New France had the status of a trading colony. But the right to govern it was transferred to the British under the Utrecht Peace Treaty of 1713.
In the seventeenth century, commercial ambitions lead to conquest in the Caribbean region. The empire was replenished with Martinique, Guadeloupe and Santo Domingo. The introduced system for extracting maximum efficiency from occupied lands in this case was based on the slave trade and slave labor in the cultivation of sugar cane and tobacco plantations. During the same period, colonists settled Senegal, Africa and Reunion in the Indian Ocean and established some dominance in India.
In parallel with the expansion of the empire in North America, the conquest of the West Indies was carried out. Settlement of the area along the South American coast, in what is now French Guiana, began in 1624, and the colony of St. Kitts was founded in 1627. Before the peace agreement with the British, the island was divided, and after that it was completely ceded.
The Insular American Company founded colonies in Guadeloupe and Martinique in 1635, and subsequently in Saint-Lucie in 1650. The plantations were developed with the help of slaves brought from Africa. Resistance from indigenous peoples led to bloody ethnic cleansing in 1660.
The French presence abroad was not convincing, and in February 1763 the Treaty of Paris, which marked the end of the Anglo-French War, forced the country to abandon its claims to Canada and its presence in Senegal.
The most profitable expansion of the Caribbean colonies occurred in 1664, with the creation of Saint-Domingue, today's Haiti. The settlement was founded on the western edge of the Spanish island of Hispaniola. By the 18th century, Haiti had become the most profitable sugar plantation in the Caribbean. The eastern half of Hispaniola was administered by the country for a short period, but was ceded to Spain after the Haitian Revolution.
Conquests were not limited to acquisitions in the New World. In 1624, the first trading posts appeared in West Africa in Senegal.
In 1664, a company was created that competed for primacy in trade in the east. Controlled lands appeared in: Chandannagar in 1673, Pondicherry, Yanaon, Mahe, Karaikal. The acquisitions formed the basis of French India. The territory of present-day Reunion in the Indian Ocean, modern Mauritius and the Seychelles in 1756 were also not ignored. Under Napoleon, Egypt was also conquered for a short period, but rule there extended only to the immediate vicinity of the Nile.
In 1699, territorial claims in North America expanded further with the founding of Louisiana in the Mississippi River basin. A wide trade network throughout the region, linked to Canada through the Great Lakes, was supported by a network of defensive fortifications centered in Illinois and what is now Arkansas.
During a series of conflicts between France and England, a significant part of the conquered empire was lost.
Second colonial wave (1830-1870)
The second French colonial epic debuted with an attack on Algeria. Under Napoleon III, bold attacks on Mexico were carried out. Napoleon controlled southern Vietnam, Cambodia and Saigon. The authorities annexed a number of Pacific islands, such as Tahiti and New Caledonia. They tried to establish themselves in Asia.
After the Franco-Prussian War, the country grew into Indochina. Using the newly annexed lands of Vietnam, Tonkin and Annam were captured in 1883, Laos and Kwan Zhou Van. The country became the second most powerful colonial power, after England.
In the mid-19th century, a concession was established in Shanghai, which existed there until 1946, and a protectorate in Tunisia by the end of the century. At the turn of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, with enormous efforts and 16 years of struggle, Mauritania became a colony. The crown was replenished with Senegal, Guinea, Mali, Cote d'Ivoire, Benin, Niger, Chad, Congo and Morocco.
The last successful colonization interventions occurred at the end of the First World War.
Colonial administration
There were two ways to regulate colonies: assimilation or association. On the one hand, with assimilation, the administration in Paris dictates the laws to which the controlled lands must obey, on the other hand, the path of unification is a more flexible system. The path of association leaves the authorities, but residents do not become full citizens of the country. Despite the variety of administrative systems, the French government claims its sovereignty. Dominance is reflected at the economic level. The indigenous population is characterized by a lack of voting rights, special taxation and a lack of basic freedoms. Among other things, the European colonial structure conflicts with local culture and customs. The educational system used in the controlled territories is an effective means of instilling a European way of thinking.
Colonial Exhibition in Paris 1931
The international exposition, which opened on May 6, 1931 in Paris, can be considered a symbol of the country’s prestige and glory in the field of conquering the world. The laying of the first stone took place on November 5, 1928; construction took place over more than two years on an area of 110 hectares located around Lake Daumesnil in the east of the capital in the green forest of Vincennes. The main entrance was decorated with a golden gate, which is still preserved. The Colonial Exhibition represented all the colonies and countries under the French protectorate. For each corner of the world conquered by the country, a special pavilion was provided. Catholic and Protestant churches were represented by mission flags. About 200 buildings were occupied by large companies, restaurants and snack bars, and exotic food stores. The exhibition was complemented by a colonial museum, a tropical aquarium and a zoo. The area was decorated with majestic illuminated fountains. To move around the park, a railway was built, five and a half kilometers long, along which six stations were built. It was also possible to travel by electric vehicles. For the entertainment of visitors, 16 boats, many rowing boats and 30 boats for water attractions on the lake were purchased. The park hosted various festivals and exhibitions, among which the “Day of Colonial Tourism” occupied a special place.
The exhibition was a huge success: more than 8 million visitors, some of whom came again. The Colonial Museum taught visitors about the various stages of colonial conquest. 5 months after the opening, funding began to be cut, so the zoo, the museum of the colonies and the pagoda have survived and are popular to this day.
French colonies today
Colonization was a fairly unpopular measure, and was largely considered a waste of money and military effort. At the beginning of the twentieth century, right-wing parties opposed decolonization because they considered it too costly, and the left wing did not support its position, seeing peace, freedom and civilization in abandoning this policy. At the end of the colonial empire, the left wing advocated decolonization, while the right resisted until the civil war of 1960-1961.
Having come to power in 1936, the Popular Front lobbied for reforms designed to increase the independence of the colonies. The economic crisis of the 1930s and the Second World War led to the end of the era of conquest.
During the Brazzaville Conference in January 1944, countries worked together to develop an administrative system that would provide greater opportunities for self-determination for indigenous peoples. The first victory that marks the failure of colonial France is the declaration of independence of Lebanon and Syria in 1941, which came into force in 1943.
Having failed to organize a painless decolonization process in the middle of the last century, France experienced a difficult situation, especially in Algeria, where the war of independence lasted from 1954 to 1962 and ended practically with a civil war in France. Colonial France begins to collapse and the National Liberation Front is born, which sparks an armed uprising in Algeria. The war in Algeria was responsible for the birth of the Fifth Republic. The agreement in 1962 marked the end of the war and Algerian independence.
By the beginning of 1960, almost all former French colonies had become independent countries. Several territories remain part of France. Residents of former colonies, especially Algeria, demanded the privileged right to become citizens of the country.
Decolonization is happening in other countries as well. Tunisia became independent in 1956, African countries between 1960 and 1963. Gradually, other foreign territories also changed their status.
Belonging to the former empire became a matter of geopolitics and national pride. The older generation lives with the thought that they were lucky to live in a country that was the second largest empire and brought civilization and democracy to the peoples of nine percent of the world's surface. Decolonization, organized under the leadership of Charles de Gaulle, was approved by the majority, despite the trauma caused by the Algerian War.
Most people who obtain French citizenship today come from former colonies.
The power of 1 consul is the nature of a one-man dictatorship. Proclamation of Napoleon in May 1804 Emperor of France under the name Napoleon I. In 1807, the Tribunate was abolished, a magnificent court was created, court titles were restored, and the title of Marshal of the Empire was introduced. The address “citizen” disappeared, the words “sovereign” and “your imperial majesty” appeared. In 1802, a law on amnesty for emigrant nobles. From 1808-1814, 3,600 titles of nobility were granted; Lands were distributed both in France and abroad. Napoleon made his brothers kings in the countries of Europe conquered by France. In 1805 he declared himself king of Italy. Napoleon sought to solve internal politics. The problem is the relationship between the bourgeois state and the church. In 1801, a concordat was concluded with Pope Pius VII. Catholicism is the religion of most French people. The Church is the support of the Bonapartist regime. The elections were formal. At the time Napoleon came to power, the financial situation of the country was difficult. Streamlining finances is one of the government's top priorities. In general, the time of the Consulate and the Empire was favorable for the industrial development of France.
The regime established in France under Napoleon Bonaparte was called " Bonapartism" The dictatorship of Napoleon is a form of bourgeois state in which the bourgeoisie itself was excluded from participation in political power. In the field of foreign policy, Bonapartism is characterized by pronounced nationalism. The years of the Consulate and the First Empire were marked by continuous bloody wars waged by Napoleonic France with the states of Europe. In the conquered countries, Napoleon pursued a policy that was aimed at turning them into a market for French goods and a source of raw materials for French industry. By 1806, Napoleon had formed a huge empire. In 1806, Austria and Prussia were defeated. At the end of October 1806, Napoleon entered Berlin. On November 21, 1806, he signed a decree on the continental blockade, which played a big role in the fate of European countries. Napoleon did not achieve his goal - the economic destruction of England. The blockade paralyzed the life of such French cities as Marseille, Le Havre, Nantes, and Toulon for a long time. In 1810, a system of licenses was introduced for the right to limited trade in English goods. At the end of the first decade of the 19th century, the crisis of the First Empire in France. Economic downturns, weariness of the population from continuous wars. In 1810-1811 in France - economics. a crisis. October 16-19, 1813, near Leipzig, the battle between Napoleon’s army and the united army of the allied states of Europe. The battle of Leipzig was called the Battle of the Nations. Napoleon's army was defeated. On March 31, 1914, the Allied army entered Paris. Napoleon abdicated the throne in favor of his son. Napoleon was exiled for life to the island of Elba. On May 30, 1814, a peace treaty was signed in Paris: France was deprived of all territorial acquisitions and returned to the borders of 1792.
16. “Legitimate monarchy.” Charter of 1814 in France.
After the collapse of Napoleon I's empire in 1814, the Bourbon monarchy was restored in France. The restoration was carried out on the basis of a temporary compromise between the nobility, who wanted to preserve the remnants of the feudal system, and the top of the bourgeoisie, who sought to preserve the wealth and advantages gained during the revolution and the reign of Napoleon. The political expression of the restoration was Charter 1814 She established a constitutional monarchy in France. The Charter contained references to “divine providence” and declared that “all power was concentrated in France entirely in the person of the king.” The charter emphasized impossibility of redistribution of property:“All types of property are inviolable, not excluding the so-called national” The Charter also found expression liberal ideas. It spoke about the equality of the French before the law, about guarantees of personal freedom, about freedom of speech and press, and about the inadmissibility of prosecution for political activities.
Executor was carried out by the king (he appointed ministers), and the legislator. – shared it with the Chamber of Peers and the Chamber of Deputies. The legislative initiative belonged only to the king. The monarch approved and promulgated laws, justice was administered on his behalf, and judges were appointed by him. House of Peers was appointed entirely by the king, peers could be either lifelong or hereditary. Chamber of Deputies was elected for 5 years. The king convened the chambers for a session, could declare breaks in their work, and dissolve the Chamber of Deputies. Suffrage was of an “excessive” nature. Only French people over 30 years of age could vote. paying a direct tax of 300 francs. The deputy was required to reach the age of 40 and pay a direct tax of 1 thousand francs. Thus, only the aristocratic elite participated in the elections, on whose support Louis XVIII was counting. At the same time, the “legitimate monarchy” of the Bourbons retained the main features of the judicial and administrative system of the First Empire.
After Napoleon's defeat at Waterloo in 1815, “secondary” restoration of the monarchy and the authorities began to pursue a policy of completely restoring absolutism. In 1820, the Double Vote Law was adopted, which gave large taxpayers the right to have two votes in elections to the Chamber of Deputies. The law on the payment of compensation to emigrants who lost land during the revolution caused dissatisfaction with the royal policy. The government of Charles X was overthrown in July 1830. Charles X fled France, the throne was transferred to Duke Louis Philippe of Orleans. The political system of France after the July Revolution is the “July Monarchy”.
17. Revolution of 1830 and the “July Monarchy” in France.
The July Revolution resolved the dispute: which social class should have political dominance in France - the nobility or the bourgeoisie - in favor of the latter. A bourgeois monarchy was established in the country; the new king, Louis Philippe, was called the “bourgeois king.” " Charter of 1830“- was declared an inalienable property of the people. The King, the new charter declared, ruled not by divine right, but by invitation of the French people; he could not repeal or suspend laws, and lost the right of legislative initiative, being the head of the executive branch. Members of the House of Peers had to be elected, just like members of the Lower House. The “Charter of 1830” proclaimed freedom of the press and assembly. Age and property qualifications have been reduced. Under Louis Philippe, the financial bourgeoisie and big bankers dominated. The financial aristocracy received high positions in the state apparatus. She enjoyed government subsidies, benefits and privileges. All this increased the budget deficit. Its consequence was a steady increase in public debt.
Both were in the interests of the financial bourgeoisie: government loans, which the government used to cover the deficit, were given at high interest rates and were a sure source of its enrichment. The growth of public debt increased the political influence of the financial aristocracy and the government's dependence on it. The July Monarchy resumed the conquest of Algeria, which had begun under Charles X. The population of Algeria offered stubborn resistance. In 1847, Algeria was conquered and became one of the largest colonies of France. In 1847, a cyclical economic crisis broke out in France, which caused a sharp decline in production, a shock to the entire monetary system and an acute financial crisis, a huge increase in the government deficit, and a wide wave of bankruptcies. The country was on the eve of a revolution - the third in a row since the end of the 18th century. On December 28, the legislative session of parliament opened. It took place in an extremely stormy atmosphere. Domestic and foreign policies were subject to sharp criticism from opposition leaders. Thousands of Parisians took to the streets and squares of the city to demonstrate on February 22. Clashes with the police began and the first barricades appeared. On February 24, all of Paris was covered with barricades. Louis Philippe abdicated the throne in favor of his young grandson, the Count of Paris, and fled to England. The Tuileries Palace was captured by the rebels, the royal throne was dragged to the Place de la Bastille and burned. An attempt was made to preserve the monarchy. The Chamber of Deputies spoke out in defense of the rights of the Duchess of Orleans. These plans were thwarted by the rebels. Deputies were forced to agree to the election of a Provisional Government. The February Revolution was victorious. The de facto head of the Provisional Government was Lamartine, who took over the post of Minister of Foreign Affairs. February 25, 1848 The Provisional Government proclaimed France a republic. A few days later, a decree was issued introducing universal suffrage for men over 21 years of age.
P Having lost its American colonies, driven out of India, France rewarded itself with the conquest of vast territories in Africa, as well as the seizure of Indochina. The French colonial empire, the second largest, was created in a relatively short period of time - between 1880 and 1918.
The territory of the empire at the time of its greatest expansion (after the First World War) was about 12 million square meters. km, and the population is more than 60 million people.
The French colonial conquests began in the 16th century. France had to fight a difficult and generally unsuccessful war with its competitors such as Spain and Portugal. Finally, at the beginning of the 17th century, France managed to settle in Canada (Quebec, Montreal). Following this, it seizes islands off the coast of America, including Martinique, Guadeloupe, part of Haiti, etc.
In the same 17th century, the French made their first attempt to gain a foothold in Africa (Senegal) and Madagascar (from where they were soon driven out by the Malagasy, the indigenous population of Madagascar), and made their way to India.
The Seven Years' War, which ended with the Peace of Paris in 1763, crushed the French Empire. All that was left of it were pitiful remnants - Martinique, Guadeloupe, a piece of land in Senegal. Canada, India and many other territories were lost to England.
A new intensification of French colonial policy occurred in the post-revolutionary period. In 1830, France begins the conquest of Algeria. But things were difficult: Algeria offered resistance. The war took about 20 years.
In the 50-60s of the 19th century, France made its way into Indochina, captured Khmer (Cambodia), expanded its possessions in Senegal, conquered Mauritania, and established itself on the Pacific islands (Marquesas, Tahiti).
The annexationist (colonial) policy has acquired extreme scope in France since 1881. The reasons are believed to be the rapid development of financial capital with the weakening of industrial capital. Hence the inevitable need to export capital from the country to where its application can bring the greatest benefits (due to the cheapness of raw materials and labor).
In 1881, the French army invades Tunisia. Moving deep into Africa, France captures its central regions, lying in the basins of the Congo and Niger rivers, and makes its way to the sources of the Nile. In the end, a huge colonial empire of France is created in Africa: Senegal, Guinea, Sudan, Mauritania, Niger and others in West Africa; French Congo, Chad, Gabon in Equatorial Africa; Algeria, Tunisia and Morocco in North Africa.
The advancement of France is accompanied, as usual, by the extermination of hostile tribes (for example, in Madagascar, Morocco, etc.), pushing back the indigenous
residents onto infertile lands, establishing full control of the French administration (sometimes covered by the nominal power of local princelings).
In 1886 the conquest of Indochina was completed, in 1895 France finally captured Madagascar, etc.
WITH the weakness of industrial capital in France served as an obstacle to the establishment of close economic contacts between the metropolis and its colonies (despite all their wealth). Import and export transactions with the colonies amounted to something like 10-12% of French foreign trade (compared to 40% of English).
Having assigned the colonies the role of a raw material base for its industry, France planted large agricultural estates, rounding up the local population to work.
Widespread taxation was practiced with the full understanding that the native population, leading a subsistence economy, did not have money. If the tax was not paid, labor was required on the plantations. And that was the whole point.
The bulk of the French colonies were divided into four general governments: French West Africa, French Equatorial Africa, Madagascar, and Indochina.
WITH Indochina was considered the most populous (and richest) among the general governments. For ease of management, it was divided into several parts: Cochin (Southern Vietnam), Thin (Northern Vietnam), Annam (Central Vietnam), Cambodia, Laos. The Governor-General of Indochina had supreme authority over all local residents. French authorities ruled South Vietnam directly. In Cambodia and Annam they allowed the existence of local dynasties.
IN Algeria was given a special position. It was under the jurisdiction of the Home Office (not the Colonial Office). Government acts concerning Algeria were most often signed by the President of the Republic.
The country was divided into three departments (Northern Algeria) and the Southern Territory. The civil administration of the departments was headed by prefects (and general councils), but the native population had to address their affairs to the military authorities (divisional generals). Native Algerians were not considered "citizens" but only "subjects" of France.
French citizenship was given to Algerians as an exception. Only after the First World War (in 1919) did the law grant the right of citizenship to those native Algerians who participated in the war or had French insignia, owned land, and read and wrote French.
In Tunisia and Morocco, the French government retained local monarchs. The Bey of Tunis remained nominally the head of the country, but not a single order of his was valid without the visa (consent) of the French resident. The same thing happened in Morocco, where the nominal power of the Sultan was maintained.
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