is a system of knowledge obtained as a result of practice, including the study and mastery of processes and phenomena occurring in nature, society and human thinking.
The structure of science consists of the following blocks:
- empirical;
- theoretical;
- philosophical and worldview;
- practical.
Empirical knowledge include information obtained through both ordinary knowledge and experience (through observation and experiment). Theoretical knowledge- this is a level of development of science that allows, on the basis of knowledge of fundamental laws, to bring disparate facts, phenomena, processes and initial conclusions into a certain system.
IN practical The science block includes tools, devices, technologies created and used by man to obtain new knowledge.
The methodology of science is a philosophical doctrine about ways of transforming reality, applying the principles of the scientific worldview to the process of scientific knowledge, creativity and practice.
Means and methods of scientific knowledge
The most important thing in understanding the essence and purpose of science is to clarify the factors that played a decisive role in its emergence. The entire history of human life testifies that to this day the main task of man remains struggle for existence. To be more specific, highlighting only the most essential, then this is the use by man of the natural environment in order to provide himself with the most necessary things: food, heat, housing, leisure; creating more advanced tools to achieve vital goals; and, finally, forecasting, foreseeing natural and social events and, if possible, in the event of consequences unfavorable for humanity, preventing them. In order to cope with the assigned tasks, it is necessary to know the cause-and-effect relationships, or laws, that operate in nature and society. It is out of this need—in combination with human activity—that science emerges. There was no science in primitive society. However, even then a person had certain knowledge that helped him hunt and fish, build and maintain his home. As facts accumulate and tools improve, primitive people begin to form the rudiments of knowledge that they used for practical purposes. For example, the change of seasons and associated climate changes forced primitive man to stock up on warm clothing and the necessary amount of food for the cold period.
In subsequent millennia, one might say, until the 20th century, the practical needs of man remained the main factor in the development of science, the true formation of which, as noted earlier, begins in modern times - with the discovery, first of all, of the laws operating in nature. The growth of scientific knowledge was especially rapid in the 16th-17th centuries; it was based on the increased demands of production, navigation, and trade. The progressive development of large-scale machine industry required an expansion of the sphere of knowledge and conscious use of the laws of nature. Thus, the creation of a steam engine, and then internal combustion engines, became possible as a result of the use of new knowledge in various fields - mechanics, electrical engineering, metal science, which meant a sharp turning point not only in the development of science, but also entailed a change in views on its role in society. One of the distinctive features of the New Age, when it comes to science, is associated with its transition from the pre-scientific to the scientific stage. Since this time, science has become a branch of human activity, with the help of which a person can not only obtain answers to theoretical questions, but also achieve significant success in their practical application. Nevertheless, science remains relatively independent in relation to practical needs.
This manifests itself mainly in the prognostic and problem-posing function. Science not only fulfills the orders of production and society, but also sets itself very specific tasks and goals, models current and possible situations both in nature and society. In this regard, various models of behavior or activity are developed. One of the most important internal sources of the development of science is the struggle of opposing ideas and directions. Scientific discussions and disputes, well-founded and reasonable criticism are the most important condition for the creative development of science, which does not allow it to ossify in dogmatic schemes and stop there. Finally, one cannot help but say that the progress of science today is only possible if there is a system for training scientific personnel and an extensive complex of research institutes. Science and its practical application are very expensive. Gone are the days when scientific discoveries “lay” on the surface and, by and large, did not require large special expenses. The activities of higher educational and scientific institutions require a lot of funds. However, all this is justified, because The future of humanity and every person largely depends on the development of science, which is increasingly becoming a productive force.
One of the most important principles that cannot be eliminated from scientific activity is compliance with ethical standards. This is due to the special role that science plays in society. We are, of course, not talking about well-known maxims like: “don’t steal,” “don’t lie,” “don’t kill,” etc. In principle, these ethical rules are universal and, according to the intention of their creators, people should always be guided in their relationships with each other. Consequently, these principles should apply to all spheres of human activity, including scientific ones. From the birth of science to the present day, every real scientist, like a kind of “sword of Damocles”, has been faced with the question of using the results of his activities. It seems that the famous Hippocratic “do no harm” should be fully applied not only to doctors, but also to scientists. The moral aspect in assessing human activity manifests itself already in Socrates, who believed that man by nature strives to do good deeds. If he commits evil, it is only because he does not always know how to distinguish good from evil. The desire to understand this, one of the “eternal” questions, is typical for many creative individuals. History also knows opposing views on science. So, J.-J. Rousseau, warning against excessive optimism associated with the rapid growth of scientific knowledge, believed that the development of science does not lead to an increase in morality in society. The French writer Francois Chateaubriand (1768-1848) expressed his attitude towards science even more sharply.
He stated quite definitely that the idea of destruction is a characteristic feature of science. Concerns about the use of scientific research results and the ethical position of scientists on this issue are not unfounded. Scientists, more than anyone, know the possibilities that science has for both creation and destruction. A particularly alarming situation with the use of scientific research achievements is developing in the 20th century. It is known, for example, that after the possibility of a nuclear reaction was theoretically substantiated, the world's greatest scientists, starting with A. Einstein (1879-1955), deeply realized the tragic consequences that the practical implementation of this discovery could lead to. But, even realizing the possibility of a disastrous outcome and, in principle, opposing it, they nevertheless blessed the US President for the creation of an atomic bomb. There is no need to remind you what a threat atomic-hydrogen weapons pose to humanity (we are not talking about its more modern modifications). Essentially, for the first time in history, science has created a weapon that can destroy not only humanity, but also its environment. Meanwhile, science in the second half of the 20th century. made such discoveries in the field of genetic engineering, biotechnology, and the functioning of the body at the cellular level that there was a threat of changing the human gene code, and the prospect of psychotropic effects on Homo sapiens. To put it in simpler terms, with the help of targeted influence on a person’s genes and nervous structures, one can turn him into a biorobot and force him to act in accordance with a given program. As some scientists note, with the help of science it is now possible to create conditions for the emergence of a form of life and a type of biorobot that have never existed before. This could put an end to the long evolutionary stage of life and lead to the extinction of present-day humans and the biosphere.
Some idea of what awaits a person if something like this happens is given by American “horror” films, in which unimaginable vampires and monsters “rule the roost.” The achievements of the human sciences and new discoveries made in this area raise with all urgency the question of freedom of scientific research and the conscious responsibility of scientists for their activities. This task is very, very complex, containing many unknowns. We will point out just a few of them. First of all, it is not always possible, for various reasons, to fully evaluate the creative results and destructive effects of the discoveries made. Meanwhile, information about the possibility of their harmful consequences becomes the property of many specialists and it becomes impossible to silence or hide them. Secondly, this is the prestige of a scientist. It happens that a researcher has been studying a particular problem for years, or even decades. And so, he receives a significant result, which can immediately put him among the famous scientists, but precisely for moral reasons he must “keep silent”, hide his discovery, including from his colleagues, in order to prevent the spread of the information received. In this case, the scientist finds himself in a difficult situation requiring a moral choice. It is aggravated by the possibility that someone else may come to similar scientific results much later, publish them, and thereby declare their scientific priority.
Finally, one cannot discount the nature of the social relations in which a scientist has to live and work. It is known that in the competition between states or social formations, which in the course of human history have strived for the subjugation of other peoples and even for world domination, it is extremely difficult to observe moral norms. And yet, despite the complexity of this problem, the extraordinary dynamics of ethical standards and requirements, the priority areas in this regard remain the formation of a high sense of personal responsibility among scientists, the social need to regulate the topic and, accordingly, the depth of development of scientific problems. This approach does not imply any discrimination or restriction of the freedom of creativity of scientists. Society and every scientist are simply offered new rules governing acceptable scientific issues, and an orientation towards the study of scientific problems that would not pose a threat to the existence of mankind.
1. The essence of science, its functions and patterns of development. 1
2. Classification of sciences. Scientific criteria. 2
3. The structure of scientific knowledge, its levels, methods and forms. 3
1. The essence of science, its functions and patterns of development.
The main form of cognitive activity, its main “carrier” is science. "Science" in Latin means "knowledge". Scientific knowledge arose in antiquity, and the first classification of sciences was given by Aristotle. As an independent sphere of activity, as a system of knowledge, a unique spiritual phenomenon and social institution, science was formed in modern times, in the 16th – 17th centuries, during the era of the formation of the capitalist mode of production.
The science is a form of spiritual activity of people aimed at producing knowledge about nature, society and knowledge, with the immediate goal of comprehending the truth and discovering objective laws. Science is a creative activity to obtain new knowledge and at the same time the result of this activity: a body of knowledge brought into an integral system on the basis of certain principles, logically organized, formalized in the form of a theory. Scientific knowledge– this is knowledge, tested and confirmed by practice, which allows us to explain the existing and predict the future. This knowledge is of a public nature, since it is a product of human activity and the property of people.
The life meaning of science: “Know in order to foresee, anticipate in order to act.”
Modern science in its interaction with various spheres of human life and society performs the following: social functions:
1. Cultural and ideological: science provides answers to questions of ideological significance (for example, about the structure of matter and the structure of the Universe, about the origin and essence of life, about the origin of man, etc.), and has a decisive influence on the formation of people’s worldview. Scientific knowledge, being elements of general education, becomes an integral part of the culture of society.
2. Functions of science as direct productive force of society: in the modern production of goods and services, the use of scientific knowledge acts as a prerequisite for the existence and reproduction of many types of activities. Science acts as a powerful catalyst for the process of continuous improvement of means of production, equipment and technology.
3. Functions of science as social power: Scientific knowledge and methods are used to solve a variety of problems that arise in the course of social development. For example, an environmental problem. Explaining the causes of environmental hazards and finding ways to prevent them, the first formulations of an environmental problem and constant monitoring of the parameters of environmental hazards, setting goals for society and creating means to achieve them - all this is closely related to science, which acts as a social force.
Patterns of science development:
1) the development of science is conditioned by the needs of socio-historical practice;
2) relative independence of the development of science;
3) continuity in the development of ideas and principles, theories and concepts, methods and techniques of science;
4) gradual development of science, alternating periods of evolutionary development and revolutionary disruption of the theoretical foundations of science;
5) interaction and interrelation of all constituent branches of science;
6) freedom of criticism, free collision of different opinions, scientific hypotheses;
7) differentiation and integration of scientific knowledge;
8) mathematization of science.
2. Classification of sciences. Scientific criteria.
Reflecting the world, science forms a single interconnected, developing system of knowledge about its laws. At the same time, it is divided into many branches of knowledge (special sciences), which differ from each other in what aspect of reality they study. On the subject of knowledge The sciences are distinguished: 1) about nature - natural science, 2) about society - social science, social sciences and humanities, 3) about cognition and thinking. Separate groups are made up of technical sciences and mathematics. The science of the most general laws of reality is philosophy, which, however, cannot be completely attributed only to science.
By research methods distinguish between theoretical sciences and empirical sciences.
By function and intended purpose distinguish between fundamental and applied sciences. Basic sciences are aimed at studying the laws of nature, society and thinking. These laws, as well as the areas in which they operate, are studied by fundamental science in their “pure form”, as such, without regard to their possible use. The task of applied sciences is to apply the results of fundamental sciences to solve industrial and socio-practical problems.
Science as a form of knowledge, a type of spiritual production and a social institution studies itself with the help of a complex of disciplines, which includes the history and logic of science, the psychology of scientific creativity, the sociology of knowledge and science, science studies, etc. Currently, it is actively developing philosophy of science, exploring the general characteristics of scientific and cognitive activity, the structure and dynamics of knowledge, its sociocultural determination, logical and methodological aspects, etc.
Specific features of scientific knowledge and knowledge, scientific criteria are:
1. Orientation of research towards objective truth, since if there is no truth, then there is no science. Truth is the highest value for which scientists work.
2. Specialized languages of science, formed by integral systems of concepts, theories, hypotheses, laws and other ideal forms, enshrined in natural or artificial languages. For example, medical and biological sciences communicate in Latin; mathematics, physics, and chemistry have their own symbols and formulas. The languages of science are being refined, improved, and filled with new content.
3. The use of specific material means in scientific activities, for example, telescopes, microscopes, accelerators and other scientific equipment.
4. Application of special methods to obtain new knowledge.
5. Organic connection with practice and focus on practice. Science is focused on being a “guide to action” for changing reality and managing real processes.
Along with the listed characteristics of scientific knowledge, there are also such criteria as the internal consistency of knowledge, its formal consistency, experimental verifiability, reproducibility, openness to criticism, freedom from bias, rigor and others.
3. The structure of scientific knowledge, its levels, methods and forms.
Scientific knowledge and knowledge, as its result, is an integral developing system with a complex structure. Structure expresses the unity of stable relationships between the elements of the system. The structure of scientific knowledge can be presented in its various sections and, accordingly, in the totality of its specific elements. These can be: object, or subject area of cognition; subject of knowledge; material means of knowledge; spiritual methods of knowledge and conditions for implementation.
With a different perspective of scientific knowledge it distinguishes the following elements of its structure: factual material; the results of its initial generalization in concepts; fact-based scientific assumptions (hypotheses); laws, principles and theories “growing” from hypotheses; philosophical attitudes, methods, ideals and norms of scientific knowledge; sociocultural foundations and some other elements.
Scientific knowledge is a process, i.e. a developing system of knowledge, the main element of which is theory as the highest form of organization of knowledge. Scientific knowledge differs from everyday knowledge purposefulness, specificity, clear recording of the results of cognition with mandatory theoretical understanding. Taken as a whole, scientific knowledge includes two main levels: empirical and theoretical, which are organically interconnected and constitute a single cognitive process.
On empirical level of scientific knowledge sensory cognition (living contemplation) predominates. Rational knowledge is present here, although it has a subordinate meaning. Therefore, the object under study is reflected primarily from its external connections and manifestations. Collection of facts, their primary generalization, description of observed and experimental data, their systematization, classification and other fact-recording activities - characteristic features of empirical knowledge. Empirical research is aimed directly at its object. It masters it with the help of such methods of cognition, as observation, comparison, experiment, analysis, induction, etc. Empirical knowledge is probabilistic-true knowledge.
Theoretical level of scientific knowledge is associated with the predominance of mental activity, and sensory cognition becomes a subordinate aspect of cognition. Theoretical knowledge reflects phenomena and processes from their internal connections and patterns, comprehended by understanding empirical material, its processing on the basis of concepts, laws, theories. On the basis of empirical data, a generalization of the objects under study, comprehension of their essence, and the laws of their existence take place here. The most important task of theoretical knowledge– achievement of objective truth in all its specificity and completeness of content. At the same time, such methods, such as abstraction (abstraction from a number of properties and relationships of objects), idealization (the process of creating purely mental objects, for example, “point”, “ideal gas”), synthesis, deduction, the method of ascending from the abstract to the concrete and other cognitive means.. On On the basis of theoretical explanation and known laws, prediction and scientific foresight of the future is carried out.
Empirical and theoretical levels of knowledge are interconnected, the boundary between them is conditional and moving. Empirical research, revealing new data through observations and experiments, stimulates theoretical knowledge and poses new, more complex tasks. On the other hand, theoretical knowledge generalizes and explains empirical data, develops and concretizes its own content on their basis, opens new horizons for empirical knowledge, orients and directs it in search of new facts, contributes to the improvement of its methods and means, etc.
Thus, science as an integral dynamic system of knowledge develops, enriched with new empirical data and generalizing them into a system of theoretical means, forms and methods of knowledge.
The main forms of existence of scientific knowledge are: scientific fact, problem, hypothesis, theory. The facts of science are forms of empirical knowledge. Scientific fact– this is knowledge about any event, phenomenon, obtained through observations and experiments, reliably proven, recorded in the language of science. The facts of science do not always agree with existing views on a particular issue, object or phenomenon. Coming to the attention of scientists, a scientific fact excites theoretical thought and contributes to the transition of research from the empirical to the theoretical stage.
From the contradiction between theoretical knowledge and scientific facts, this form of scientific knowledge arises as a problem. Problem– this is knowledge that reflects the discrepancy between the facts of science and existing concepts, views on the phenomenon or process being studied. The problem is solved by putting forward working hypotheses and then testing them.
Hypothesis is a form of scientific knowledge formulated on the basis of a number of facts and containing an assumption, the true meaning of which is uncertain and needs to be proven. In the course of proving the put forward hypotheses, some of them become a theory, since they carry true knowledge, while others are clarified, changed, and specified. Still others, if the test gives a negative result, are rejected, representing a delusion.
The pinnacle of scientific knowledge is theory as the logical conclusion of the thorny path of trial and error. Theory– this is the most developed holistic form of scientific knowledge, giving a complete reflection of the essential, natural connections of a certain area of reality. A truly scientific theory must be objectively true, logically consistent, integral, have relative independence, be developing knowledge and influence practice through the activities of people.
Compiled by: Tkacheva E. B.
Scientific knowledge - This is a type and level of knowledge aimed at producing true knowledge about reality, the discovery of objective laws based on a generalization of real facts. It rises above ordinary cognition, that is, spontaneous cognition associated with the life activity of people and perceiving reality at the level of phenomenon.
Epistemology - This is the doctrine of scientific knowledge.
Features of scientific knowledge:
Firstly, its main task is to discover and explain the objective laws of reality - natural, social and thinking. Hence the focus of research on the general, essential properties of an object and their expression in a system of abstraction.
Secondly, the immediate goal and highest value of scientific knowledge is objective truth, comprehended primarily by rational means and methods.
Third, to a greater extent than other types of knowledge, it is oriented towards being embodied in practice.
Fourthly, science has developed a special language, characterized by the accuracy of the use of terms, symbols, and diagrams.
Fifthly, Scientific knowledge is a complex process of reproduction of knowledge that forms an integral, developing system of concepts, theories, hypotheses, and laws.
At sixth, Scientific knowledge is characterized by both strict evidence, validity of the results obtained, reliability of conclusions, and the presence of hypotheses, conjectures, and assumptions.
Seventh, scientific knowledge requires and resorts to special tools (means) of knowledge: scientific equipment, measuring instruments, devices.
Eighth, scientific knowledge is characterized by processuality. In its development, it goes through two main stages: empirical and theoretical, which are closely related to each other.
Ninth, The field of scientific knowledge consists of verifiable and systematized information about various phenomena of existence.
Levels of scientific knowledge:
Empirical level cognition is a direct experimental, mostly inductive, study of an object. It includes obtaining the necessary initial facts - data about individual aspects and connections of the object, understanding and describing the data obtained in the language of science, and their primary systematization. Cognition at this stage still remains at the level of phenomenon, but the prerequisites for penetrating the essence of the object have already been created.
Theoretical level characterized by deep penetration into the essence of the object being studied, not only identifying, but also explaining the patterns of its development and functioning, constructing a theoretical model of the object and its in-depth analysis.
Forms of scientific knowledge:
scientific fact, scientific problem, scientific hypothesis, proof, scientific theory, paradigm, unified scientific picture of the world.
Scientific fact - this is the initial form of scientific knowledge, in which primary knowledge about an object is recorded; it is a reflection in the consciousness of the subject of a fact of reality. In this case, a scientific fact is only one that can be verified and described in scientific terms.
Scientific problem - it is a contradiction between new facts and existing theoretical knowledge. A scientific problem can also be defined as a kind of knowledge about ignorance, since it arises when the cognizing subject realizes the incompleteness of a particular knowledge about an object and sets the goal of eliminating this gap. The problem includes the problematic issue, the project for solving the problem and its content.
Scientific hypothesis - This is a scientifically based assumption that explains certain parameters of the object being studied and does not contradict known scientific facts. It must satisfactorily explain the object being studied, be verifiable in principle, and answer the questions posed by the scientific problem.
In addition, the main content of the hypothesis should not contradict the laws established in a given system of knowledge. The assumptions that make up the content of the hypothesis must be sufficient so that with their help it is possible to explain all the facts about which the hypothesis is put forward. The assumptions of the hypothesis should not be logically contradictory.
The development of new hypotheses in science is associated with the need for a new vision of the problem and the emergence of problematic situations.
Proof - this is a confirmation of the hypothesis.
Types of evidence:
Practice serving as direct confirmation
Indirect theoretical proof, including confirmation by arguments indicating facts and laws (inductive path), derivation of a hypothesis from other, more general and already proven provisions (deductive path), comparison, analogy, modeling, etc.
The proven hypothesis serves as the basis for constructing a scientific theory.
Scientific theory - this is a form of reliable scientific knowledge about a certain set of objects, which is a system of interconnected statements and evidence and contains methods for explaining, transforming and predicting phenomena in a given object area. In theory, in the form of principles and laws, knowledge about the essential connections that determine the emergence and existence of certain objects is expressed. The main cognitive functions of the theory are: synthesizing, explanatory, methodological, predictive and practical.
All theories develop within certain paradigms.
Paradigm - it is a special way of organizing knowledge and seeing the world, influencing the direction of further research. Paradigm
can be compared to an optical device through which we look at a particular phenomenon.
Many theories are constantly being synthesized into a unified scientific picture of the world, that is, a holistic system of ideas about the general principles and laws of the structure of being.
Methods of scientific knowledge:
Method(from Greek Metodos - path to something) - it is a way of activity in any form.
The method includes techniques that ensure the achievement of goals, regulate human activity and the general principles from which these techniques arise. Methods of cognitive activity form the direction of cognition at a particular stage, the order of cognitive procedures. In their content, the methods are objective, since they are ultimately determined by the nature of the object and the laws of its functioning.
Scientific method - This is a set of rules, techniques and principles that ensure the logical cognition of an object and the receipt of reliable knowledge.
Classification of methods of scientific knowledge can be done for various reasons:
First reason. Based on their nature and role in cognition, they distinguish methods - techniques, which consist of specific rules, techniques and algorithms of action (observation, experiment, etc.) and methods - approaches, which indicate the direction and general method of research (systemic ANALYSIS, functional ANALYSIS, diachronic method, etc.).
Second reason. By functional purpose they are distinguished:
a) universal human methods of thinking (analysis, synthesis, comparison, generalization, induction, deduction, etc.);
b) empirical methods (observation, experiment, survey, measurement);
c) theoretical level methods (modelling, thought experiment, analogy, mathematical methods, philosophical methods, induction and deduction).
Third base is the degree of generality. Here the methods are divided into:
a) philosophical methods (dialectical, formal - logical, intuitive, phenomenological, hermeneutic);
b) general scientific methods, that is, methods that guide the course of knowledge in many sciences, but unlike philosophical methods, each general scientific method (observation, experiment, analysis, synthesis, modeling, etc.) solves its own problem, characteristic only for it ;
c) special methods.
Universal methods of thinking:
- Comparison- establishing the similarities and differences between objects of reality (for example, we compare the characteristics of two engines);
- ANALYSIS- mental dissection of an object as a whole
(we break down each engine into its component characteristics);
- Synthesis- mental unification into a single whole of the elements identified as a result of the analysis (mentally we combine the best characteristics and elements of both engines in one - virtual);
- Abstraction- highlighting some features of an object and distracting from others (for example, we study only the design of the engine and temporarily do not take into account its content and functioning);
- Induction- movement of thought from the particular to the general, from individual data to more general provisions, and ultimately to the essence (we take into account all cases of failure of an engine of this type and, based on this, come to conclusions about the prospects for its further operation);
- Deduction- movement of thought from the general to the specific (based on the general laws of the OPERATION of the engine, we make predictions about the further functioning of a particular engine);
- Modeling- construction of a mental object (model) similar to the real one, the study of which will allow one to obtain the information necessary for understanding the real object (creating a model of a more advanced engine);
- Analogy- conclusion about the similarity of objects in some properties, based on similarity in other characteristics (conclusion about engine breakdown based on a characteristic knock);
- Generalization- combining individual objects into a certain concept (for example, creating the concept “engine”).
Global problems
The global problems of our time should be understood as a set of problems on the solution of which the further existence of civilization depends.
Global problems are generated by the uneven development of different areas of life of modern humanity and the contradictions generated in the socio-economic, political-ideological, socio-natural and other relations of people. These problems affect the life of humanity as a whole.
Global problems of humanity- these are problems that affect the vital interests of the entire population of the planet and require the joint efforts of all states of the world to be solved.
North-South problem- This is a problem of economic relations between developed countries and developing countries. Its essence is that in order to bridge the gap in the levels of socio-economic development between developed and developing countries, the latter require various concessions from developed countries, in particular, expanding access for their goods to the markets of developed countries, increasing the influx of knowledge and capital (especially in the form assistance), debt write-off and other measures in relation to them.
One of the main global problems is poverty problem. Poverty refers to the inability to provide the simplest and most affordable living conditions for most people in a given country. Large levels of poverty, especially in developing countries, pose a serious threat not only to national but also to global sustainable development.
World food problem lies in the inability of humanity to date to fully provide itself with vital food products. This problem appears in practice as a problem absolute food shortage(malnutrition and hunger) in the least developed countries, as well as nutritional imbalances in developed countries. Its solution will largely depend on the effective use of natural resources, scientific and technological progress in agriculture and the level of government support.
Global energy problem is the problem of providing humanity with fuel and energy now and in the foreseeable future. The main reason for the global energy problem should be considered the rapid increase in the consumption of mineral fuels in the 20th century. If developed countries are now solving this problem primarily by slowing down the growth of their demand by reducing energy intensity, then in other countries there is a relatively rapid increase in energy consumption. Added to this may be growing competition in the global energy market between developed countries and newly large industrialized countries (China, India, Brazil). All these circumstances, combined with military and political instability in some regions, can cause significant fluctuations in the level of world prices for energy resources and seriously affect the dynamics of supply and demand, as well as the production and consumption of energy goods, sometimes creating crisis situations.
The ecological potential of the world economy is increasingly undermined by human economic activity. The answer to this was environmentally sustainable development concept. It involves the development of all countries of the world, taking into account current needs, but not undermining the interests of future generations.
Environmental protection is an important part of development. In the 70s 20th century economists realized the importance of environmental issues for economic development. Processes of environmental degradation can be self-replicating, which threatens society with irreversible destruction and resource depletion.
Global demographic problem falls into two aspects: the population explosion in a number of countries and regions of the developing world and the demographic aging of the population of developed and transition countries. For the former, the solution is to increase economic growth and reduce population growth. For the second - emigration and reform of the pension system.
The relationship between population growth and economic growth has long been the subject of research by economists. As a result of research, two approaches to assessing the impact of population growth on economic development have been developed. The first approach is, to one degree or another, associated with the theory of Malthus, who believed that population growth is faster than food growth and therefore the world population is inevitably becoming poorer. The modern approach to assessing the role of population on the economy is comprehensive and identifies both positive and negative factors in the impact of population growth on economic growth.
Many experts believe that the real problem is not population growth per se, but the following problems:
§ underdevelopment - backwardness in development;
§ depletion of world resources and destruction of the environment.
The problem of human development- this is the problem of matching the qualitative characteristics of the labor force with the nature of the modern economy. In the conditions of post-industrialization, the requirements for the physical qualities and especially for the education of the worker increase, including his ability to constantly improve his skills. However, the development of the qualitative characteristics of the labor force in the world economy is extremely uneven. The worst indicators in this regard are demonstrated by developing countries, which, however, are the main source of replenishment of the world labor force. This is what determines the global nature of the problem of human development.
Increasing globalization, interdependence and reduction of time and space barriers create a situation of collective insecurity from various threats, from which a person cannot always be saved by his state. This requires the creation of conditions that enhance a person’s ability to independently withstand risks and threats.
Ocean problem- this is the problem of conservation and rational use of its spaces and resources. Currently, the World Ocean as a closed ecological system can hardly withstand the many times increased anthropogenic load, and a real threat of its destruction is created. Therefore, the global problem of the World Ocean is, first of all, the problem of its survival and, consequently, the survival of modern man.
Among the many different cognitive processes, the main types of cognition can be distinguished. There is no consensus in their classification, but most often they talk about everyday (everyday), mythological, religious, artistic, philosophical and scientific knowledge. Let us briefly consider here only two types of knowledge - everyday, which serves as the foundation of human life and any cognitive process, and scientific, which today has a decisive impact on all spheres of human activity.
Ordinary cognition– this is the primary, simplest form of cognitive activity of the subject. It is spontaneously carried out by every person throughout his life, serves to adapt to the real conditions of everyday life and is aimed at acquiring the knowledge and skills that he needs every day and hour. Such knowledge is usually quite superficial, not always substantiated and systematized, and what is reliable in it is closely intertwined with misconceptions and prejudices. At the same time, they embody in the form of so-called common sense real worldly experience, a kind of wisdom that allows a person to behave rationally in a wide variety of everyday situations. Ordinary knowledge, moreover, is constantly open to the results of other types of knowledge - for example, scientific: common sense is able to assimilate the relatively simple truths of science and become increasingly theorized. Unfortunately, this influence of science on everyday consciousness is not as great as we would like; for example, one study showed that half of the US adult population surveyed does not know that the Earth revolves around the Sun in 1 year. In general, ordinary cognition is always limited to a certain framework - only the external properties and connections of objects of everyday experience are accessible to it. To obtain deeper and more significant information about reality, it is necessary to turn to scientific knowledge.
Scientific knowledge fundamentally different from the ordinary. Firstly, it is not available to any person, but only to those who have undergone specialized training (for example, received a higher education), which gave him the knowledge and skills for research activities. Secondly, scientific knowledge is specifically focused on the study of phenomena (and the laws of their existence) unknown to today's common practice. Thirdly, science uses special means, methods and instruments that are not used in traditional production and everyday experience. Fourthly, the knowledge obtained in scientific research has a fundamental novelty, it is justified, systematically organized and expressed using a special, scientific language.
For the emergence and development of scientific knowledge, certain sociocultural conditions are needed. Modern research has shown that scientific knowledge could not arise in the so-called traditional society (such were the civilizations of the Ancient East - China, India, etc.), which is characterized by a slow pace of social change, authoritarian power, the priority of traditions in thinking and activity, and etc. Knowledge here is valued not in itself, but only in its practical application. It is clear that under these conditions a person is more inclined to follow established patterns and norms than to look for unconventional approaches and ways of learning.
Scientific knowledge was destined to develop in a technogenic society, implying high rates of change in all spheres of life, which is impossible without a constant influx of new knowledge. The prerequisites for such a society take shape in the culture of Ancient Greece. Let us remember that the democratic structure of society and the freedom of the citizen contributed to the development of the active work of individuals, their ability to logically justify and defend their position, and propose new approaches to solving the problems under discussion. All this determined the search for innovations in all types of activity, including in knowledge (it is no coincidence that it was in Greece that the first example of theoretical science was born - Euclid's geometry). The cult of the human mind and the idea of its omnipotence then find their development in the culture of the European Renaissance, which contributes to the formation of professional scientific knowledge and the emergence of modern science.
Scientific knowledge is usually carried out at two levels - empirical and theoretical. Empirical(from Greek empeiria- experience) cognition gives us information about the external aspects and connections of the objects under study, records and describes them. It is carried out mainly using observational and experimental methods. Observation– this is a purposeful and systematic perception of the phenomena being studied (for example, the study of the behavior of great apes in the natural conditions of their life). When observing, the scientist tries not to interfere with the natural course of things, so as not to distort it.
Experiment– specially prepared experience. During its course, the object being studied is placed in artificial conditions that can be changed and taken into account. Obviously, this method is characterized by the high activity of the scientist, trying to obtain as much knowledge as possible about the behavior of an object in various situations, and even moreover, to artificially obtain new things and phenomena that do not exist in nature (this is especially typical for chemical research).
Of course, in addition to these methods of cognition, empirical research also uses methods of logical thinking - analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction, etc. With the help of the combination of all these methods - both practical and logical - the scientist obtains new empirical knowledge. It is expressed primarily in three main forms:
scientific fact - fixation of a particular property or event (Phenol melts at a temperature of 40.9 ° C; In 1986, the passage of Halley’s comet was observed);
scientific description– fixation of an integral system of properties and parameters of a particular phenomenon or group of phenomena. This kind of knowledge is presented in encyclopedias, scientific reference books, textbooks, etc.;
empirical dependence – knowledge that reflects certain connections inherent in a group of phenomena or events (The planets move around the Sun in elliptical orbits - one of Kepler’s laws; Halley’s Comet orbits the Sun with a period of 75 -76 years).
Theoretical(from Greek theory– consideration, research) cognition reveals the internal connections and relationships of things and phenomena, rationally explains them, reveals the laws of their existence. It is therefore knowledge of a higher order than empirical knowledge - it is no coincidence that, for example, Heidegger defines science itself as “the theory of the real.”
In theoretical knowledge, special mental operations are used that allow, in one way or another, to arrive at new knowledge that explains previously acquired knowledge or develops existing theoretical knowledge. These mental methods are always associated with the use of scientific concepts and so-called ideal objects(remember, for example, the concepts of “material point”, “ideal gas”, “absolute black body”, etc.). Scientists conduct thought experiments with them, use the hypothetico-deductive method (reasoning that allows one to put forward a hypothesis and draw consequences from it that can be tested), the method of ascent from the abstract to the concrete (the operation of combining new scientific concepts with existing ones in order to build a more general theory a specific object - for example, an atom), etc. In a word, theoretical knowledge is always a long and complex work of thought, carried out using a variety of methods.
The theoretical knowledge gained from these intellectual operations exists in various forms. The most important of them are:
problem- a question for which there is no answer yet in existing scientific knowledge, a kind of knowledge about ignorance (for example, physicists today, in principle, know what a thermonuclear reaction is, but cannot say how to make it controllable);
hypothesis– a scientific assumption that probabilistically explains a particular problem (for example, various hypotheses about the origin of life on Earth);
theory– reliable knowledge about the essence and laws of existence of a certain class of objects (say, the theory of chemical structure of A. M. Butlerov). There are quite complex relationships between these forms of knowledge, but in general their dynamics can be outlined as follows:
Occurrence of a problem;
Proposing a hypothesis as an attempt to solve this problem;
Testing a hypothesis (for example, using an experiment);
Construction of a new theory (if the hypothesis is somehow confirmed); the emergence of a new problem (since no theory gives us absolutely complete and reliable knowledge) - and then this cognitive cycle repeats.
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