The Thaw in the USSR is a conditional unofficial name for the period that lasted from the mid-50s to the mid-60s. It is characterized by significant changes, in particular, the debunking of Stalin’s personality cult, the liberalization of freedom of speech, and the reduction of censorship. Western literature became more accessible. In relation to the political and social life of that era, certain relaxations were also observed, which Soviet reality had not seen since the 20s.
And some moments in the history of the USSR generally occurred for the first time: condemnation of one’s own mistakes, the past, repressions. Unfortunately, this did not become a deep process, did not change the essence of the events taking place: universal control, centralization of power and much more remained in the USSR, at least until perestroika, and some things disappeared only with the collapse of the Soviet Union. But the influence of Khrushchev’s thaw remained for a long time. The authorities demonstrated that dictatorship is not necessary.
Spiritual life has also changed quite interestingly. In the USSR they began to show more attention to everything Western and demonstrate greater openness. Creativity was subject to less censorship. Attempts to achieve certain changes in the management of the national economy also date back to this period. They are characterized by some naivety, since for successful implementation they required more serious and in-depth study. However, these changes still had positive results.
The Thaw period struck the majority in the USSR with criticism of Stalin's personality cult. However, it also showed that many did not agree with the policies being implemented. A striking example was the rapprochement with Yugoslavia, with which the dictator broke off relations. In addition, we should not forget about what event happened in the USSR during the Thaw: the liquidation of the Gulag. This was also directly related to the condemnation of repression and the outbreak of riots. Some historians note that over time, this system became increasingly unprofitable to maintain, so perhaps there was a commercial motive in the destruction of the structure from the inside.
Nevertheless, the proclamation of a course towards peaceful coexistence with Western countries also dates back to the Thaw period. The emphasis was placed on the fact that it is very important to be able to get along in one big world. It should be noted that the nomenklatura rejoiced at these changes and quite willingly supported them, because under Stalin almost everyone was in danger. Now I didn’t have to constantly fear for my life. So for many, the thaw period had only positive aspects.
Khrushchev’s policy turned out to be quite loyal for prisoners of war: many Japanese and Germans were simply sent home to their countries. It is worth noting that we are talking about tens of thousands of people. Most of the deported peoples were allowed to return to their places of former residence. Labor legislation has noticeably softened: criminal liability for absenteeism has been abolished, and there is also talk of decriminalizing other articles. The concept of “enemy of the people” was also removed from the Criminal Code.
There were also certain advances in the international arena. They agreed with the USSR on the withdrawal of occupation forces from Austria and that the state would maintain political neutrality. In this regard, the Thaw period gave the West more than they initially expected. He showed that it is difficult with the Soviet Union, but it is possible to negotiate. And this was what they wanted most after World War II.
Controversies
At the same time, during the Thaw period in the USSR, Joseph Brodsky was arrested, Pasternak was persecuted for publishing his work in Italy, and the uprising in Grozny and Novocherkassk was suppressed (the latter with the use of weapons). In addition to the above, currency traders were shot in violation of the fundamental principles of law (Rokotov’s case), for whom the case was reviewed three times. The death sentence was imposed after the law giving the corresponding right came into force. As is known, criminal law does not and cannot have retroactive effect, with the exception of certain situations of amnesty. However, here this principle was simply ignored. This decision caused protests even from the investigators who led the case. But it was not possible to influence the situation: the sentence was carried out.
The episode with Brodsky turned out to be quite scandalous and unpleasant for the USSR, characterized by attempts to attract the attention of the Soviet intelligentsia and the world community. As a result, it was possible to ensure that the poet’s sentence was reduced. And active liberation activities became the foundation for the emergence of a human rights movement in the USSR, which is still developing today. Attention was drawn to the issue of human rights in the Soviet Union, people began to talk about it, which was simply impossible to imagine during Steel’s life. This already showed certain progress in the public consciousness, but did not make society completely healthy.
Changes in art
The topic of de-Stalinization, the need and importance of change was raised in the film “Clear Sky”. Pasternak was able to publish Doctor Zhivago in Milan, although he subsequently encountered problems associated with it. They published Solzhenitsyn, which, again, was impossible to imagine before. Leonid Gaidai and Eldar Ryazanov began to realize themselves as directors. The film “Carnival Night” turned into a real cultural event; there were other interesting works.
Negative changes
It cannot be said that all changes, without exception, were unequivocally positive. Changes in architecture turned out to be quite negative for the USSR. In an effort to quickly provide everyone with housing, it was decided to abandon “unnecessary decoration”, as long as it does not interfere with the functionality of the houses. As a result, the buildings turned out to be standard, monotonous, they began to look like template boxes and lost their individuality. The area per person was significantly reduced. The issue of audibility worsened: houses appeared in which what was being said on one floor could be heard without problems across several floors. Unfortunately, such standards in construction remained until the collapse of the USSR, changing for the most part only for the worse.
Positive Feedback
The appearance of the thaw gave rise to another phenomenon - the sixties, that is, young people who went through the war (or their relatives) became disillusioned with Stalin. However, they decided that the communist government had nothing to do with it, having heard about the debunking of the personality cult. They actively opposed the image of the dictator - Lenin, romanticized the revolution and existing ideals.
As a result, as many researchers note, the emergence of such mitigation looks somewhat ambiguous. Of course, liberalization of the regime and greater creative freedom are positive. However, the people had the feeling that the Soviet government really knew how to admit its mistakes, to draw conclusions that there would be no return to the old ways, that something was moving towards improvement and correction.
Meanwhile, the execution, contrary to the legislation in force at that time, of currency traders very eloquently showed that all the changes relate to the form rather than the essence of what is happening. The Gulag was disbanded, but at the same time, those who were directly related to the crimes that took place there were not convicted. They did not publicly declare the inadmissibility of such methods in relation to people. The Soviet government did not admit responsibility for what it actually allowed.
Such exposure would have been too dangerous for the nomenklatura itself, which in one way or another was part of the Stalinist repressive machine. Some carried out criminal decrees, and some even took the initiative. In the end, Stalin's condemnation was cautious. He was still recognized as an outstanding figure of his era. The genocide he carried out was called “mistakes” that took place, according to Soviet leaders, “closer to the end.”
To summarize, it can be noted that there have certainly been certain positive changes. But there were much fewer of them, and many were temporary. And some achievements on the path to liberalization were reversed due to the arrival of Brezhnev. Therefore, speaking about the positive aspects, we must not forget about the negative ones.
Decade 1954-1964 entered our history as the time of the “thaw”. It began back in 1953, shortly after the death of I.V. Stalin. “The era of circuses is over, the era of bread is coming...” These lines of the poet B. Slutsky correctly reflected the mood in society. The people have long been waiting for changes for the better. Throughout the post-war years, the Soviet Union lived in constant overstrain. The Soviet economy was suffocating under the burden of military spending and the arms race with the West. Industry and agriculture required technical re-equipment. People were in dire need of housing and adequate food. Prisoners of Stalin's camps (GULAG) were in a difficult situation, of which by the beginning of the 50s. there were a total of about 5.5 million people (see Soviet society in 1945-1953). The extremes of the Stalin regime: repression, lawlessness, deification of the personality of the “leader” - were so obvious to Stalin’s inner circle that there was no way forward without overcoming them. Only three people from the power elite - G. M. Malenkov, L. P. Beria and N. S. Khrushchev could really lay claim to leading the Soviet state after the death of the “father of nations.” Each of them realized the impossibility of maintaining the totalitarian system (see Totalitarian regime in the USSR). For Stalin's heirs, the immutable truth was the need to continue the course of building a communist society, strengthening the military and industrial power of the country, and supporting communist regimes in other countries. Therefore, none of the contenders for power was ready for a serious “revision” of the communist idea. In a tough behind-the-scenes struggle for power, Khrushchev won. In the summer of 1953, “Lubyansk Marshal” Beria was arrested on charges of conspiracy to seize power and in December of the same year he was shot along with six of his closest employees. The removal of Beria put an end to mass terror in the country. Political prisoners began to return from prisons and camps. Their stories, as well as rumors about strikes and uprisings of Gulag prisoners, had a strong impact on society. The growing pressure from below contributed to the development of criticism of the Stalinist regime and Stalin himself. The former’s first timid criticism of the “cult of personality of Stalin” awakened Soviet society and gave rise to hopes for changing life for the better. A powerful flow of letters, proposals, and requests went to the country's leadership.
N. S. Khrushchev initiated numerous, sometimes poorly thought out and inconsistent reforms to democratize and liberalize Soviet society. The first transformations began already in 1953 with the elimination of Soviet “serfdom” in the countryside. Collective and state farms were given relative independence. All debts accumulated since the war years were “written off” from personal farms, the agricultural tax was halved, and the norms for compulsory natural supplies, introduced under Stalin and which kept the village in a half-starved state, were reduced. Even these partial measures made it possible to ensure an increase in agricultural production. By 1958, its gross output doubled, and agriculture became profitable for the first time.
In 1956, the system of forced labor that fixed people in their jobs was eliminated, harsh punishments at enterprises were abolished, villagers gained civil rights, and trade unions gained the right to control the dismissal of workers, production standards, and tariff rates.
At this time, Khrushchev's position in the leadership was so strengthened that he could take a new step. At the 20th Congress of the CPSU, held in February 1956, at a closed meeting, Khrushchev announced Stalin’s personal involvement in mass repressions, brutal torture of prisoners, and the death of outstanding commanders through the fault of the “leader”. The speaker blamed him for the collapse of agriculture, for the defeat of the Red Army at the initial stage of the Great Patriotic War, for gross miscalculations and distortions in national politics. The “secret” report at the 20th Congress, which shocked most of its delegates, did not become available to the general public and was published in print only in 1989.
While condemning Stalin's crimes, Khrushchev did not address the nature of the Soviet totalitarian system. He was not ready to democratize public institutions, to include in the struggle for reforms liberal-minded layers of the intelligentsia - writers, publicists, scientists, through whose efforts in the early 50s. The ideological preconditions for the “thaw” were created. For this reason, Khrushchev’s “thaw” never became a real spring. Frequent “freezes” after the 20th Congress set society back. At the beginning of 1957, more than 100 people were prosecuted for “slander of Soviet reality.” Members of the group of MSU graduate student L. Krasnopevtsev received sentences from 6 to 10 years in prison. They issued a leaflet that called for a fight against the Stalinist system of oppression and demanded a trial of all Stalin's accomplices. Khrushchev's actions in economic and foreign policy were also contradictory. The brutal suppression of the uprising of the Hungarian people in 1956 had a huge impact on the fate of reforms and put a limit to further liberalization. Nevertheless, the 20th Congress accelerated the development of many new processes in economics, politics, and spiritual life. First of all, the rehabilitation of Gulag prisoners has accelerated. Extraordinary commissions with broad powers directly in places of imprisonment and exile resolved many issues, and the mass release of prisoners began. The national autonomy of 5 peoples unjustly deported to Central Asia and Kazakhstan was restored. In February 1957, the Supreme Council of the RSFSR restored the Chechen-Ingush ASSR as part of Russia and formed the Kalmyk Autonomous Region (since 1958 - an autonomous republic). The Kabardian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic was transformed into the Kabardino-Balkarian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic, and the Circassian Autonomous Region into the Karachay-Cherkessian Autonomous Region. Crimean Tatars, Meskhetian Turks, and Germans were not rehabilitated. Nevertheless, the entire system of political repression was practically eliminated.
Since the mid-50s. Cultural leadership has become more democratic. The reader finally gained access to works that were undeservedly forgotten or previously unknown. Forbidden poems by S. Yesenin, A. Akhmatova, M. Tsvetaeva, and stories by M. Zoshchenko were published. 28 magazines, 7 almanacs, 4 literary and artistic newspapers began to be published. It has become easier for historians to study the past. Of great importance were the resolutions of the CPSU Central Committee of May 28, 1958 “On correcting errors in the evaluation of the operas “The Great Friendship”, “Bogdan Khmelnitsky”, “With all my Heart”. For the first time, the CPSU tried to publicly admit its erroneous decisions on issues of art. The publication in the magazine “New World” of A. Solzhenitsyn’s story “One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich” opened the topic of Stalin’s camps and mass terror, which was taboo for Soviet literature. At the same time, B. Pasternak was unfairly expelled from the Union of Writers of the USSR for publishing the novel “Doctor Zhivago” abroad (he was forbidden to travel to Sweden to receive the Nobel Prize in Literature). Pasternak’s “case” clearly defined the boundaries of the “thaw” in spiritual life. Attempts by the party leadership in the early 60s. a return to strict regulation of the artistic process alienated the creative intelligentsia from the reformers.
In the second half of the 50s - early 60s. The country's leadership, having achieved certain successes in de-Stalinization of society, began a new series of reforms in the economic and cultural spheres. N.S. Khrushchev wanted to achieve real results in raising the material standard of living of the people. To do this, it was necessary to reorganize and decentralize economic management. In May 1957, Khrushchev, having eliminated sectoral ministries, created economic councils. Now many economic problems were resolved locally, and the influence of the bureaucracy weakened. But the reform did not change the very principles of management and planning, but only replaced the sectoral organization with a territorial one. The quality indicators of industrial products fell, the control system became even more complex and unreliable. The reform failed. Reforms in agriculture and public education were not completed. But the social consequences of even such half-hearted transformations turned out to be much wider than the country’s leadership expected. The liberalization of spiritual life gave rise to free thinking, the emergence of dissidents, and samizdat. The expansion of local initiative deprived the capital's nomenklatura of power and privileges (see Bureaucracy). Increasing economic difficulties presented the country's leadership with a choice: either radical changes in the foundations of the existing system, or regular administrative reorganizations. Ultimately, the third path was chosen - in October 1964, N.S. Khrushchev was removed from his posts. The era of the “thaw” is over.
55. Khrushchev’s “thaw”.
The Khrushchev Thaw period is the conventional name for a period in history that lasted from the mid-1950s to the mid-1960s. A feature of the period was a partial retreat from the totalitarian policies of the Stalin era. The Khrushchev Thaw is the first attempt to understand the consequences of the Stalinist regime, which revealed the features of the socio-political policy of the Stalin era. The main event of this period is considered to be the 20th Congress of the CPSU, which criticized and condemned Stalin’s personality cult and criticized the implementation of repressive policies. February 1956 marked the beginning of a new era, which aimed to change social and political life, change the domestic and foreign policies of the state.
Events of the Khrushchev Thaw
The period of the Khrushchev Thaw is characterized by the following events:
The process of rehabilitation of victims of repression began, the innocently convicted population was granted amnesty, and relatives of “enemies of the people” became innocent.
The republics of the USSR received more political and legal rights.
The year 1957 was marked by the return of Chechens and Balkars to their lands, from which they were evicted during Stalin's time due to accusations of treason. But such a decision did not apply to the Volga Germans and Crimean Tatars.
Also, 1957 is famous for the International Festival of Youth and Students, which in turn speaks of the “opening of the Iron Curtain” and the easing of censorship.
The result of these processes is the emergence of new public organizations. Trade union bodies are undergoing reorganization: the staff of the top level of the trade union system has been reduced, and the rights of primary organizations have been expanded.
Passports were issued to people living in villages and collective farms.
Rapid development of light industry and agriculture.
Active construction of cities.
Improving the standard of living of the population.
One of the main achievements of the policy of 1953–1964. there was the implementation of social reforms, which included solving the issue of pensions, increasing incomes of the population, solving the housing problem, and introducing a five-day week. The period of the Khrushchev Thaw was a difficult time in the history of the Soviet state. In such a short time (10 years), many transformations and innovations have been carried out. The most important achievement was the exposure of the crimes of the Stalinist system, the population discovered the consequences of totalitarianism.
So, the policy of the Khrushchev Thaw was superficial and did not affect the foundations of the totalitarian system. The dominant one-party system was preserved using the ideas of Marxism-Leninism. Mikhail Sergeevich Khrushchev did not intend to carry out complete de-Stalinization, because it meant admitting his own crimes. And since it was not possible to completely renounce Stalin’s time, Khrushchev’s transformations did not take root for long. In 1964, a conspiracy against Khrushchev matured, and from this period a new era in the history of the Soviet Union began.
56. Confrontation of two world systems in the 60-80s of the XX century. Collapse of the colonial system, arms race.
The arms race was voluntarily suspended by the mid-60s.
A number of treaties were concluded limiting the accumulation of weapons. Such
such as the Atmospheric Test Ban Treaty, in
outer space and submarines (08/05/1963), Treaty on
non-proliferation of nuclear weapons, creation of nuclear-free zones (1968),
agreement on SALT 1 (limitation and reduction of strategic weapons)
(1972), Convention on the Prohibition of Development, Production and Stockpiling
stockpiles of bacteriological and toxin weapons and their destruction
(1972) and many others. Another “front” of the Cold War was...
Since achieving strategic parity (early sixties
years) the military component of the arms race is gradually being pushed back to
background, while on stage the struggle for influence in the countries of the third is played out
peace. The term itself was introduced into use due to the increasing influence
non-aligned countries that have not openly joined one of the
warring parties. If at first, the very fact of confrontation
two powerful systems on the world map led to landslide decolonization
(the period of liberation of Africa), then in a later period a circle was formed
states openly and very effectively using their political choice
orientation towards one or another superpower. To a certain extent it is possible here
include the countries of so-called Arab socialism, which decided at the expense of the USSR
their specific narrow national tasks. (1, p.298)
The Cold War was fought not only in politics, but also in
culture, sports. For example, the USA and many Western European countries
boycotted the 1980 Olympic Games in Moscow. In response, athletes from countries
Eastern Europeans boycotted the next Olympics in Los Angeles in 1984
year. The Cold War was widely reflected in cinema, and
Propaganda films were made by both sides. In the USA it is: “Red Dawn”,
"America", "Rimbaud, First Blood, Part II", "Iron Eagle", "Invasion of
USA". In the USSR they filmed: “Night Without Mercy”, “Neutral Waters”, “Incident in
square 36 – 80”, “Solo sailing” and many others. Despite,
that the films are completely different, with different degrees of talent in them,
it showed how bad “they” are and what good guys serve in our army.
A unique and very accurate manifestation of the Cold War in art
reflected in a line from a popular song “and even in the field of ballet, we
ahead of the rest..."
It is quite obvious that the enormous costs incurred
superpowers could not continue indefinitely, and as a result the confrontation
the two systems were decided in the economic sphere. It is this component
turned out to be decisive in the end. More efficient Western economies
made it possible not only to maintain military and political parity, but also
satisfy the growing needs of modern man, which, due to
She knew how to competently manipulate purely market economic mechanisms. IN
at the same time heavyweight, focused only on the production of weapons
and means of production, the economy of the USSR, could not, and did not intend to
compete in this area with the West. Ultimately, this affected
political level, the USSR began to lose the fight not only for influence in
third world countries, but also for influence within the socialist
Commonwealth.
2.2. The international position of the USSR from the mid-60s to the early 80s.
By the mid-60s. compared with the first post-war years, the world
found himself in a significantly changed situation. The then-identified
the contradictions between the allies in the anti-Hitler coalition have now spilled over
into a severe contradiction between two established socio-political systems.
Eastern Europe was under complete control of the USSR, while Western Europe was
in a strong military-political and economic alliance with the United States. "Cold War"
was in full swing. The main object of the struggle between “socialism” and “capitalism”
were the countries of the “third world”, formed on the ruins of the world
colonial system. The USSR and the USA, the main military forces behind them
political blocs NATO and the Warsaw Pact Organization avoided direct
military confrontation. However, competition for influence in developing
countries remained very acute, and often led to local wars
conflicts.
The competition between the two systems also developed in the economic sphere,
Moreover, in the 60s - 80s it became more and more strict. The West had
it had a clear advantage: the starting positions were more profitable, and in the USA in
During the Second World War, economic potential increased significantly. More
The system of cooperation of developed countries was also perfect, while in
The “socialist bloc” included, in addition to the USSR, countries that played
insignificant role in the world economy, many of which suffered huge
damage during the war. The protracted formation of the mechanism of international
division of labor within the framework of CMEA interfered with the coordination of national economic
plans and implementation of joint projects. As a result, already in the mid-80s
s in Western Europe, the level of international division of labor turned out to be
an order of magnitude higher than in Eastern. A major step forward in the integration of countries
The CMEA was adopted in 1971 as a comprehensive program for further deepening
and improving cooperation, designed for 15-20 years. Most
large-scale joint economic projects were construction
the Druzhba oil pipeline and the Soyuz gas pipeline, the participation of allied countries in
development of raw materials resources of Siberia and Central Asia, construction
industrial enterprises in different countries. The Soviet Union put in
Eastern European countries in 1965 8.3 million tons of oil, in 1975 - about
50 million, and by the beginning of the 80s - 508 million tons. Soviet oil prices were
significantly lower than world prices, since the USSR assumed an obligation
supplies of raw materials at lower prices.
Cooperation was actively developing within the framework of the Warsaw
Agreement (OVD). Almost every year in the 1980s general maneuvers were carried out, in
mainly on the territory of the USSR, Poland and the GDR.
Partial reforms of the “Soviet model of socialism” in none of the countries
Eastern European bloc did not lead to a qualitative increase in efficiency
production. (4, p.334)
The reaction to the crisis of the “Soviet model of socialism” in the countries of Eastern
Europe and the events of the “Czechoslovak Spring” of 1968, the so-called
"Brezhnev Doctrine". Its main content was the “theory of limited
sovereignty" of socialist countries. She was proclaimed by the General
Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee at the V Congress of the Polish United Workers' Party in
November 1968. Her nomination testified to the great attention
which was paid to foreign policy in the late 60s - early 70s.
The Brezhnev Doctrine recognized the presence of weak links in
socialist front, the possibility of restoring capitalism due to
objective difficulties and errors of a subjective nature, the likelihood of war
with the imperialist encirclement, the extreme nature of such an action as a military one
assistance to a friendly country in the defense of socialist sovereignty. L.
Brezhnev emphasized that the sovereignty of a socialist state is
the common heritage of all Marxist-Leninists: “When a threat arises to the cause
socialism in one country, a threat to the security of socialist
community as a whole - this is no longer just a problem for the people of a given
country, but also a common problem, a concern of all socialist countries.”
The policy of "non-interference", in his opinion, was directly contrary to the interests of
defense of brotherly states. In order not to give in, not to give up
bourgeoisie not a grain of what has been won, not to allow a retreat from Marxism-
Leninism requires firmly adhering to the “general laws
socialist construction."
The term “doctrine” as a system of attitudes did not take root in Soviet
foreign policy lexicon, it is not in any official party or
state document. But the existence of the “Brezhnev Doctrine” will never
was refuted by the political leaders of the USSR, since it expanded
proletarian internationalism." At the same time, the “Brezhnev Doctrine”
expressed a policy aimed at consolidating the territorial
government structure in Europe in the post-war period.
Attempts at people's democratic reforms were suppressed both from outside
(the introduction of troops of the Warsaw Pact countries into Czechoslovakia in 1968), and
from within (the Solidarity movement in 1980-1981 and its ban with the introduction
military rule in Poland).
The Chinese version of the reforms of the 50-60s led to tough
confrontation between the USSR and China. In 1969, on the Soviet-Chinese border there were
armed clashes (in the area of Damansky Island, etc.). Only after death
Mao Zedong in 1976 and the death of Brezhnev in 1982, the relationship between the two
countries have returned to normal. To the Maoist trend in the period after the Prague
communist parties, priority of national values, denial of “dictatorship
proletariat" and the establishment of democratic mechanisms for coming to power and
mainly in those third world countries that received military
financial and technical assistance from the USSR. For the Soviet Union it was still
one item of huge expenses to the detriment of one’s own economic and
social programs.57. DEVELOPMENT OF THE WORLD ECONOMY for 1945-1991. The dominant role of the USA. Scientific and technological progress and its influence on the course of world social development
Candidates for Politburo membership
Komsomol
Is it true
Lenin Guard
Opposition in the CPSU(b)
Great Terror
Anti-Party Group
Peaceful coexistence
General line of the party
Khrushchev's thaw- an unofficial designation for the period in the history of the USSR after the death of I.V. Stalin (mid-1950s - mid-1960s). The internal political life of the USSR was characterized by the liberalization of the regime, the weakening of totalitarian power, the emergence of some freedom of speech, the relative democratization of political and social life, openness to the Western world, and greater freedom of creative activity. The name is associated with the tenure of the First Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee N. Khrushchev (-).
The word “thaw” is associated with the story of the same name by Ilya Ehrenburg.
Story
The starting point of the “Khrushchev Thaw” was the death of Stalin in 1953. The “thaw” also includes a short period when Georgy Malenkov was in charge of the country’s leadership and major criminal cases were closed (“Leningrad Case”, “Doctors’ Case”), and an amnesty was given to those convicted of minor crimes. During these years, prisoner uprisings broke out in the Gulag system: Norilsk Uprising, Vorkuta Uprising, Kengir Uprising, etc.
De-Stalinization
With Khrushchev strengthening in power, the “thaw” began to be associated with the condemnation of Stalin’s personality cult. At the same time, in 1953-55, Stalin still continued to be officially revered in the USSR as a great leader; at that time, in portraits they were often depicted together with Lenin. At the 20th Congress of the CPSU in 1956, N. S. Khrushchev made a report “On the cult of personality and its consequences”, in which Stalin’s cult of personality and Stalin’s repressions were criticized, and in the foreign policy of the USSR a course towards “peaceful coexistence” with capitalism was proclaimed peace. Khrushchev also began a rapprochement with Yugoslavia, with which relations had been severed under Stalin.
In general, the new course was supported at the top of the party and corresponded to the interests of the nomenklatura, since previously even the most prominent party figures who fell into disgrace had to fear for their lives. Many surviving political prisoners in the USSR and socialist countries were released and rehabilitated. Since 1953, commissions for verification of cases and rehabilitation have been formed. The majority of peoples deported in the 1930s and 1940s were allowed to return to their homeland.
Tens of thousands of German and Japanese prisoners of war were sent home. In some countries, relatively liberal leaders came to power, such as Imre Nagy in Hungary. An agreement was reached on the state neutrality of Austria and the withdrawal of all occupation forces from it. In the city, Khrushchev met in Geneva with US President Dwight Eisenhower and the heads of government of Great Britain and France.
At the same time, de-Stalinization had an extremely negative impact on relations with Maoist China. The CCP condemned de-Stalinization as revisionism.
In 1957, the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR prohibited the naming of cities and factories after party leaders during their lifetime.
Limits and contradictions of the Thaw
The thaw period did not last long. Already with the suppression of the Hungarian uprising of 1956, clear boundaries of the policy of openness emerged. The party leadership was frightened by the fact that liberalization of the regime in Hungary led to open anti-communist protests and violence; accordingly, liberalization of the regime in the USSR could lead to the same consequences. On December 19, 1956, the Presidium of the CPSU Central Committee approved the text of the Letter of the CPSU Central Committee “On strengthening the political work of party organizations among the masses and suppressing the attacks of anti-Soviet, hostile elements.” It said: “The Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union considers it necessary to appeal to all party organizations ... in order to attract the attention of the party and mobilize communists to strengthen political work among the masses, to resolutely fight to suppress the attacks of anti-Soviet elements, which have recently, in due to some aggravation of the international situation, they intensified their hostile activities against the Communist Party and the Soviet state.” It went on to talk about the recent “intensification of the activities of anti-Soviet and hostile elements.” First of all, this is a “counter-revolutionary conspiracy against the Hungarian people”, conceived under the guise of “false slogans of freedom and democracy” using “the discontent of a significant part of the population caused by serious mistakes made by the former state and party leadership of Hungary.” It was also stated: “Recently, among individual workers of literature and art, sliding from party positions, politically immature and philistine-minded, attempts have appeared to question the correctness of the party line in the development of Soviet literature and art, to move away from the principles of socialist realism to the positions of unidealized art, demands to “liberate” literature and art from the party leadership, to ensure “freedom of creativity,” understood in the bourgeois-anarchist, individualistic spirit.” The letter contained instructions to communists working in state security agencies to “vigilantly guard the interests of our socialist state, be vigilant to the machinations of hostile elements and, in accordance with the laws of Soviet power, promptly suppress criminal actions.” A direct consequence of this letter was a significant increase in 1957 in the number of people convicted of “counter-revolutionary crimes” (2,948 people, which is 4 times more than in 1956). ) . Students were expelled from institutes for making critical statements.
Thaw in art
Thaw in architecture
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Increasing pressure on religious associations
In 1956, the anti-religious struggle began to intensify. The secret resolution of the CPSU Central Committee “On the note of the department of propaganda and agitation of the CPSU Central Committee for the Union Republics “On the shortcomings of scientific-atheistic propaganda”” dated October 4, 1958 obligated party, Komsomol and public organizations to launch a propaganda offensive against “religious relics”; government institutions were ordered to implement administrative measures aimed at tightening the conditions for the existence of religious communities. On October 16, 1958, the Council of Ministers of the USSR adopted the Resolutions “On monasteries in the USSR” and “On increasing taxes on the income of diocesan enterprises and monasteries.”
On April 21, 1960, the new chairman of the Council for the Affairs of the Russian Orthodox Church, Kuroyedov, appointed in February of the same year, in his report at the All-Union Meeting of Commissioners of the Council, characterized the work of his previous leadership as follows: “The main mistake of the Council for the Affairs of the Orthodox Church was that it inconsistently followed the party line and the state in relation to the church and often slipped into positions of serving church organizations. Taking a defensive position in relation to the church, the council pursued a line not to combat violations of the legislation on cults by the clergy, but to protect church interests.”
The secret instructions on the application of legislation on cults in March 1961 paid special attention to the fact that ministers of worship do not have the right to interfere in the administrative, financial and economic activities of religious communities. The instructions for the first time identified “sects whose creed and nature of activities are anti-state and fanatical in nature: Jehovah’s Witnesses, Pentecostals, Adventist reformists” that were not subject to registration.
In the mass consciousness, a statement attributed to Khrushchev from that period has been preserved, in which he promises to show the last priest on television in 1980.
The end of the thaw
The end of the “thaw” is considered to be the removal of Khrushchev and the accession of Leonid Brezhnev to leadership in the year. However, the tightening of the internal political regime and ideological control began during the reign of Khrushchev after the end of the Caribbean crisis. De-Stalinization was stopped, and in connection with the celebration of the 20th anniversary of the victory in the Great Patriotic War, the process of exalting the role of the victory of the Soviet people in the war began. They tried to avoid Stalin’s personality as much as possible; he was never rehabilitated. There was a neutral article about him in the TSB. In 1979, several articles were published on the occasion of Stalin's 100th birthday, but no special celebrations were held.
Mass political repressions, however, were not resumed, and Khrushchev, deprived of power, retired and even remained a member of the party. Shortly before this, Khrushchev himself criticized the concept of “thaw” and even called Ehrenburg, who invented it, a “swindler.”
A number of researchers believe that the Thaw finally ended in 1968 after the suppression of the Prague Spring. With the end of the Thaw, criticism of Soviet reality began to spread only through unofficial channels, such as Samizdat.
Mass riots in the USSR
- On June 10-11, 1957, an emergency occurred in the city of Podolsk, Moscow region. The actions of a group of citizens who spread rumors that police officers killed the detained driver. The size of the “group of drunken citizens” is 3 thousand people. 9 instigators were brought to justice.
- January 15, 1961, city of Krasnodar. Reasons: the actions of a group of drunken citizens who spread rumors about the beating of a serviceman when he was detained by a patrol for violating the wearing of his uniform. Number of participants - 1300 people. Firearms were used and one person was killed. 24 people were brought to criminal responsibility. See Anti-Soviet rebellion in Krasnodar (1961).
- On June 21, 1961, in the city of Biysk, Altai Territory, 500 people took part in mass riots. They stood up for a drunk who the police wanted to arrest at the central market. The drunken citizen resisted the public order officers during his arrest. There was a fight involving weapons. One person was killed, one was injured, 15 were prosecuted.
- On June 30, 1961, in the city of Murom, Vladimir Region, over 1.5 thousand workers of the local plant named after Ordzhonikidze almost destroyed the construction of a medical sobering-up station, in which one of the employees of the enterprise, taken there by the police, died. Law enforcement officers used weapons, two workers were injured, and 12 men were brought to justice.
- On July 23, 1961, 1,200 people took to the streets of the city of Aleksandrov, Vladimir Region, and moved to the city police department to rescue their two detained comrades. The police used weapons, as a result of which four were killed, 11 were wounded, and 20 people were put in the dock.
- September 15-16, 1961, street riots in the North Ossetian city of Beslan. The number of rioters was 700 people. The riot arose due to an attempt by the police to detain five people who were drunk in a public place. Armed resistance was provided to the law enforcement officers. One was killed. Seven were put on trial.
- July 1-3, 1962, Novocherkassk, Rostov region, 4 thousand workers of the electric locomotive plant, dissatisfied with the actions of the administration in explaining the reasons for increasing retail prices for meat and milk, went out to protest. The protesting workers were dispersed with the help of troops. 23 people were killed, 70 were wounded. 132 instigators were brought to criminal responsibility, seven of whom were later shot (See Novocherkassk execution)
- June 16-18, 1963, the city of Krivoy Rog, Dnepropetrovsk region. About 600 people took part in the performance. The reason was resistance to police officers by a drunken serviceman during his arrest and the actions of a group of people. Four killed, 15 wounded, 41 brought to justice.
- On November 7, 1963, in the city of Sumgait, more than 800 people came to the defense of demonstrators who marched with photographs of Stalin. The police and vigilantes tried to take away the unauthorized portraits. Weapons were used. One demonstrator was injured, six sat in the dock (See Mass riots in Sumgayit (1963)).
- On April 16, 1964, in Bronnitsy near Moscow, about 300 people destroyed a bullpen, where a city resident died from beatings. The police provoked popular outrage with their unauthorized actions. No weapons were used, there were no killed or wounded. 8 people were brought to criminal responsibility.
see also
Notes
Footnotes
Links
- Rudolf Pihoya. Slowly melting ice (March 1953 - late 1957)
- A. Shubin Dissidents, informals and freedom in the USSR
- And I gave my heart to search and test with wisdom everything that is done under heaven...
| Periods of Soviet history | ||
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After Stalin's death, there were three contenders for power: G. M. Malenkov, L. P. Beria and N. S. Khrushchev. Beria's claims to leadership, expressed in his desire to gain public support through a demonstrative rejection of Stalinist methods and an amnesty, frightened his competitors. He was arrested and sentenced to death for espionage, treason against socialism, etc. During the review of the “Leningrad Case”, Malenkov’s guilt in the deaths of A. Kuznetsov, N. Voznesensky and others was revealed (Malenkov was subsequently removed from the post of head of government). As the first secretary of the party's Central Committee, Khrushchev gradually strengthened his position in power.
XX Party Congress. At a closed meeting of the congress in February 1956, Khrushchev made a report “On the cult of personality and its consequences,” condemning Stalin’s one-man style of rule, the “cult of personality,” mass repressions, mistakes in the war, etc. After the congress, rehabilitation intensified political prisoners, the Gulag was liquidated.
In 1957, V. Molotov, G. Malenkov, L. Kaganovich and K. Voroshilov at a meeting of the Presidium of the Central Committee demanded Khrushchev’s resignation and received the support of 7 out of 11 members of the Presidium. Khrushchev, with the help of Marshal G. Zhukov and KGB head I. Serov, managed to quickly convene a Plenum of the CPSU Central Committee, at which the majority of members of the Central Committee supported Khrushchev and dismissed his opponents. As a result, Khrushchev headed both the party and the government.
After Stalin's death, a period in the life of the country began, called the “thaw”. The essence of the “thaw” was that people got the opportunity to talk more openly about things that were previously dangerous to talk about. Against the backdrop of relaxations, the works of the “sixties” began to be published (V. Dudintsev, E. Yevtushenko, A. Voznesensky, B. Okudzhava). In 1962, at the direction of Khrushchev, the magazine “New World” published A. I. Solzhenitsyn’s story “One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich” about life in the camp. However, freedoms were limited. For example, the novel “Doctor Zhivago” by B. L. Pasternak was never allowed to be published in the USSR.
Agriculture by 1953, urgent measures were required, since for many years the village had been largely siphoned of resources. In 1953, collective farms' debts were written off, purchase prices were increased 3 times, taxes were lowered 2.5 times, and collective farmers were allowed to develop personal plots.
To quickly increase grain harvest, Khrushchev proposed developing virgin lands (mainly the steppes of Kazakhstan). In 1954–1956 36 million hectares were plowed instead of 13 million according to plan. In 1956, 125 million tons of bread were harvested, of which 50% was virgin bread. Virgin lands began to produce up to half of the country's bread, but spending on its development reduced spending on the agricultural sector in other regions.
Solving the problem of livestock feed supply, Khrushchev began the “corn campaign.” The first results bore fruit, and soon corn began to be planted everywhere, eliminating traditional crops. In general, the right idea gave good results, but only where the climate was suitable. In many regions, corn crops were damaged.
Industry. The growth rate of industry was high, on average up to 10% per year. At the same time, the authorities understood the need to strengthen the development of Group B industries (consumer goods) and saw the harmfulness of excessive centralization of the economy. In 1957, Khrushchev initiated the transition from a sectoral to a territorial system of economic management. Instead of most central ministries, national economic councils (sovnarkhozes) were created - local economic management bodies. This approach led to the establishment of connections within regions, but there was a lack of interaction between regions.
Under Khrushchev, the country achieved outstanding results in science and high technology. The world's first nuclear power plant was built (1954), the first jet passenger aircraft TU-104 was put into operation (1956), and the world's first nuclear icebreaker "Lenin" was created (1957). In 1957, an artificial Earth satellite was launched, and in 1961, Yuri Gagarin made the first flight into space.
Social sphere. During the years of Khrushchev's rule there was a constant increase in the standard of living of Soviet people. In cities, the assignment of workers to enterprises was canceled, and wages increased. In the village, payments for workdays increased 3 times. The pension system developed: pensions in cities almost doubled, the retirement age was lowered (men retired from 60 years old, women from 55 years old). In 1964, pensions for collective farmers were introduced. Intensive construction of housing was carried out, popularly called “Khrushchevka”. The houses were built according to simplified construction standards, but people were happy, because many received separate apartments for the first time in their lives. For 1956–1960 more housing was built than in all the pre-war years (474 million m² with a population of about 210 million people). In 1960, the country recorded the lowest mortality rate - 7.1 people. per 1 thousand population (for comparison: 1913 – 29 people; 1940 – 18 people; 1980 – 10 people). In demography, this indicator is the most important, since it reflects the degree of adaptation of a person to the conditions in which he lives and works.
At the XXII Party Congress in 1961, the task was set to build in 20 years communist society. Struggling with the private ownership sentiments of citizens, Khrushchev established restrictions on the conduct of personal subsidiary plots in small towns, and then in the countryside. Livestock numbers have declined sharply, resulting in increased demand for food. There was a food shortage. Khrushchev tried to eliminate it by increasing prices for meat, milk and butter by 20–50%. This caused discontent among the population, especially in the provinces. The most serious unrest occurred in Novocherkassk (1962). Troops were brought into the city, and as a result, 24 people died. Later, seven of the rioters were shot.
In 1963 virgin soil did not produce a harvest. The grain harvest in the USSR decreased sharply. Khrushchev was forced to buy bread abroad. Since then, grain purchases have become a constant practice, although domestic production has also increased.
Discontent was accumulating in the party and the country. As a result, Khrushchev was removed from all posts in 1964, rightly accused of subjectivism and voluntarism (making decisions without taking into account objective factors and implementing them using authority).
In general, under Khrushchev the country developed dynamically, despite a number of serious mistakes made by the leader. After his resignation, the party was headed by L. I. Brezhnev, and the government by A. N. Kosygin.
Questions for self-control
1. What significance does the 20th Congress of the CPSU have in the history of our country?
2. What successes in the social sphere were achieved during the era of N. Khrushchev?
3. What international crises occurred during the era of N. Khrushchev?
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