Antonyms are used as a vivid means of expression in artistic speech. The writer sees life in contrasts, and this testifies not to inconsistency, but to the integrity of his perception of reality.
The main stylistic function of antonyms is to be a lexical means of expressing antithesis. Antithesis as a stylistic device is widespread in folk poetry, for example in proverbs: Study - light, but ignorance - dark; It lays down softly, but sleeps hard. Classic examples of antithesis are provided by Russian fiction: Yourich,I am verypoorYouprose writer,Ipoet.Youblush,like poppies, I am like death, andskinny,Andpale(P.); Farewell, unwashed Russia, countryslavesa countrygentlemen,And you, blue uniforms, and you, people obedient to them(L.); I seesadeyes, I hearcheerfulspeech(ACT.).
The antithesis can be simple (one-term) - UstrongAlwayspowerlessguilty(Kr.) and complex (polynomial) - ANDwe hatewe, andlovewe are by chance, without sacrificing anythinganger,neitherlove,And some kind of reigns in the soulcoldsecret whenfireboils in the blood(L.). A complex antithesis may involve several antonymous pairs.
The use of antonyms reflects important features of the writer’s worldview and style. M. Yu. Lermontov, striving for expressiveness and aphoristic precision of speech, often introduced antonyms into the text in the process of auto-editing, preferring contrasting words to neutral ones. For example: - As for me, I am convinced of only one thing... - said the doctor[Werner], -<...>that sooner or later,one fine morningI will die. - I'm richer than you - I said[Pechorin]: - Besides this, I also have the conviction - exactly what I'm intoone nasty eveninghad the misfortune of being born. In Lermontov’s draft autograph, this contrast did not yet have such acuteness: one of the elements of the antithesis dropped out there - Pechorin repeated Werner’s epithet one fine evening.
Antonyms help reveal the contradictory essence of objects and phenomena [You Andwretchedyou andabundant,you andmighty,you andpowerless,Mother Rus'(N.); Thatserious,Thatfunny,no matter what the rain, what the snow, - he's coming,saintAndsinful,Russian miracle man(Tward.)].
Publicists often turn to antithesis ( There are no intermediate tones or pale colors in war, everything is completed - greatAnddespicable, blackAndwhite.- Eren.). The use of antonyms gives journalistic speech vivid expression. Thus, A. N. Tolstoy wrote during the Great Patriotic War: Our land has absorbed a lot of hordes of rapists who attacked it. In the Westaroseempires anddied.Fromgreatbecamesmall,fromrich beggars.Our homeland expanded and grew stronger, and no enemy force could shake it.
Contrast enhances the emotionality of speech. It is no coincidence that antonymy underlies many aphorisms [Than the nightdarkerthe brighterstars(Mike.); At homenew, but prejudicesold(Gr.); To mesadbecausefunnyyou(L.); That heart won't learnbe in love,which is tiredhate(N.); Howfewroads have been covereda lot ofmistakes made(Ec.); Doorswide openyou have, and the soullocked up(High); But almost at the edge of the coffin I believe: the time will come - The power of meanness andmaliceThe spirit will overcomeof good(Past.)].
Many titles of works are built on the principle of antithesis. ["War and Peace"(L. T); "Days and Nights" « Living and dead"(Sim.)]. Antonymy is especially often used in the headlines of newspaper and magazine articles. ["Chemistry is good and evil" « Income and expenses”, “A dead system does not hear living people”, “Retro and modern are nearby”, “Tragic and funny farewell”, “Geography - miscellaneous, biographies - similar”, “Poverty with wealth”, “Maxi-passions for mini-football”].
The opposite of antithesis is the technique of denying the contrasting features of an object: There was a gentleman sitting in the chaise,not handsomebut alsonot bad looking, not too fat, not too thin; it is forbiddensay toold,howeverandAndnot too young(G.). Such a string of antonyms with negation emphasizes the mediocrity of what is being described, its lack of bright qualities, clearly defined characteristics. This use of antonyms makes it possible to indicate concepts that do not have a precise definition in the language, for example: If a friend suddenly turns up andnot a friendAndnot an enemywell...(High)
Strong expression is created by the use of one of the members of the antonymic pair with negation: Who will you become- I I won't guess. Worldhasn't aged - became younger;in the vastness of the Motherland there are many big and small things to do(Vic.). Such a combination of antonyms strengthens and emphasizes the meaning of one of them, used without negation; speech redundancy in this case performs a constructive function - it serves as a means of updating the concept to which the author wants to pay special attention: Alive, not deadthe demon in me(Color); Don't quarrelI came andput up;Inot the enemyto you, andFriend. Writers use this stylistic device to convey nuances of colloquial speech with its characteristic emphatic intonation, for example in Chekhov: Carry the snag up, good man... How do you like it?Up,but notdown!
The phenomenon of antonymy underlies the oxymoron (from gr. oxymoron- witty-stupid) - a bright stylistic device of figurative speech, consisting in the creation of a new concept by combining words with contrasting meanings. The combination of antonyms in “pure form” in an oxymoron is rare [“ Beginning of the End"(article title), "Bad Good Man"(movie title) In the midst of a period of stagnation...(From the gas.)]. In most cases, words that have opposite meanings are combined as a determiner and a determiner. ["Big Little Things" “Expensive cheapness”, “Inconvenient amenities”(headings)] (noun and adjective), therefore they cannot be considered antonyms in the exact meaning of the term (antonyms must belong to the same part of speech).
Russian poets created bright oxymorons [I lovelushnaturewithering(P.); Oh howpainfullyby youhappyI(I.); ButbeautytheiruglyI soon learned the mystery(L.); Poor luxuryoutfit(N.); WITH insolent modestylooks into the eyes(Bl.); Look, sheit's fun to be sadsuchelegantly naked(Ahm.); Mother! Your sonbeautifully sick!(Lighthouse.); The time has comeall-knowing ignoramuses(High)]. Oxymoron often found in titles of works of art ["Living Relics"(T.), "Optimistic Tragedy"(Vishn.)], in article titles (“Complex simplicity”, “Cold - the season is hot" "Awakened Silence" "Loud whisper of an anecdote" « Unofficial about the official", "Retreating forward").
The stylistic functions of antonyms are not limited to the expression of contrast and opposition. Antonyms help writers show the completeness of coverage of phenomena [And it’s too late to wish, everything is over;both happiness and sorrow(Vl. Soloviev); The crowd ran before him,True storyAndfabledivulged(P.)], latitude of time boundaries [The troops are comingday and night,They become unbearable(P.)]. The use of antonyms in this stylistic function sometimes leads to the stringing of antonymic pairs (The palette of colors of human characters has no boundaries. There are peoplekindAndevil, braveAndcowardly, smartAndclose-minded, beautifulAndfreaks, healthyAndsick, happyAndgloomy, oldAndyoung, straightAndsecretive, frankAndcunning.- LF.).
Some antonymic pairs appear in speech as a lexical unit, acquiring a phraseological character: both old and young, both, sooner or later. Their use introduces conversational intonations into artistic speech: If we don’t go too far, we’ll break through, we’ll be alive - We won’t die, the time will come, we’ll come back. What did they give? - we'll return everything(Tward.).
A comparison of antonyms can reflect the alternation of actions, the change of phenomena observed in life [IN 7 human hourstide,at 17 o'clock - low tide(Lighthouse.); Let's make peace.ANDLet's quarrel.And again you won't fall asleep. We will fold our insomnia into a continuous white night(R.)], indicate a quick change of actions (There flashed a clear lightning in the distance,broke outAndwent out...- Bl.).
When antonyms collide, speech often takes on an ironic tone; humor writers often use comic antitheses [Mostremotepoint of the globe to something yesclose,and the mostclosefrom something yesdistant(K.P.); Nezre ly pineapple is always worse for a fair manmature currants(K.P.)].
Puns are based on antonyms: WhereStart Togoend , whichis the beginning ending? (K.P.) It was like thislate what has already becomeearly (Solzh.). In such cases, the play on words arises due to the use of polysemantic words that do not act as antonyms in all meanings (cf.: Young was alreadynot young. - I. and P.).
A special stylistic device is the use of one of the antonyms, while the meaning should be used of another. For example: Otkole,smart , are you delusional, head?(Kr.) Word smart said in mockery of Donkey, and the reader understands that behind this definition is its antonym - stupid. Using a word in the opposite meaning is called antiphrase. Antiphrases is often found in texts permeated with the author’s irony, for example in “The Tale of How Ivan Ivanovich Quarreled with Ivan Nikifirovich” by N. V. Gogol: Twovenerable husband,honor Anddecoration Mirgorod, quarreled among themselves;... Then the process began withwith extraordinary speed, for which the courts are usually so famous.
A sharp satirical effect is created by the antonymic replacement of one of the components in stable phrases: "The Bureaumalicious services", "Debt paymentblack "(titles of feuilletons). In such combinations, the “illogicality” of the statement is especially noteworthy, since the linguistic form of the phraseological unit dictates the use of a word with the opposite meaning.
When studying the stylistic use of antonyms in literary speech, it should be borne in mind that their expressive capabilities are realized not only in direct opposition, but also in the case when any member of the antonymic pair is absent in the text. Thanks to their stable connections, antonyms are perceived in speech against the background of their “counterterms.” For example, reading the description of Pugachev’s appearance in “The Captain’s Daughter” by A. S. Pushkin, we note the special expressiveness of words that have antonymous pairs: The face he hasdark, Butclean, eyesspicy and gazeinsured; beard and head hairblack; his growthaverage orless; in the shoulders thoughwide, but in the lower back very muchthin - the reader mentally distinguishes each of the highlighted words from a possible antonym. This is where the systemic connections of words in vocabulary are manifested.
- See: Pavlovich N.V. Semantics of oxymoron // Linguistics and poetics. - M., 1979. - P. 238 et seq.
- See: Problems of artistic speech. Lexicology and lexicography. - M., 1981. - P. 71 ff.
Synonymy. Its stylistic functions.
1) The concept of synonymy.
2) Lexical synonymy and its varieties.
3) Stylistic function of synonyms.
4) The concept of antonymy.
5) Types of antonyms by structure and synonymous essence.
6) Stylistic function of antonyms.
Synonymy is the same name. This is a type of semantic relationship between linguistic units consisting of complete or partial coincidence of their meanings. Synonymy can be lexical, phraseological, or grammatical.
Phraseological synonymy: a drop in the sea - not enough; nothing at all, the cat cried.
Word-formation synonymy: Not and without;
Morphological synonymy: the smartest - the most intelligent. Sing - start singing, a glass of tea - a glass of tea.
Syntactic: he wrote this book - this book was written by him. I met a girl who lives across the street - I met a girl who lives across the street.
SYNONYMY – AN OPPORTUNITY TO DISCOVER THE STRANGER.
I deposited money into a bank account. I don't know anything about you.
The suit is cheap, but good.
Synonyms are lexical units that belong to the same part of speech and coincide in their meaning partially or completely.
Absolute synonyms are no different.
Synonyms are divided into semantic (or ideographic) and conceptual (they highlight different aspects of the designated object). Meek, gentle, submissive, meek. They may indicate a different symptom. Break, destroy, crush.
Stylistic synonyms – giving different evaluative characteristics of the designated object. Face, face.
Semantic-stylistic. Walk, trudge.
By structure:
1) Different roots. Young - young. Joyful, cheerful, happy.
2) Single-rooted. Scold - scold. Title - title.
According to their structure, they can be expressed both in words and in phrases. Hit - strike. To win is to win. Synonyms may differ in the degree of compatibility. Black paste, black horse. Brown pencil, brown eyes.
Stylistic synonyms may differ in their belonging to one or another style of speech. Steal, abduct, steal, steal.
Area of use: dollar, buck. Rooster crows. Goalkeeper, goalkeeper.
From the point of view of relation to modern language: eye, eye.
Two or more synonyms form a certain group - a paradigm, a synonymous series. This series contains a word that is stylistically neutral and semantically the most capacious. This word is called dominant. Fight, battle, battle, skirmish, battle, battle.
Synonyms form a group in language.
2 or more synonyms form a certain group in a language: a paradigm called a synonymous series. This series contains 2 words that are stylistically neutral and semantically the most capacious.
This word is called dominant. For example: fight, battle, battle, grip, battle, slash. FIGHT - domain. Face, countenance, physiognomy, muzzle, muzzle. Verb: to excite, excite,
Stylistic function of synonyms:
1. Substitution
2. Clarification
Substitution is usually replaced when the parts come one after another, and a complete absolute synonym is good here.
Clarification consists of revealing the properties of an object by indicating a variety of features. The clarification function is implemented in one sentence or in a contact arrangement of words.
Dear Sir: poverty is not a vice, it is true. But poverty is a vice; in poverty you still retain feelings.
ANTONYMY - anti from Greek. Against is a type of semantic expressions of lexical units that have opposite meanings. Only correlatives can be contrasted, i.e. words that are in only one lexical paradigm. Words denoting logically compatible concepts, their comparison is based on the same common essential feature: white - black, smart - stupid, right from left, north - south, east - west. Antonyms can reveal gradual appositions, in which there are intermediate concepts between sharply opposed concepts: young, middle-aged, elderly, old. Easy, medium difficulty, hard. Dry, wet, wet.
Another group of antonyms of 2 words: walled false, together vros, clean dirty.
In terms of structure, antonyms can be of different roots: good-bad, white - black, beginning - end.
The same roots: gifted - mediocre, enter - exit, wrap - unfold, fly in - fly away. In single-root antonyms they are conditioned by prefixes. Cognate antonyms and adjective ontonyms are often formed by adding foreign language prefixes: harmony - disharmony, mobilization - demobilization, information - disinformation, logical - illogical.
A special, unproductive variety of antonyms are represented by antonyms: enantiosemes, in which the meaning of the opposite is expressed intra-wordly, i.e. one word combines 2 opposite meanings: borrow (lend and borrow), slip of the tongue (make a slip and make a mistake)
Antonyms emwphynisms (from the Greek. I speak well) are words expressing opposite meanings, expressing softly, not categorically, formed with the prefix NOT: evil - not evil, always - not always.
Among the different root antonyms, the antonyms conversive are distinguished - (conversio from the Latin. Change): Peter buys a house from Sergei, Sergei sells the house to Peter. Antonyms form pairs, but sometimes they also form series when they have gradation. ANTONYMOUS PAIRS: black - white.
STYLESTIC FUNCTION OF ANTONYMS,
An antithesis figure has been constructed: proverbs: talk less, do more. Knowledge exalts, ignorance depresses. Aphorisms: both lordly anger and lordly love, Antitheses: war and peace, Days and nights.
Oxymoron (from the Greek: wittily stupid) is a stylistic figure consisting of a combination of 2 concepts: a living corpse, hot snow, optimistic tragedy, rich and poor, ringing silence, bitter sugar, bitter joy, cold heat.
Antiphrasis is a stylistic device based on the use of sorva in the opposite sense: you are losing your head from the smart cola (addressing a donkey), used in information. Debt payment is black. They came together, a wave and a stone.
VOCABULARY FROM THE POINT OF ORIGIN
1. The main ways of forming Russian vocabulary
2. Initial vocabulary
3. Borrowed vocabulary
3.1 vocabulary from Slavic languages
3.2 vocabulary not from Slavic languages
4. Mastering borrowed vocabulary.
Indo-European:
1. Non-Slavic
2. Slavic - East Slavic (Russian. Ukrainian. Belarus.) - Russian
Original Russian vocabulary: Indo-European - Common Slavic - Eastern - Proper Russian.
2. paragraph Initial vocabulary formed:
Indo-European words are those that we can find in various languages and the Indo-European group (mother, father, daughter, wolf, meat, take, lead, etc.)
Common Slavic words until the 7th century: (oak, linden, spruce, ugly, ripen, rooster, sparrow, angry, affectionate, okay)
East Slavic or Old Russian 7-12 centuries: (Russian Belarusian, Ukrainian) (blond, selfless, ramble, uncle, get dirty, nephew, today, after, now.)
Actually Russians: (Jam, cabbage rolls, blizzard, bad weather, ice breaker, racer, stone mason, pilot)
Borrowed vocabulary is divided into 2 groups: borrowing from Slovenian and non-Slovenian.
Influenced by the Old Church Slavonic language (Old Bulgarian)
Since the 11th century, Old Church Slavonic was used in Rus' as a written literary language intended for the translation of Greek church books and for the spread of Christianity in Rus'.
The ancient Bulgarian enlighteners Cyril and Mythodius introduced elements of Greek Byzantine culture into it.
Old Slavonicisms are easy to recognize. Distinctive features of Old Slavonicism:
Phonetic, morpholongical and semantic.
Phonetic:
1. Half-eyed - there is a combination la ra re le, in place of Russians roo olo barely ele.:
(Ere - tree) (breg - shore, zloto - gold, captivity - full)
2. Initial ra la, ro lo (rook)
3. Old Slavonic (edin - one, ezero - lake)
4. At the root before solid acc. In place of the Russian ё (sky - palate, finger - thimble)
5. The combination of railway in place of the Russian railway (walking - walking, hope - more reliable, clothes - clothes, ignoramus - Old Slavonic ignoramus)
6. Yu na u (Urodivy ugly0
7. (Lamb lamb)
8. Shch in place of the Russian Ch (lighting)
Morphological features of Old Church Slavonic words:
1. Prefix on zs to overthrow, bottom, excessive,
2. Pre pre: despise, deliberately.
3. Suphexes tv sni ni (battle, creation)
4. Roots good, god, good, evil, sacrifice
Semantic (church vocabulary):
To drag - to drag, gates, doe - palms, burden.
3.2 borrowing from non-Slavic yahyks
The earliest - from Finnish (Lari, herring, sturgeon, dumplings)
Names: (Oleg, Igor, Olga)
Ship, sail,
Hell angel, icon, choir.
Churkisms: a large number of words, synharmonism is the repetition of the same vowel (sundress, cockroach, drum, Armenians, noodles, chest)
Latinisms came to us through Polish (characteristic features - suffixes ent, tor, um, us, tsyya) compliment, doctor, forum, graduate school, degree, lecture.
Industry, factory, mine, Leninism, mathematics, hepotiza)
The source is Latin, French, Danish, etc.)
Franz. Borrowings from the late 18th to early 19th centuries.
Signs characteristic of borrowing from different European languages: sports, political vocabulary.
German: mine, vykhta (features - combinations of two dull sounds sht-ft-shp
English: grade, tennis, football, boxing, finish - (political) (finish, boycott, doping) stress on the 1st syllable. Emphasis on the first word.
French: suffix already: turn, garage, trackage, blackmail, landscape. Sufmks yon (broth, medallion)
Sidewalk, airplane, boudoir, BOUDOIR. Toilet. The combination of mu byu (bulletin nuance) stressed endings at the end of the word. (Blinds, muffler, bureau, balance, nuance) Interior, fashion designer, driver. Unstressed suffix er (killer, broker - this is English) (coachman - German)
Musical classical termenology from Italian (tener, sonata)
Ballet termenology from French.
Americanism (broker, dealer, realtor, audit, leasing, dumping)
Computer termenology (fire, server, internet)
One of the types of borrowing is tracing; it does not promote change. There are 2 types: word-forming and semantic:
Translation of each of the parts (orthos + graphos) (business + men) (business + woman) (bio + graphos)
Uberman (superman) (public relations - public communications)
Semantic tracing paper (just the meaning of the word (that (tach) - touch)
Mastering borrowed vocabulary
Semantic functions:
A) contrast(you are rich - I am very poor)
b) weakened opposition - juxtaposition(small fire and great blood)
V) separation-mutual exclusion(is it harmful or beneficial)
G) alternation, sequence of facts(sometimes separately, sometimes together)
d) coverage of the entire class of subjects(both top and bottom - all notes are good)
e) transformation of one opposite into another, combination(how many little thoughts are in it)
and) connection, addition(partings and meetings - what made up happiness)
h) to express figurative comparison or evaluation(not so much unites as separates).
Stylistic functions(in figures of speech):
1) Antithesis- opposition of sharply contrasting concepts, can be expressed by contextual, speech, authorial antonymy (we hate and love by chance)
2) Oxymoron- in one context two mutually exclusive concepts (living corpse)
3) Irony- the use of words with the opposite meaning for the purpose of ridicule (where are you getting your smart head from).
Conversion (Latin “conversion”, “adjustment”) is a method of word formation, the formation of a new word by moving the base to another paradigm of inflection. Usually the resulting lexeme belongs to a different part of speech. Conversion is the most common method of word formation in languages where many morphemes are null, such as English or Chinese. For example, from English. bet “to bet” is English. bet "bet". This understanding of conversion (as an exclusively word-formation process) was proposed, for example, by A. I. Smirnitsky.
Conversion- inverse relationships of words in the original and derived statements.
Grammatical conversion- active and passive voice. Lexical conversion expressed in different words (sell - buy). Conversion implies:
1) two-sidedness, change of subject-object
2) different directions of one action
3) the presence of direct and reverse role structures
4) have the same subject correlation (one denotation)
5) the same situation is indicated from different points of view.
6) different significative meanings that negate each other (differential semes are incompatible)
Types conversions:
1) Structural (which part of speech is expressed)
a) verbs (sell - buy)
c) adjectives (younger - older)
d) adverbs (right - left)
e) prepositions (before - after)
f) phraseological units (on the verge of death - death stares you in the face)
Semantic (cause-and-effect relationships)
a) transfer (give - take)
b) acquisition / loss (used up - ran out)
d) filling the volume (included - contains)
3) Converts in themselves- conversion without a pair, suggesting a change of subject-object (co-author, be friends, quarrel).
Functions conversions:
1) Semantic and constructive element of the formation of equivalent statements.
2) Select one of the mutually inverse words
3) determination of the actual semantic division of the sentence (topic - rheme).
Vocabulary of the Russian language from the viewpoint. its origin, active and passive stock, sphere of its use, stylistic differentiation.
Principles of classification of the vocabulary of a language.
The words that form the vocabulary of the Russian language differ from each other:
1 .origin– originally Russian and borrowed (from Staroslav, etc.)
2. by degree of usage– active and passive vocabulary (1 – regularly and often reproduced, 2 – outdated and new – historicisms, archaisms, neologisms).
3 . by area of use– commonly used and limited territorially (dialectisms), professionally (terms and professionalisms), and socially (jargonisms).
4. stylistically characteristics - neutral (inter-style) and stylistically marked high, official, scientific - book speech, colloquial and colloquial - oral speech.
The concept of original Russian vocabulary. Layers of original Russian vocabulary.
The main source of replenishment is the database of Russian roots and affixes. More than 90% are original Russian words. Several historical layers:
1. The most ancient - pan-Indo-European- from it to Proto-Slavic, then Old Russian, then to Russian. (kinship - mother, daughter, son, animals - goat, wolf, trees - oak, birch, substances - salt, coal, relief and nature - coast, water, moon). Etymologically common correspondences in different Indo-European languages.
2. Proto-Slavic(common Slavic - up to 6 in AD), - in different Slavic languages the number of words is from 1500 to 2000. We have fossils - gold, silver, clay, animals - deer, fox, crow, body parts - head, hand, forehead, finger , side, relief - earth, pit, field, ford, time of day and year - day, night, tomorrow, summer, month, nature - wind, cloud, snow, frost, sun, plants - linden, poplar, apple tree, pumpkin, mushroom, family relationships - grandfather, father-in-law, slave, guest, tribe, king, ambassador, court, guards, abstract - faith, fear, will, shame, sin, punishment, god, freedom, strength, adjectives - stupid, stingy, cute , numerals – one, two, three, seven, one hundred, etc.
3. Old Russian- common East Slavic (from the 6th to the 14th-15th centuries), unknown to the southern and western Slavs - completely, jackdaw, talker, bullfinch, ice.
4. Actually Russians– (after 14-15 centuries). known among other Slavs only as Russian borrowings. Most are on their own Slavic base, but there are some on a foreign language base - lace, magazine, flirt, start, bass. (they belong to the Russians proper, because they are formed according to Russian word-formation models and with the help of Russian word-formation means).
a) Almost all nouns with the suffixes – shchik – ovshchik – lshchik – telstvo – sha.
b) Nouns from prefixed verbs using the affix-free method (running, clamping),
c) nouns with the suffix -tel with the meaning of an active object (fuse), - awn from adj (nationality), -teln (capacity),
d) adjectives with the suffix –chat, -chiv (checkered, intrusive).
e) Adverbs such as motherly, autumnally,
f) participial formations in –e – triumphantly,
g) compound nouns and many compound adjectives
It is the Russian formations themselves that determine the specifics of the vocabulary of the Russian language and serve as the basis and main source of development.
Borrowed words.
As a result of economic, political and cultural ties with other peoples, various vocabulary was borrowed. Borrowed words can displace native Russian names, or be used along with them, becoming synonyms (export-import, import and export). The sources of borrowings were Slavic(Polish, Czech, etc.) and non-Slavic(Greek, Latin, French, German, Italian. English, Turkic) languages.
1. From Polish Mostly everyday vocabulary was borrowed (jacket, suede, stroller, cap), Latinisms (coin, public), German and Italian words (fair, ground, thing) were borrowed through it.
2. From Ukrainian bagel, borscht, hopak, shkolyar, grain-grower are borrowed from the language.
3. From Czech– refugee, Polish, robot.
When moving into another language, words adapt to the phonetic structure and morphological system of the borrowing language and undergo lexico-semantic transformation:
1. Phonetic transformations– replacing foreign sounds with sounds of the borrowing language that are similar in quality.
2. Morphological transformations– assignment to a specific part of speech, distribution according to word-formation types, obtaining appropriate grammatical formatting. (Grecisms -os, -on: bishop, idol, Latinisms -us, -um: muscle, decree); (la sorte f.r. – sort of m.r.).
3. Lexico-semantic transformation- (change in the volume of the word (narrowing) - powder in French - powder, powder, gunpowder, dust, sand. And in Russian - only powder). rethinking of the word (barn - palace), the emergence of a new secondary meaning for borrowings. words (vinaigrette)
In the popular language there is a tendency to attach borrowed words to words that are consonant with one’s own words and to rethink them in this circle - folk etymology, false etymology(trenchers). Folk etymology is used in YHL for stylistic purposes.
The degree of development varies: 1. assimilated– firmly included in the lexical system of the Russian language and are perceived as originally belonging to it (pencil, soup) 2. Exotic words (exoticisms)– reflecting phenomena of life and everyday life of other peoples (mademoiselle, satsivi, dollar). 3. Barbarisms– foreign words that are not fully mastered by the borrowing language, due to difficulties in grammatical mastery, often add a humorous or ironic tone to the text (chew chuingam, drink juice).
The concept of stylistics. Subject and tasks of practical stylistics.
Stylistics is a branch of linguistics that studies the expressive means of language and the patterns of use of these means in various fields of society. activities and in various communication situations.
The object of stylistics is language. The subject of stylistics is the way they speak.
The main task of stylistics is the study and description of functional styles, features and stylistic properties of individual linguistic units, which unite them (within the general language system) into private, functionally homogeneous subsystems.
The concept of functional styles
Functional style is a historically established and socially conscious variety of a literary language (its subsystem), functioning in a certain sphere of human activity and communication, created by the peculiarities of the use of linguistic means in this sphere and their specific organization
Speech errors in the text (tautology, pleonasm, contamination).
Pleonasm– the use of words that are close in meaning and therefore unnecessary (the month of May);
Tautology– use of cognate words;
Contamination– out of 2 correct statements, one or 2 are incorrect (play a role - matter)
Multiple meaning words. Homonyms.
Homonymy - i.e. coincidence in the sound and spelling of words that have different meanings;
Polysemy is the use of a word in different meanings.
Stylistic functions of synonyms and antonyms. Stylistic differentiation of paronyms.
Synonyms- words of the same part of speech, different in sound and spelling, but having the same or very similar lexical meaning.
Stylistic synonyms- This words that are used in different styles but have the same meaning. The most striking illustration is the group mug - face - countenance. Word " erysipelas"obviously colloquial, which has many not very intelligent vernacular options. Word " face» neutral: He has a “pass” to all styles. Word " face» bookish: most likely we will encounter it in a work of art in the case of stylization or a deliberately elevated attitude towards any of the characters.
Antonyms- these are words of the same part of speech, different in sound and spelling, having directly opposite lexical meanings: truth - lie, good - evil, speak - remain silent.
The main stylistic function of antonyms– to be a lexical means of opposition, contrasting depiction of natural and social phenomena, character traits, etc. Contrast as a stylistic device is widely used in colloquial and everyday phraseological units, proverbs and sayings. The semantic capacity and imagery of folk sayings is often created by antonyms. For example: neither alive nor dead, neither back nor forth, neither hot nor cold; Learning is light and ignorance is darkness; what you came with is what you left with.
Synonyms- words that are different in spelling, but close or identical in meaning, expressing the same concept, but differing in shades of meaning or stylistic coloring. Synonyms are divided into three groups:
1)semantic, which differ in shades of meaning ( red, scarlet, crimson);
2)stylistic, which differ in stylistic coloring
Differ in terms of belonging to different styles ( young– conversational style, newlyweds– formal business style);
They differ in the sphere of use, attitude to the literary language ( talk– literary, drone- dialectal);
Different in terms of attitude towards active and passive vocabulary; usually one of the synonyms is outdated ( actor - performer, eyes - eyes);
They are distinguished by their emotional and expressive coloring ( outwit– neutral, throw- emotional);
Euphemisms serve to designate those words that seem undesirable to the author ( blow your nose - clean your nose with a tissue);
3)semantic-stylistic, which differ in both shades of meaning and stylistic coloring ( work– liter., work- books, work hard- colloquial).
In addition to different-rooted synonyms, there are single-root (single-root) synonyms that differ from each other either in stylistic coloring or compatibility ( fight - fight, fisherman - fisherman). Word variants that differ in pronunciation, spelling or morphological features do not qualify as synonyms (spelling variants: TV O horn - creation O G; spelling options: kinetic – kinesic; morphological: rail - rail). They stand apart identical synonyms, identical in meaning and stylistic coloring. These are, as a rule, words of different origin, but denoting the same concept ( linguistics - linguistics). There are not only lexical synonyms, but also syntactic ones (walked by the shore - walked along the shore; linen towel - towel made of flax; when she walked along the street - walking along the street, she ...).
In speech, synonyms perform various functions, the main ones being the following:
1) the function of the most accurate expression of thought ( The sun was shining, the grass was shining in the diamonds of the rain, and the river was sparkling gold.);
2) clarification function - in one context synonyms are used that complement each other ( He seemed lost, as if he was afraid);
3) clarification function - synonyms explain words that may not be clear to the reader: borrowings, dialectisms, professionalisms ( Anarchy, or mayhem, has begun);
4) comparison function - synonyms indicate differences in semantics ( Invite a doctor and call a paramedic; The boss is not late, he is delayed);
5) opposition function ( He did not walk, but dragged along, without lifting his feet from the ground.);
6) substitution function - synonyms help avoid repetition of words ( Construction has been completed, construction work has also been completed);
7) strengthening function - stringing synonyms serves to strengthen the attribute, action ( It will either go out, or go out, or not light up at all.). If each subsequent synonym strengthens the previous one, a gradation is created (My comrades burned in the tanks: to ashes, to ashes, to the ground).
8) the function of a means of connecting sentences in the text.
Antonyms- words with opposite meanings. They are single-rooted ( entered - left) and multi-rooted ( kind angry). A special type of antonyms is enantiosemy. This is antonymy within a polysemantic word, when different meanings of a given word enter into antonymous connections ( priceless - no price (very expensive) and worth nothing (cheap)).
Functions of antonyms
1) lexical means of expressing antithesis ( The powerful are always to blame for the powerless);
2) can be used in a sentence with negation ( In the chaise sat a gentleman, not handsome, but not bad-looking either, not too fat, not too thin). This technique emphasizes the mediocrity of what is being described, the absence of bright features and characteristics in it.
3) the use of one of the members of the antonymic pair with negation ( The world has not aged - it has become younger). Such a combination of antonyms enhances and emphasizes the meaning of the antonym that is given without negation.
4) puns are built on the basis of antonyms ( It was so late that it was already early; The young woman was not young);
5)antonyms are the basis of the oxymoron ( living corpse, hot snow);
6) antonyms are the basis of antiphrases. Antiphrasis– this is the use of a word in the opposite meaning, i.e. the author, in order to create a comic effect, uses one of the members of the antonymic pair, although in terms of meaning it is necessary to use the other ( Then the process proceeded with extraordinary speed, for which our courts are so famous.).
7) help writers show the completeness of coverage of the phenomenon ( Everything has passed, both happiness and sorrow);
8) can reflect the alternation of actions ( Let's make up and quarrel);
9) may indicate a quick change of action ( Lightning flashed in the distance, flared up and went out)
10) act as a means of communication of proposals ( Every time has its own cruelty. Kindness is one for all time).
Homonyms- words that are the same in sound, spelling or in some grammatical form, but have completely different meanings. There are lexical homonyms, homophones, homographs, homoforms. Lexical homonyms- words that have the same sound and spelling, but have nothing in common in semantics ( braid, bank). Homophones- words that sound the same but are spelled differently ( lu G– lu To ). Homographs- words that are spelled the same but pronounced differently A mok - deputy O To). Omoforms– words that coincide only in a certain grammatical form ( in a bank – glass jar and savings bank).
Functions of homonyms:
1. The use of homonyms in one phrase emphasizes the meaning of consonant words and thereby gives expression to speech (The world needs peace).
2. Puns are made on homonyms (The tram was a battlefield).
Archaisms have very significant expressive capabilities. Archaisms along with historicisms, they are considered obsolete words and are divided into several types (see table):
In the text, archaisms perform the following stylistic functions: they recreate the flavor of the era; give speech a solemn, sublime sound; create a comic effect; contribute to the authenticity of the speech characteristics of the characters.
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