The standard heat of formation (enthalpy of formation) of a substance is called the enthalpy of the reaction of formation of 1 mole of this substance from elements (simple substances, that is, consisting of atoms of the same type) that are in the most stable standard state. Standard enthalpies of formation of substances (kJ/mol) are given in reference books. When using reference values, it is necessary to pay attention to the phase state of the substances participating in the reaction. The enthalpy of formation of the most stable simple substances is 0.
Corollary from Hess's law on calculating the thermal effects of chemical reactions based on the heats of formation : standard the thermal effect of a chemical reaction is equal to the difference between the heats of formation of the reaction products and the heats of formation of the starting substances, taking into account the stoichiometric coefficients (number of moles) of the reactants:
CH 4 + 2 CO = 3 C ( graphite ) + 2H 2 O.
gas gas tv. gas
The heats of formation of substances in the indicated phase states are given in table. 1.2.
Table 1.2
Heat of formation of substances
Solution
Since the reaction takes place at P= const, then we find the standard thermal effect in the form of a change in enthalpy based on the known heats of formation as a consequence of Hess’s law (formula (1.17):
ΔH O 298 = ( 2 (–241.81) + 3 0) – (–74.85 + 2 (–110.53)) = –187.71 kJ = –187710 J.
ΔH O 298 < 0, реакция является экзотермической, протекает с выделением теплоты.
We find the change in internal energy based on equation (1.16):
ΔU O 298 = ΔH O 298 – Δ ν RT.
For a given reaction, changes in the number of moles of gaseous substances due to the passage of a chemical reaction Δν = 2 – (1 + 2) = –1; T= 298 K, then
Δ U O 298 = –187710 – (–1) · 8.314 · 298 = –185232 J.
Calculation of standard thermal effects of chemical reactions using standard heats of combustion of substances participating in the reaction
The standard heat of combustion (enthalpy of combustion) of a substance
is the thermal effect of the complete oxidation of 1 mole of a given substance (to higher oxides or specially indicated compounds) with oxygen, provided that the initial and final substances have a standard temperature. Standard enthalpies of combustion of substances 
(kJ/mol) are given in reference books. When using a reference value, it is necessary to pay attention to the sign of the enthalpy of the combustion reaction, which is always exothermic ( Δ
H
<0), а в таблицах указаны величины
.
The enthalpy of combustion of higher oxides (for example, water and carbon dioxide) is 0.
Corollary from Hess's law on calculating the thermal effects of chemical reactions based on the heat of combustion : the standard thermal effect of a chemical reaction is equal to the difference between the heats of combustion of the starting substances and the heats of combustion of the reaction products, taking into account the stoichiometric coefficients (number of moles) of the reactants:
C 2 H 4 + H 2 O= C 2 N 5 HE.
Ulla-Maia Kulonen, professor
Finno-Ugric Department of the University of Helsinki
Finnish is part of the group of Baltic-Finnish languages belonging to the Finno-Ugric or Uralic family of languages. Finnish is the most widely spoken language in this group. It is followed by Estonian. The Baltic-Finnish group belongs to the westernmost branches of the Finno-Ugric language family; Only the Sami languages extend further west in central and northern Norway. In the east, the Finno-Ugric family of languages reaches the Yenisei and the Taimyr Peninsula, in the south it is represented by the Hungarians.
Modern Finno-Ugric languages and territories of their distribution
The languages belonging to the Finno-Ugric family are spoken by a total of about 23 million people. But many of these languages, with the exception of Finnish, Estonian and Hungarian, are the languages of national minorities of the Russian Federation and are on the verge of extinction. The territory of Russia is also limited to the Karelian, Vepsian, Ludyk languages, remnants of the Izhorian dialects and the Votic language (all of them belong to the Baltic-Finnish group). Although Karelians have their own republic, part of the Russian Federation, they make up only 10 percent of the population of Karelia, and a significant part of Karelians live outside the republic, in the Tver region. The creation of a unified Karelian written language has until now been significantly complicated by the division of the language into several dialects that are very different from each other. When creating a literary language, many Uralic languages face the same problem.
So, the Baltic-Finnish language group includes seven languages, but the most widespread and therefore the most viable are only Finnish and Estonian. These languages are close relatives, and a little training is enough for, for example, a Finn and an Estonian to learn to understand each other to some extent, although to a Finn the Estonian language at first seems simply incomprehensible. These two languages are not as close to each other as, for example, Scandinavian languages. But still, this group consists of successors to languages that are more or less close to each other.
The group of Sami languages constitutes a single geographical and linguistic whole. In the coastal zone (100-200 km wide), their distribution area extends from the North Sea coast in central Norway to the east of the Kola Peninsula. Consequently, the Sami live in four countries: Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Russia. There are ten Sami languages in total. The largest number of speakers is Northern Sami, widespread in the territories of all three Scandinavian countries. There is, in essence, only one clear boundary between the Sami languages, dividing the Sami languages into Western and Eastern. Apart from this dividing line, the languages of adjacent territories are close to each other and allow neighbors to understand each other.
It is impossible to indicate the exact number of Sami, since the definition of Sami differs in different countries. Estimates range from 50,000 to 80,000 people. Most of them live in Norway, the least in Russia (about 4,000 people, among whom there are only about 1,500 native Sami speakers). Many small Sami languages are on the verge of extinction (Ume and Pite in Sweden, Babinsky in Russia).
In central Russia, three main groups of Finno-Ugric languages can be distinguished: Mari, Mordovian and a group of Permian languages. Mari is divided into three main dialects, which can also be considered separate languages. It was not possible to create a single written language for them. There are two Mordovian languages: Erzya and Moksha, with a total of about a million speakers. Thus, after the Finns and Hungarians, the Mordovians constitute the third largest linguistic group: almost the same as the Estonian one. Erzya and Moksha have their own written language. There are three Perm languages: Komi-Zyryan, Komi-Permyak and Udmurt.
Mordovians, Mari, Komi and Udmurts have their own republics, but they live in them as national minorities. Two-thirds of the inhabitants of the Mordovian Republic are representatives of other nationalities, primarily Russians and Tatars. The bulk of the Mordovians live on a vast territory east of their republic, right up to the Urals. There are only about 670,000 Mari people, half of whom live in the Mari-El Republic. The largest single group of Mari outside the republic (106,000 people) lives in the east, in Bashkiria. Only 500,000 people out of one and a half million residents of Udmurtia are ethnic Udmurts. Another quarter of the representatives of this ethnic group live outside the republic, primarily in the neighboring Kirov and Perm regions, as well as in the Tatar and Bashkir republics.
Based on both linguistic and cultural characteristics, the Komi can be divided into two groups: the Komi-Zyryans and the Komi-Permyaks, each of which has its own territory: the Komi-Zyryans - the Komi Republic, which exceeds the territory of Finland by about a third, and the Komi-Permyaks - national district on the southern outskirts of the Republic
Komi. The total number of Komi is approximately half a million people, including 150,000 Komi-Permyaks. About 70% of both population groups speak their native language.
If linguistically the group of Ugric languages is united, then geographically it is very scattered. The linguistic connection of Hungarian with the Ob-Ugric languages, whose speakers live in Siberia, was often considered (and continues to be considered) doubtful, but on the basis of facts relating purely to the history of the language, it is possible to identify the indisputable relationship of these languages. The Ugric group includes, in addition to Hungarian, the Ob-Ugric languages - Khanty and Mansi, whose speakers live over a vast territory in western Siberia along the Ob River and its tributaries. There are a total of less than 30,000 Khanty and Mansi people, of whom less than half speak their native language. The geographical distance of these languages from each other is explained by the fact that the Hungarians, during the migration of peoples, went south and found themselves far from their ancient habitats, located in the Urals. The Ob Ugrians, in turn, apparently settled relatively late in the vast taiga territories of the north, and the northernmost Khanty reached the tundra, where they mastered reindeer husbandry, taking it over from the Samoyeds, who had long lived there. The Khanty and Mansi have their own national district, among the inhabitants of which the share of these original peoples is only a few percent.
Currently, the Samoyedic group includes four northern and one southern languages. Previously, there were more southern Samoyedic languages, but by the beginning of the last century they had mostly merged with the Turkic languages of Siberia. Currently, the southern Samoyeds are represented by only 1,500 Selkups living on the Yenisei east of the Khanty. The largest group of northern Samoyeds are the Nenets, who number about 30,000.
Common structural features and common vocabulary
So, the roots of the Finnish language go back to the so-called. Finno-Ugric proto-language, from which all the above-mentioned languages historically emerged. In favor of a common proto-language, first of all, the structural features of these languages, as well as their common basic vocabulary, speak.
In the structural features of the Finno-Ugric languages, a foreigner can easily recognize the peculiarities of the Finnish language: first of all, when words are declined, endings that have grammatical functions are added to them, while prepositions are not used, as, for example, in English and other Germanic languages. Let's give an example: autossa (auto-ssa) - “in the car”, autolla (auto-lla) - “by car”. The abundance of case endings in Finnish is often seen as a specific feature that unites Finnish and Hungarian; in Hungarian there are about twenty case endings, in Finnish - 15. Peculiarities of word modification include personal endings of verbs during conjugation, for example, tanssin (tanssi-n) - “I’m dancing”, tanssit (tanssi-t) - “you’re dancing”, hyang tanssi ( tansi-i) - “he/she is dancing”, as well as possessive suffixes derived from the same basic elements, for example autoni (auto-ni) - “my car”, autosi (auto-si) - “your car”, and , moreover, connected with case endings: autollani - “on my car”, autossasi - “in your car”. These features are common to all Finno-Ugric languages.
General vocabulary consists, first of all, of basic concepts related to man (including names of communities, relatives), the human body, basic functions, and the surrounding nature. Basic concepts also include root grammatical words such as pronouns, prepositions and postpositions expressing direction and location, as well as small numbers. Words associated with culture and crafts reflect the concepts of hunting, fishing and collecting the gifts of nature (for example, yousi - “bow”, nuoli - “arrow”, yanne - “string”; pato - “dam”, eimya - “needle”). The peculiarities of spiritual culture are embodied in the word noita, which means a shaman, although in modern Finnish it means “witch”.
Indo-European contacts: shared past and present
There are only about three hundred root words in the modern Finnish language that go back to the Finno-Ugric proto-language, but if we take into account their derivatives, the number of ancient vocabulary will increase many times. Many core vocabulary words came into Finnish from Indo-European language systems, which shows that Finnish and its predecessors were at all stages of development in contact with Indo-European languages. Some of the borrowed vocabulary is common to several Finno-Ugric languages, and the oldest established cases of borrowing can be attributed to the period of the Finno-Ugric and Indo-European proto-languages. The number of such words is small, and there are only a few reliable cases: perhaps the most indisputable is the word nimi - “name”. This layer of borrowed vocabulary also includes the words vesi – “water”, muudya – “sell”, nainen – “woman”. So, the oldest borrowed words date back to the period before the collapse of the Indo-European proto-language - probably in the first half of the fourth millennium BC.
Finno-Ugric languages are related to modern Finnish and Hungarian. The peoples who speak them make up the Finno-Ugric ethnolinguistic group. Their origin, territory of settlement, commonality and differences in external features, culture, religion and traditions are the subjects of global research in the field of history, anthropology, geography, linguistics and a number of other sciences. This review article will try to briefly cover this topic.
Peoples included in the Finno-Ugric ethnolinguistic group
Based on the degree of similarity of languages, researchers divide the Finno-Ugric peoples into five subgroups.
The basis of the first, Baltic-Finnish, are Finns and Estonians - peoples with their own states. They also live in Russia. Setu - a small group of Estonians - settled in the Pskov region. The most numerous of the Baltic-Finnish peoples of Russia are the Karelians. In everyday life they use three autochthonous dialects, while Finnish is considered their literary language. In addition, the same subgroup includes the Vepsians and Izhorians - small peoples who have preserved their languages, as well as the Vod (there are less than a hundred people left, their own language has been lost) and the Livs.
The second is the Sami (or Lapp) subgroup. The main part of the peoples who gave it its name are settled in Scandinavia. In Russia, the Sami live on the Kola Peninsula. Researchers suggest that in ancient times these peoples occupied a larger territory, but were subsequently pushed further north. At the same time, their own language was replaced by one of the Finnish dialects.
The third subgroup that makes up the Finno-Ugric peoples - the Volga-Finnish - includes the Mari and Mordovians. The Mari are the main part of Mari El; they also live in Bashkortostan, Tatarstan, Udmurtia and a number of other Russian regions. They have two literary languages (with which, however, not all researchers agree). Mordva - autochthonous population of the Republic of Mordovia; at the same time, a significant part of the Mordvins are settled throughout Russia. This people consists of two ethnographic groups, each with its own literary written language.
The fourth subgroup is called Permian. It also includes the Udmurts. Even before October 1917, in terms of literacy (though in Russian), the Komi were approaching the most educated peoples of Russia - Jews and Russian Germans. As for the Udmurts, their dialect has been preserved for the most part in the villages of the Udmurt Republic. Residents of cities, as a rule, forget both the indigenous language and customs.
The fifth, Ugric, subgroup includes the Hungarians, Khanty and Mansi. Although the lower reaches of the Ob and the northern Urals are separated by many kilometers from the Hungarian state on the Danube, these peoples are actually the closest relatives. The Khanty and Mansi belong to the small peoples of the North.
Disappeared Finno-Ugric tribes
The Finno-Ugric peoples also included tribes, mentions of which are currently preserved only in chronicles. Thus, the Merya people lived between the Volga and Oka rivers in the first millennium AD - there is a theory that they subsequently merged with the Eastern Slavs.
The same thing happened with Muroma. This is an even more ancient people of the Finno-Ugric ethno-linguistic group, who once inhabited the Oka basin.
The long-vanished Finnish tribes that lived along the Northern Dvina are called Chudya by researchers (according to one hypothesis, they were the ancestors of modern Estonians).
Commonality of languages and culture
Having declared the Finno-Ugric languages as a single group, researchers emphasize this commonality as the main factor uniting the peoples who speak them. However, the Ural ethnic groups, despite the similarity in the structure of their languages, still do not always understand each other. Thus, a Finn will certainly be able to communicate with an Estonian, an Erzyan with a Moksha, and an Udmurt with a Komi. However, the peoples of this group, geographically distant from each other, must make quite a lot of effort to identify common features in their languages that would help them conduct a conversation.
The linguistic kinship of the Finno-Ugric peoples is primarily traced in the similarity of linguistic constructions. This significantly influences the formation of the thinking and worldview of peoples. Despite the differences in cultures, this circumstance contributes to the emergence of mutual understanding between these ethnic groups.
At the same time, the peculiar psychology determined by the thought process in these languages enriches universal human culture with their unique vision of the world. Thus, unlike the Indo-Europeans, the representative of the Finno-Ugric people is inclined to treat nature with exceptional respect. Finno-Ugric culture also largely contributed to the desire of these peoples to peacefully adapt to their neighbors - as a rule, they preferred not to fight, but to migrate, preserving their identity.
Also, a characteristic feature of the peoples of this group is openness to ethnocultural exchange. In search of ways to strengthen relationships with related peoples, they maintain cultural contacts with all those who surround them. Basically, the Finno-Ugric people managed to preserve their languages and basic cultural elements. The connection with ethnic traditions in this area can be seen in their national songs, dances, music, traditional dishes, and clothing. Also, many elements of their ancient rituals have survived to this day: wedding, funeral, memorial.
Brief history of the Finno-Ugric peoples
The origin and early history of the Finno-Ugric peoples remain the subject of scientific debate to this day. The most common opinion among researchers is that in ancient times there was a single group of people who spoke a common Finno-Ugric proto-language. The ancestors of the current Finno-Ugric peoples until the end of the third millennium BC. e. maintained relative unity. They were settled in the Urals and the western Urals, and possibly also in some adjacent areas.
In that era, called Finno-Ugric, their tribes came into contact with the Indo-Iranians, which was reflected in myths and languages. Between the third and second millennia BC. e. The Ugric and Finno-Permian branches separated from each other. Among the peoples of the latter, who settled in a western direction, independent subgroups of languages gradually emerged and became distinct (Baltic-Finnish, Volga-Finnish, Permian). As a result of the transition of the autochthonous population of the Far North to one of the Finno-Ugric dialects, the Sami were formed.
The Ugric group of languages disintegrated by the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. The Baltic-Finnish division occurred at the beginning of our era. Perm lasted a little longer - until the eighth century. Contacts of Finno-Ugric tribes with Baltic, Iranian, Slavic, Turkic, and Germanic peoples played a major role in the separate development of these languages.
Settlement area
Finno-Ugric peoples today mainly live in Northwestern Europe. Geographically, they are settled over a vast territory from Scandinavia to the Urals, Volga-Kama, lower and middle Tobol region. The Hungarians are the only people of the Finno-Ugric ethno-linguistic group who formed their own state away from other related tribes - in the Carpathian-Danube region.
Number of Finno-Ugric peoples
The total number of peoples speaking Uralic languages (these include Finno-Ugric and Samoyed) is 23-24 million people. The most numerous representatives are Hungarians. There are more than 15 million of them in the world. They are followed by Finns and Estonians (5 and 1 million people, respectively). Most other Finno-Ugric ethnic groups live in modern Russia.
Finno-Ugric ethnic groups in Russia
Russian settlers flocked en masse to the lands of the Finno-Ugrians in the 16th-18th centuries. Most often, the process of their settlement in these areas occurred peacefully, but some indigenous peoples (for example, the Mari) for a long time and fiercely resisted the annexation of their region to the Russian state.
The Christian religion, writing, and urban culture, introduced by the Russians, over time began to displace local beliefs and dialects. People moved to cities, moved to Siberian and Altai lands - where Russian was the main and common language. However, he (especially his northern dialect) absorbed many Finno-Ugric words - this is most noticeable in the field of toponyms and names of natural phenomena.
In some places, the Finno-Ugric peoples of Russia mixed with the Turks, converting to Islam. However, a significant part of them were still assimilated by the Russians. Therefore, these peoples do not constitute a majority anywhere - even in those republics that bear their name.
However, according to the 2002 population census, there are very significant Finno-Ugric groups in Russia. These are the Mordovians (843 thousand people), Udmurts (almost 637 thousand), Mari (604 thousand), Komi-Zyryans (293 thousand), Komi-Permyaks (125 thousand), Karelians (93 thousand). The number of some peoples does not exceed thirty thousand people: Khanty, Mansi, Vepsians. The Izhorians number 327 people, and the Vod people number only 73 people. Hungarians, Finns, Estonians, and Sami also live in Russia.
Development of Finno-Ugric culture in Russia
In total, sixteen Finno-Ugric peoples live in Russia. Five of them have their own national-state entities, and two have national-territorial ones. Others are dispersed throughout the country.
In Russia, considerable attention is paid to the preservation of the original cultural traditions of those inhabiting it. At the national and local level, programs are being developed with the support of which the culture of the Finno-Ugric peoples, their customs and dialects is being studied.
Thus, Sami, Khanty, Mansi are taught in primary schools, and Komi, Mari, Udmurt, and Mordovian languages are taught in secondary schools in those regions where large groups of the corresponding ethnic groups live. There are special laws on culture and languages (Mari El, Komi). Thus, in the Republic of Karelia there is a law on education that enshrines the right of Vepsians and Karelians to study in their native language. The priority for the development of the cultural traditions of these peoples is determined by the Law on Culture.
Also, the republics of Mari El, Udmurtia, Komi, Mordovia, and the Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug have their own concepts and programs for national development. The Foundation for the Development of Cultures of the Finno-Ugric Peoples has been created and operates (on the territory of the Mari El Republic).
Finno-Ugric peoples: appearance
The ancestors of the current Finno-Ugrians were the result of a mixture of Paleo-European and Paleo-Asian tribes. Therefore, the appearance of all the peoples of this group contains both Caucasoid and Mongoloid features. Some scientists even put forward a theory about the existence of an independent race - the Ural, which is “intermediate” between Europeans and Asians, but this version has few supporters.
Finno-Ugrians are heterogeneous in anthropological terms. However, any representative of the Finno-Ugric people possesses characteristic “Ural” features to one degree or another. This is usually of average height, very light hair color, wide face, sparse beard. But these features manifest themselves in different ways. Thus, the Erzya Mordvins are tall, have blond hair and blue eyes. Mordvins-Moksha - on the contrary, are shorter, with wide cheekbones, and darker hair. The Udmurts and Mari often have characteristic “Mongolian” eyes with a special fold at the inner corner of the eye - epicanthus, very wide faces, and a thin beard. But at the same time, their hair, as a rule, is blond and red, and their eyes are blue or gray, which is typical for Europeans, but not Mongoloids. The “Mongolian fold” is also found among the Izhorians, Vodians, Karelians and even Estonians. Komi people look different. Where there are mixed marriages with the Nenets, representatives of this people have braided hair and black hair. Other Komi, on the contrary, are more like Scandinavians, but have wider faces.
Finno-Ugric traditional cuisine in Russia
Most of the dishes of traditional Finno-Ugric and Trans-Ural cuisines, in fact, have not been preserved or have been significantly distorted. However, ethnographers manage to trace some general patterns.
The main food product of the Finno-Ugrians was fish. It was not only processed in different ways (fried, dried, boiled, fermented, dried, eaten raw), but each type was also prepared in its own way, which would better convey the taste.
Before the advent of firearms, the main method of hunting in the forest was snares. They caught mainly forest birds (grouse, wood grouse) and small animals, mainly hares. Meat and poultry were stewed, boiled and baked, and much less often, fried.
For vegetables they used turnips and radishes, and for herbs - watercress, hogweed, horseradish, onions, and young mushrooms growing in the forest. Western Finno-Ugric peoples practically did not consume mushrooms; at the same time, for the eastern ones they constituted a significant part of the diet. The oldest types of grain known to these peoples are barley and wheat (spelt). They were used to prepare porridges, hot jelly, and also as a filling for homemade sausages.
The modern culinary repertoire of the Finno-Ugric people contains very few national traits, since it has been strongly influenced by Russian, Bashkir, Tatar, Chuvash and other cuisines. However, almost every nation has preserved one or two traditional, ritual or festive dishes that have survived to this day. Taken together, they allow us to get a general idea of Finno-Ugric cooking.
Finno-Ugric peoples: religion
Most Finno-Ugrians profess the Christian faith. Finns, Estonians and Western Sami are Lutherans. Catholics predominate among Hungarians, although you can also meet Calvinists and Lutherans.
Finno-Ugrians living in are predominantly Orthodox Christians. However, the Udmurts and Mari in some places managed to preserve the ancient (animistic) religion, and the Samoyed peoples and inhabitants of Siberia - shamanism.
Looking at the geographical map of Russia, you can see that in the basins of the Middle Volga and Kama river names ending in “va” and “ga” are common: Sosva, Izva, Kokshaga, Vetluga, etc. Finno-Ugrians live in those places, and translated from their languages "va" And "ha" mean "river", "moisture", "wet place", "water". However, Finno-Ugric toponyms{1 ) are found not only where these peoples make up a significant part of the population, form republics and national districts. Their distribution area is much wider: it covers the European north of Russia and part of the central regions. There are many examples: the ancient Russian cities of Kostroma and Murom; the Yakhroma and Iksha rivers in the Moscow region; Verkola village in Arkhangelsk, etc.
Some researchers consider even such familiar words as “Moscow” and “Ryazan” to be Finno-Ugric in origin. Scientists believe that Finno-Ugric tribes once lived in these places, and now the memory of them is preserved by ancient names.
{1 } Toponym (from the Greek “topos” - “place” and “onima” - “name”) is a geographical name.
WHO ARE THE FINNO-UGRICS
Finns called people inhabiting Finland, neighboring Russia(in Finnish " Suomi "), A Ugrians in ancient Russian chronicles they were called Hungarians. But in Russia there are no Hungarians and very few Finns, but there are peoples speaking languages related to Finnish or Hungarian . These peoples are called Finno-Ugric . Depending on the degree of similarity of languages, scientists divide Finno-Ugric peoples into five subgroups . Firstly, Baltic-Finnish , included Finns, Izhorians, Vodians, Vepsians, Karelians, Estonians and Livonians. The two most numerous peoples of this subgroup are Finns and Estonians- live mainly outside our country. In Russia Finns can be found in Karelia, Leningrad region and St. Petersburg;Estonians - V Siberia, Volga region and Leningrad region. A small group of Estonians - setu - lives in Pechora district of Pskov region. By religion, many Finns and Estonians - Protestants (usually, Lutherans), setu - Orthodox . Little people Vepsians lives in small groups in Karelia, Leningrad region and in the north-west of Vologda, A water (there are less than 100 people left!) - in Leningradskaya. AND Veps and Vod - Orthodox . Orthodoxy is professed and Izhorians . There are 449 of them in Russia (in the Leningrad region), and about the same number in Estonia. Vepsians and Izhorians have preserved their languages (they even have dialects) and use them in everyday communication. The Votic language has disappeared.
The biggest Baltic-Finnish people of Russia - Karelians . They live in Republic of Karelia, as well as in the Tver, Leningrad, Murmansk and Arkhangelsk regions. In everyday life, Karelians speak three dialects: Karelian, Lyudikovsky and Livvikovsky, and their literary language is Finnish. Newspapers and magazines are published there, and the Department of Finnish Language and Literature operates at the Faculty of Philology of Petrozavodsk University. Karelians also speak Russian.
The second subgroup consists Sami , or Lapps . Most of them are settled in Northern Scandinavia, but in Russia Sami- inhabitants Kola Peninsula. According to most experts, the ancestors of this people once occupied a much larger territory, but over time they were pushed to the north. Then they lost their language and adopted one of the Finnish dialects. The Sami are good reindeer herders (in the recent past they were nomads), fishermen and hunters. In Russia they profess Orthodoxy .
In the third, Volga-Finnish , subgroup includes Mari and Mordovians . Mordva- indigenous population Republic of Mordovia, but a significant part of this people live throughout Russia - in Samara, Penza, Nizhny Novgorod, Saratov, Ulyanovsk regions, in the republics of Tatarstan, Bashkortostan, in Chuvashia etc. Even before the annexation in the 16th century. Mordovian lands to Russia, the Mordovians had their own nobility - "inyazory", "otsyazory"", i.e. "owners of the land." Inyazory They were the first to be baptized, quickly became Russified, and later their descendants formed an element in the Russian nobility that was slightly smaller than those from the Golden Horde and the Kazan Khanate. Mordva is divided into Erzya and Moksha ; each of the ethnographic groups has a written literary language - Erzya and Moksha . By religion Mordovians Orthodox ; they have always been considered the most Christianized people of the Volga region.
Mari live mainly in Republic of Mari El, as well as in Bashkortostan, Tatarstan, Udmurtia, Nizhny Novgorod, Kirov, Sverdlovsk and Perm regions. It is generally accepted that this people has two literary languages - Meadow-Eastern and Mountain Mari. However, not all philologists share this opinion.
Even ethnographers of the 19th century. noted the unusually high level of national self-awareness of the Mari. They stubbornly resisted joining Russia and baptism, and until 1917 the authorities forbade them to live in cities and engage in crafts and trade.
In the fourth, Permian , the subgroup itself includes Komi , Komi-Permyaks and Udmurts .Komi(in the past they were called Zyryans) form the indigenous population of the Komi Republic, but also live in Sverdlovsk, Murmansk, Omsk regions, in the Nenets, Yamalo-Nenets and Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrugs. Their original occupations are farming and hunting. But, unlike most other Finno-Ugric peoples, there have long been many merchants and entrepreneurs among them. Even before October 1917 Komi in terms of literacy (in Russian) approached the most educated peoples of Russia - Russian Germans and Jews. Today, 16.7% of Komi work in agriculture, but 44.5% work in industry, and 15% work in education, science, and culture. Part of the Komi - the Izhemtsy - mastered reindeer husbandry and became the largest reindeer herders in the European north. Komi Orthodox (partly Old Believers).
Very close in language to the Zyryans Komi-Permyaks . More than half of this people live in Komi-Permyak Autonomous Okrug, and the rest - in the Perm region. Permians are mainly peasants and hunters, but throughout their history they were also factory serfs in the Ural factories, and barge haulers on the Kama and Volga. By religion Komi-Permyaks Orthodox .
Udmurts{ 2 } concentrated mostly in Udmurt Republic, where they make up about 1/3 of the population. Small groups of Udmurts live in Tatarstan, Bashkortostan, the Republic of Mari El, in the Perm, Kirov, Tyumen, Sverdlovsk regions. The traditional occupation is agriculture. In cities, they most often forget their native language and customs. Perhaps this is why only 70% of Udmurts, mostly residents of rural areas, consider the Udmurt language as their native language. Udmurts Orthodox , but many of them (including the baptized) adhere to traditional beliefs - they worship pagan gods, deities, and spirits.
In the fifth, Ugric , subgroup includes Hungarians, Khanty and Mansi . "Ugrimi "in Russian chronicles they called Hungarians, A " Ugra " - Ob Ugrians, i.e. Khanty and Mansi. Although Northern Urals and lower reaches of the Ob, where the Khanty and Mansi live, are located thousands of kilometers from the Danube, on the banks of which the Hungarians created their state; these peoples are their closest relatives. Khanty and Mansi belong to the small peoples of the North. Muncie live mainly in X Anti-Mansi Autonomous Okrug, A Khanty - V Khanty-Mansi and Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrugs, Tomsk Region. The Mansi are primarily hunters, then fishermen and reindeer herders. The Khanty, on the contrary, are first fishermen, and then hunters and reindeer herders. Both of them confess Orthodoxy, however, they did not forget the ancient faith. The industrial development of their region caused great damage to the traditional culture of the Ob Ugrians: many hunting grounds disappeared and the rivers became polluted.
Old Russian chronicles preserved the names of Finno-Ugric tribes that have now disappeared - Chud, Merya, Muroma . Merya in the 1st millennium AD e. lived in the area between the Volga and Oka rivers, and at the turn of the 1st and 2nd millennia merged with the Eastern Slavs. There is an assumption that modern Mari are descendants of this tribe. Murom in the 1st millennium BC. e. lived in the Oka basin, and by the 12th century. n. e. mixed with the Eastern Slavs. Chudyu modern researchers consider the Finnish tribes that lived in ancient times along the banks of the Onega and Northern Dvina. It is possible that they are the ancestors of the Estonians.
{ 2 )Russian historian of the 18th century. V.N. Tatishchev wrote that the Udmurts (formerly called Votyaks) perform their prayers “beside any good tree, but not near pine and spruce, which have no leaves or fruit, but aspen is revered as a cursed tree... ".
WHERE THE FINNO-UGRICS LIVED AND WHERE THE FINNO-UGRIANS LIVE
Most researchers agree that the ancestral home Finno-Ugrians
was on the border of Europe and Asia, in the areas between the Volga and Kama and in the Urals. It was there in the IV-III millennia BC. e. A community of tribes arose, related in language and similar in origin. By the 1st millennium AD. e. the ancient Finno-Ugrians settled as far as the Baltic states and Northern Scandinavia. They occupied a vast territory covered with forests - almost the entire northern part of what is now European Russia to the Kama River in the south.
Excavations show that the ancient Finno-Ugrians belonged to Ural race: their appearance is a mixture of Caucasian and Mongoloid features (wide cheekbones, often Mongolian eye shape). Moving west, they mixed with Caucasians. As a result, among some peoples descended from the ancient Finno-Ugrians, Mongoloid features began to smooth out and disappear. Nowadays, “Ural” features are characteristic to one degree or another of everyone to the Finnish peoples of Russia: average height, wide face, nose, called “snub”, very light hair, sparse beard. But in different peoples these features manifest themselves in different ways. For example, 
Mordovian-Erzya tall, fair-haired, blue-eyed, and Mordovian-Moksha and shorter in stature, with a wider face, and their hair is darker. U Mari and Udmurts Often there are eyes with the so-called Mongolian fold - epicanthus, very wide cheekbones, and a thin beard. But at the same time (the Ural race!) has blond and red hair, blue and gray eyes. The Mongolian fold is sometimes found among Estonians, Vodians, Izhorians, and Karelians. Komi they are different: in those places where there are mixed marriages with the Nenets, they have black hair and braids; others are more Scandinavian-like, with a slightly wider face.
Finno-Ugrians were engaged in agriculture (in order to fertilize the soil with ash, they burned areas of the forest), hunting and fishing . Their settlements were far from each other. Perhaps for this reason they did not create states anywhere and began to be part of neighboring organized and constantly expanding powers. Some of the first mentions of the Finno-Ugrians contain Khazar documents written in Hebrew, the state language of the Khazar Kaganate. Alas, there are almost no vowels in it, so one can only guess that “tsrms” means “Cheremis-Mari”, and “mkshkh” means “moksha”. Later, the Finno-Ugrians also paid tribute to the Bulgars and were part of the Kazan Khanate and the Russian state.
RUSSIANS AND FINNO-UGRICS
In the XVI-XVIII centuries. Russian settlers rushed to the lands of the Finno-Ugric peoples. Most often, settlement was peaceful, but sometimes indigenous peoples resisted the entry of their region into the Russian state. The Mari showed the most fierce resistance.
Over time, baptism, writing, and urban culture brought by the Russians began to displace local languages and beliefs. Many began to feel like Russians - and actually became them. Sometimes it was enough to be baptized for this. The peasants of one Mordovian village wrote in a petition: “Our ancestors, the former Mordovians,” sincerely believing that only their ancestors, pagans, were Mordovians, and their Orthodox descendants are in no way related to the Mordovians.
People moved to cities, went far away - to Siberia, to Altai, where everyone had one language in common - Russian. The names after baptism were no different from ordinary Russian ones. Or almost nothing: not everyone notices that there is nothing Slavic in surnames like Shukshin, Vedenyapin, Piyasheva, but they go back to the name of the Shuksha tribe, the name of the goddess of war Veden Ala, the pre-Christian name Piyash. Thus, a significant part of the Finno-Ugrians was assimilated by the Russians, and some, having converted to Islam, mixed with the Turks. That is why the Finno-Ugric people do not constitute a majority anywhere - even in the republics to which they gave their name.
But, having disappeared into the mass of Russians, the Finno-Ugrians retained their anthropological type: very blond hair, blue eyes, a “bubble” nose, and a wide, high-cheekboned face. The type that writers of the 19th century. called the “Penza peasant”, is now perceived as typically Russian.
Many Finno-Ugric words have entered the Russian language: “tundra”, “sprat”, “herring”, etc. Is there a more Russian and beloved dish than dumplings? Meanwhile, this word is borrowed from the Komi language and means “bread ear”: “pel” is “ear”, and “nyan” is “bread”. There are especially many borrowings in northern dialects, mainly among the names of natural phenomena or landscape elements. They add a unique beauty to local speech and regional literature. Take, for example, the word “taibola”, which in the Arkhangelsk region is used to call a dense forest, and in the Mezen River basin - a road running along the seashore next to the taiga. It is taken from the Karelian "taibale" - "isthmus". For centuries, peoples living nearby have always enriched each other's language and culture.
Patriarch Nikon and Archpriest Avvakum were Finno-Ugrians by origin - both Mordvins, but irreconcilable enemies; Udmurt - physiologist V. M. Bekhterev, Komi - sociologist Pitirim Sorokin, Mordvin - sculptor S. Nefedov-Erzya, who took the name of the people as his pseudonym; Mari composer A. Ya. Eshpai.
ANCIENT CLOTHING V O D I I ZH O R T E V
The main part of the traditional women's costume of the Vodi and Izhorians is shirt
. Ancient shirts were sewn very long, with wide, also long sleeves. In the warm season, a shirt was the only clothing a woman could wear. Back in the 60s. XIX century After the wedding, the young woman was supposed to wear only a shirt until her father-in-law gave her a fur coat or caftan.
Votic women long preserved the ancient form of unstitched waist clothing - hursgukset , which was worn over a shirt. Hursgukset is similar to Russian poneva. It was richly decorated with copper coins, shells, fringes, and bells. Later, when he came into everyday life sundress , the bride wore a hursgukset under a sundress to the wedding.
A kind of unstitched clothing - annua - worn in the central part Ingria(part of the territory of modern Leningrad region). It was a wide cloth that reached to the armpits; a strap was sewn to its upper ends and thrown over the left shoulder. The annua parted on the left side, and therefore a second cloth was put on under it - Khurstut . It was wrapped around the waist and also worn on a strap. The Russian sarafan gradually replaced the ancient loincloth among the Vodians and Izhorians. The clothes were belted leather belt, cords, woven belts and narrow towels.
In ancient times, Votic women shaved my head.
TRADITIONAL CLOTHING KH A N T O V I M A N S I
Khanty and Mansi clothes were made from skins, fur, fish skin, cloth, nettle and linen canvas. In the manufacture of children's clothing, they used the most archaic material - bird skins.
Men wore in winter swing fur coats made of deer and hare fur, squirrel and fox paws, and in summer a short robe made of coarse cloth; the collar, sleeves and right hem were trimmed with fur.Winter shoes It was made of fur and was worn with fur stockings. Summer made of rovduga (suede made from deer or elk skin), and the sole was made of elk skin.
Men's shirts they were sewn from nettle canvas, and the trousers were made from rovduga, fish skin, canvas, and cotton fabrics. Must be worn over a shirt woven belt , to which hung beaded bags(they held a knife in a wooden sheath and a flint).
Women wore in winter fur coat from deer skin; the lining was also fur. Where there were few deer, the lining was made from hare and squirrel skins, and sometimes from duck or swan down. In summer wore cloth or cotton robe ,decorated with stripes made of beads, colored fabric and tin plaques. The women cast these plaques themselves in special molds made of soft stone or pine bark. The belts were already men's and more elegant.
Women covered their heads both in winter and summer scarves with wide borders and fringes . In the presence of men, especially older relatives of the husband, according to tradition, the end of the scarf was supposed to be cover your face. They lived among the Khanty and beaded headbands .
Hair Previously, it was not customary to cut hair. Men parted their hair in the middle, gathered it into two ponytails and tied it with a colored cord. .Women braided two braids, decorated them with colored cord and copper pendants . At the bottom, the braids were connected with a thick copper chain so as not to interfere with work. Rings, bells, beads and other decorations were hung from the chain. Khanty women, according to custom, wore a lot copper and silver rings. Jewelry made from beads, which were imported by Russian merchants, were also widespread.
HOW THE MARIES DRESSED
In the past, Mari clothing was exclusively homemade. Upper(it was worn in winter and autumn) was sewn from homemade cloth and sheepskin, and shirts and summer caftans- made of white linen canvas.
Women wore shirt, caftan, trousers, headdress and bast shoes . Shirts were embroidered with silk, wool, and cotton threads. They were worn with belts woven from wool and silk and decorated with beads, tassels and metal chains. One of the types headdresses of married Maries , similar to a cap, was called shymaksh . It was made from thin canvas and placed on a birch bark frame. An obligatory part of the traditional costume of the Maries was considered jewelry made of beads, coins, tin plaques.
Men's suit consisted of canvas embroidered shirt, pants, canvas caftan and bast shoes . The shirt was shorter than a woman's and was worn with a narrow belt made of wool and leather. On head put on felt HATS and sheepskin caps .
WHAT IS FINNO-UGRIAN LINGUISTIC RELATIONSHIP
Finno-Ugric peoples differ from each other in their way of life, religion, historical destinies and even appearance. They are combined into one group based on the relationship of languages. However, linguistic proximity varies. The Slavs, for example, can easily come to an agreement, each speaking in his own dialect. But the Finno-Ugric people will not be able to communicate as easily with their brothers in the language group.
In ancient times, the ancestors of modern Finno-Ugrians spoke in one language. Then its speakers began to move, mixed with other tribes, and the once single language split into several independent ones. The Finno-Ugric languages diverged so long ago that they have few common words - about a thousand. For example, “house” in Finnish is “koti”, in Estonian – “kodu”, in Mordovian – “kudu”, in Mari – “kudo”. The word "butter" is similar: Finnish "voi", Estonian "vdi", Udmurt and Komi "vy", Hungarian "vaj". But the sound of the languages - phonetics - remains so close that any Finno-Ugric, listening to another and not even understanding what he is talking about, feels: this is a related language.
NAMES OF FINNO-UGRICS
Finno-Ugric peoples have long professed (at least officially) Orthodoxy , therefore their first and last names, as a rule, do not differ from Russians. However, in the village, in accordance with the sound of local languages, they change. So, Akulina becomes Oculus, Nikolai - Nikul or Mikul, Kirill - Kirlya, Ivan - Yivan. U Komi , for example, the patronymic is often placed before the given name: Mikhail Anatolyevich sounds like Tol Mish, i.e. Anatolyev's son Mishka, and Rosa Stepanovna turns into Stepan Rosa - Stepan's daughter Rosa. In the documents, of course, everyone has ordinary Russian names. Only writers, artists and performers choose the traditionally rural form: Yyvan Kyrlya, Nikul Erkay, Illya Vas, Ortjo Stepanov.
U Komi often found surnames Durkin, Rochev, Kanev; among the Udmurts - Korepanov and Vladykin; at Mordovians - Vedenyapin, Pi-yashev, Kechin, Mokshin. Surnames with a diminutive suffix are especially common among Mordovians - Kirdyaykin, Vidyaykin, Popsuykin, Alyoshkin, Varlashkin.
Some Mari , especially unbaptized chi-mari in Bashkiria, at one time they accepted turkic names. Therefore, the Chi-Mari often have surnames similar to Tatar ones: Anduga-nov, Baitemirov, Yashpatrov, but their names and patronymics are Russian. U Karelian There are both Russian and Finnish surnames, but always with a Russian ending: Perttuev, Lampiev. Usually in Karelia you can distinguish by surname Karelian, Finnish and St. Petersburg Finn. So, Perttuev - Karelian, Perttu - St. Petersburg Finn, A Pertgunen - Finn. But each of them can have a first and patronymic Stepan Ivanovich.
WHAT DO THE FINNO-UGRICS BELIEVE?
In Russia, many Finno-Ugrians profess Orthodoxy . In the 12th century. Vepsians were baptized in the 13th century. - Karelians, at the end of the 14th century. - Komi At the same time, to translate the Holy Scriptures into the Komi language, it was created Perm writing - the only original Finno-Ugric alphabet. During the XVIII-XIX centuries. Mordovians, Udmurts and Maris were baptized. However, the Maris never fully accepted Christianity. To avoid conversion to the new faith, some of them (they called themselves “chi-mari” - “true Mari”) went to the territory of Bashkiria, and those who stayed and were baptized often continued to worship the old gods. Among among the Mari, Udmurts, Sami and some other peoples, the so-called double faith . People revere the old gods, but recognize the “Russian God” and his saints, especially Nicholas the Pleasant. In Yoshkar-Ola, the capital of the Mari El Republic, the state took under protection a sacred grove - " kyusoto", and now pagan prayers take place here. The names of the supreme gods and mythological heroes of these peoples are similar and probably go back to the ancient Finnish name for the sky and air - " ilma ": Ilmarinen - among the Finns, Ilmayline - among the Karelians,Inmar - among the Udmurts, Yong -Komi.
CULTURAL HERITAGE OF THE FINNO-UGRICS
Writing many Finno-Ugric languages of Russia were created on the basis Cyrillic alphabet, with the addition of letters and superscripts that convey sound features.Karelians , whose literary language is Finnish, are written in Latin letters.
Literature of the Finno-Ugric peoples of Russia very young, but oral folk art has a centuries-old history. Finnish poet and folklorist Elias Lönrö t (1802-1884) collected the tales of the epic " Kalevala "among the Karelians of the Olonets province of the Russian Empire. The final edition of the book was published in 1849. "Kalevala", which means "the country of Kalev", in its rune songs tells about the exploits of the Finnish heroes Väinämöinen, Ilmarinen and Lemminkäinen, about their struggle with the evil Louhi , mistress of Pohjola (northern country of darkness). In a magnificent poetic form, the epic tells about the life, beliefs, customs of the ancestors of the Finns, Karelians, Vepsians, Vodi, Izhorians. This information is unusually rich, they reveal the spiritual world of farmers and hunters of the North. "Kalevala" stands on a par with the greatest epics of humanity. Some other Finno-Ugric peoples also have epics: "Kalevipoeg"("Son of Caleb") - at Estonians , "Pera the hero" - y Komi-Permyaks , preserved epic tales among the Mordovians and Mansi .
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