Human character traits and their manifestation
03.04.2015Snezhana Ivanova
Character traits always leave an imprint on a person’s behavior and also influence his actions.
Throughout his life, each person exhibits his own individual characteristics, which are reflected not only in his behavior or the specifics of communication, but also determine his attitude towards activities, himself and other people. All these features that manifest themselves in life, both in scientific use and in everyday life, are called character.
Definition of "character"
In psychology, character is understood as a certain set of human traits that are clearly expressed and relatively stable. Character traits always leave an imprint on a person’s behavior and also influence his actions.
In psychological dictionaries you can find a fairly large number of definitions of character, but they all boil down to the fact that character is the totality of the most persistent individual psychological characteristics of a person, which always manifest themselves in their activities and social behavior, as well as in the system of relationships:
- to the team;
- to other people;
- to work;
- to the surrounding reality (to the world);
- to myself.
The term itself character» ( in the lane from Greek character – coinage or seal) was introduced by the ancient Greek philosopher and naturalist, student Plato and Aristotle's closest friend Theophrastus. And here it is worth paying special attention to the translation of the word – minting or printing. Indeed, character appears as a kind of pattern on a person’s personality, thereby creating a unique seal that distinguishes its owner from other individuals. Such a design, just like the coat of arms or emblem on the personal seal of the medieval nobility, is drawn on a certain basis using specific signs and letters. The basis for engraving an individual personality is temperament, and a unique design is based on bright and individual character traits .
Character traits as a tool for psychological assessment and understanding of a person
In psychology, character traits are understood as individual, rather complex characteristics that are the most indicative for a person and make it possible with a high degree of probability to predict his behavior in a specific situation. That is, knowing that a particular person has certain traits, one can predict his subsequent actions and possible actions in a given case. For example, if a person has a pronounced trait of responsiveness, then there is a high probability that at a difficult moment in life he will come to the rescue.
A trait is one of the most important and essential parts of a person, his stable quality and established way of interacting with the surrounding reality. A character trait crystallizes a personality and reflects its integrity. A person’s character trait is a real way to solve many life situations (both active and communicative) and therefore they need to be considered from the point of view of the future. So, character traits are a forecast of a person’s actions and deeds, since they are persistent and make a person’s behavior predictable and more obvious. Because every personality is unique, there is a huge variety of unique character traits.
Each person acquires special character traits throughout his life in society, and all individual signs (traits) cannot be considered characterological. These will only be those who, regardless of life situation and circumstances, will always manifest themselves in an identical way of behavior and the same attitude in the surrounding reality.
Thus, in order to evaluate a personality psychologist (characterize it) as an individual, it is necessary to determine not the entire sum of a person’s individual qualities, but to highlight those traits and qualities of character that are distinctive from other people. Despite the fact that these features are individual and different, they must constitute a structural integrity.
A person’s character traits are a priority when studying his personality, as well as for understanding and predicting his actions, actions and behavior. Indeed, we perceive and understand any type of human activity as a manifestation of certain traits of his character. But, characterizing a person as a social being, it becomes important not so much the manifestation of traits in activity, but what exactly this activity is aimed at (as well as what the human will serves). In this case, one should pay attention to the content side of character, and more specifically, to those character traits of a person that make up the general structure of his mental make-up. They are expressed in: integrity-contradiction, unity-fragmentation, static-dynamism, breadth-narrowness, strength-weakness.
List of human character traits
Human character- this is not only a certain set of certain traits (or a random set of them), but a very complex mental formation that represents a certain system. This system consists of many of the most stable qualities of a person, as well as its properties, manifested in various systems of human relations (to work, to one’s business, to the world around us, to things, to oneself and to other people). In these relationships, the structure of character, its content and individuality of originality find its expression. Below, in the table, the main character traits (groups of them) are described, which find their manifestation in various systems of human relations.
Persistent character traits (symptom complexes) manifested in personal relationships
In addition to the traits that manifest themselves in the system of relationships, psychologists have identified human character traits that can be attributed to the cognitive and emotional-volitional sphere. So character traits are divided into:
- cognitive (or intellectual) - curiosity, theoreticality, criticality, resourcefulness, analyticalness, thoughtfulness, practicality, flexibility, frivolity;
- emotional (impressionability, passion, emotionality, cheerfulness, sentimentality, etc.);
- strong-willed traits (persistence, determination, independence, etc.);
- moral traits (kindness, honesty, justice, humanity, cruelty, responsiveness, patriotism, etc.).
Representative of the humanistic trend in psychology Gordon Allport character traits were combined into three main categories:
- dominant (those that most determine all forms of human behavior, his actions and deeds, such as selfishness or kindness);
- ordinary (which manifest themselves equally in all spheres of life, for example parity and humanity);
- secondary (they do not have the same influences as dominant or ordinary ones, for example it could be diligence or a love of music).
So, the main character traits are manifested in various spheres of mental activity and the system of relationships of the individual. All these relationships are fixed in different methods of action and forms of human behavior that are most familiar to him. Certain natural relationships are always established between existing traits, which make it possible to create a structured character. It, in turn, helps to predict, based on a person’s character trait already known to us, others who are hidden from us, which makes it possible to predict his subsequent actions and actions.
Any structure, including character, has its own hierarchy. Thus, character traits also have a certain hierarchy, so there are main (leading) and secondary traits that are subordinate to the leading ones. It is possible to predict a person’s actions and behavior based not only on the main features, but also on secondary ones (despite the fact that they are less significant and do not appear so clearly).
Typical and individual in character
The bearer of character is always a person, and his traits are manifested in activities, relationships, actions, behavior, methods of action in the family, in a team, at work, among friends, etc. This manifestation always reflects the typical and individual in character, because they exist in organic unity (thus, the typical is always the basis for the individual manifestation of character).
What is meant by typical character? A character is said to be typical when it has a set of essential traits that are common to a particular group of people. This set of traits reflects the general living conditions of a particular group. In addition, these traits must be manifested (to a greater or lesser extent) in each representative of this group. The set of distinctive typical features is a condition for the emergence of a certain one.
What is typical and individual in character is most clearly expressed in a person’s relationships with other people, because interpersonal contacts are always determined by certain social conditions of life, the corresponding level of cultural and historical development of society and the formed spiritual world of the person himself. The attitude towards other people is always evaluative and manifests itself in different ways (approval-condemnation, support-misunderstanding) depending on the existing circumstances. This manifestation is expressed depending on a person’s assessment of the actions and behavior of others, or rather their positive and negative character traits.
Typical human character traits, in terms of their level of intensity, manifest themselves individually in each person. For example, individual traits can reveal themselves so strongly and clearly that they become unique in their own way. It is in this case that the typical in character turns into the individual.
Positive character traits and their manifestation
Both typical and individual in character find their manifestation in systems of personality relationships. This happens due to the presence of certain traits (both positive and negative) in a person’s character. So, for example, in relation to work or one’s business, such positive character traits as hard work, discipline and organization are manifested.
As for interpersonal communication and attitude towards other people, the good character traits are the following: honesty, openness, fairness, integrity, humanity, etc. All these traits allow you to build constructive communication and quickly establish contacts with people around you.
It should be noted that there are a huge variety of individual character traits. But among them, it is necessary to highlight first of all those that have the greatest influence on the formation of a person’s spirituality (it is in this context that the best character trait of a person – humanity) finds its manifestation. These traits are even more important in the process of educating and developing the younger generation, because the same traits are formed differently depending on situations, the presence of other character traits and the orientation of the individual himself.
While highlighting good character traits, one should not forget about their possible distortion, or the presence of obvious negative traits that a person needs to fight. Only in this case will the harmonious and holistic development of the personality be observed.
Negative character traits and their manifestation
In relation to the behavior, actions and activities of other people, a person always forms traits of a certain character - positive and negative. This occurs on the principle of analogy (that is, identification occurs with what is acceptable) and opposition (with what is included in the list of unacceptable and incorrect). The attitude towards oneself can be positive or negative, which primarily depends on the level of development and the ability to adequately evaluate oneself ( that is, from the formed level). A high level of self-awareness is evidenced by the presence of the following positive traits: high demands on oneself, and self-esteem, as well as responsibility. And, conversely, an insufficient level of development of self-awareness is indicated by such negative character traits as self-confidence, selfishness, immodesty, etc.
Negative character traits (in principle, just like positive ones manifest themselves) in the four main systems of human relationships. For example, in the “attitude to work” system, among the negative traits are irresponsibility, carelessness and formality. And among the negative traits that manifest themselves in interpersonal communication, it is worth highlighting isolation, stinginess, boastfulness and disrespect.
It should be noted that negative character traits, which find their manifestation in the system of a person’s relationships with other people, almost always contribute to the emergence of conflicts, misunderstandings and aggression, which subsequently leads to the emergence of destructive forms of communication. That is why every person who wants to live in harmony with others and with himself should think about cultivating positive traits in his character and getting rid of destructive, negative traits.
Personality types in adulthood, reflecting the leading type of activity and conflict at various stages of psychosexual development, as well as protection, characteristic of these stages.
Oral character: the leading types of protection are projection(a person’s attribution to other people of those traits that he himself possesses), negation(refusal to perceive threatening objects or events in the outside world) and introjection(the process of merging with another person in order to avoid confronting that person's frightening essence or facing one's own frightening instincts). Among the typical features optimism or pessimism, gullibility or suspicion, admiration or envy And manipulativeness or passivity.
Anal character: The leading types of protection are intellectualization(replacement of real, instinctive nature, reasons for one’s desires and actions with fictitious, socially more acceptable ones), reaction formation(replacing your real ones with the exact opposite), insulation(breaking the normally existing connections between the cognitive and affective components of desires and impulses to eliminate anxiety) and destruction of what was done(committing such actions or such thoughts that nullify or compensate for previous thoughts and actions that can cause anxiety). Traits of this nature - stinginess or excessive generosity, tightness or expansiveness, accuracy- uncleanliness and scrupulousness or absent-mindedness.
Phallic character: main type of protection - crowding out(removal of instinctive desires and actions from consciousness in order to prevent the experience of anxiety), among the typical features we can highlight vanity or self-hatred, elegance or penchant for simplicity, chastity or promiscuity.
Genital character uses as the main defense sublimation(change of the object of sexual instinct to a more socially acceptable one than the original one, without violating or blocking the expression of instinct), typical features indicate complete socialization, adaptation and effectiveness of activity.
Murray's theory
Core personality
Core trend
Similar to Freud's position, however, there is the possibility that not all functioning is determined by the desire to avoid conflict between the individual and society.
Core characteristics
ID. Similar to Freud's position, with the addition that not all instincts are selfish and in opposition to social norms.
Ego. Similar to Freud's position, however, processes are distinguished that are not of a defensive nature, through which socially acceptable instincts are expressed. These non-defensive ego processes involve cognitive procedures such as rational thinking And accurate perception.
Superego. Similar to Freud's position, with the clarification that the values and taboos it contains are not necessarily laid down in childhood. In later periods, the superego is influenced by the people around him And even literary works.
Development
Stages of psychosexual development
Similar to Freud's position, with the addition of two more stages, namely:
Claustral(prenatal period): there are no clearly defined erogenous zones, there is passive dependence on the mother.
Urethral(between the oral and anal stages): when the erogenous zone is the urethra, and urination itself is the main type of activity.
Periphery of personality
Complexes Similar to Freud's idea of character types with the addition of two types corresponding to the identified stages of psychosexual development.
Claustral complex. Basic protection - negation, traits – passivity And alienation.
Urethral complex. The main defenses are similar to those characteristic of the anal character, the traits being competitiveness and stubbornness.
Needs The concept of needs has little connection with other aspects of the theory; need is defined as an entity that structures perception, apperception, thinking, will and activity in such a way as to transform an unsatisfactory situation in a certain way. A list of 40 needs (for example, achievement, power, affiliation) was developed, and several overlapping classifications of their functions and characteristics were proposed. Needs are actualized due to real or imaginary pressure(environmental forces). The concept of needs is complemented by the concept of a need integrator, or a set of stable values and patterns of action; The need integrator is the result of learning and has the function of expressing needs.
Erikson's theory
Core personality
Core trend
Similar to Freud's position, but special emphasis is placed on that aspect of functioning that is not determined by the desire to avoid conflict between the individual and society.
Core characteristics
ID. Similar to Freud's position.
Ego. Similar to Freud's position, but postulates ego processes (for example, rational thinking and realistic perception) that are not associated with conflict between the individual and society. It is believed that the ego is partly innate in nature and has mechanisms like ego instincts.
Superego. Similar to Freud's position.
The most famous representatives of the movement that considers personality as a set of traits:
Gordon Allport (1897-1967), Raymond Cattell (1905-1998), Hans Eysenck (1916-1997)
Description of the phenomenon of human personality traits.
The behavior of each person is characterized by characteristic features that are characteristic of him, which we judge on the basis of 3 main criteria:
1. those features that are characteristic of a person - they are clearly expressed, you don’t need to look for them, they catch your eye.
2. they are observed in human behavior quite often
3. they are observed in many, very different life situations.
When we discover these characteristic, personal characteristics in a person’s behavior, we conclude that the person has such a character. (Polite, decisive, timid, etc.)
Allport, together with H. Odbert, analyzed the English dictionary and found 18 thousand words characterizing a person’s personal characteristics. They are used in various phrases - therefore these characteristics are much greater than the indicated number.
The concept of “personality traits”.
Allport's definition (book - “The Formation of Personality”):
Personality Trait is a neuropsychological structure that has the ability to make many stimuli functionally equivalent and to initiate and direct equivalent forms of adaptive and expressive behavior.
Firstly,Trait is a neuropsychological structure: with this phrase Allport seeks to emphasize that the trait cannot be considered descriptive characteristics of human behavior. S→R – a trait cannot be considered only as an R (reaction) that occurs to a stimulus. And what does it represent?: Tolman’s scheme S→ O → R – a trait is a really existing intermediate variable (O) that determines the behavior characteristic of each person. At the same time, Allport believes that this is a neuropsychological structure still unknown to scientists, but it exists.
Secondly, a trait, understood as a neuropsychological structure, has the ability to make many stimuli functionally equivalent - this means that due to the presence of a certain trait in a person, he begins to perceive many different stimuli as similar in meaning. All stimuli included in this set become equally capable of activating this trait and causing behavior characteristic of people with this trait:
Set S 1
incentives
characteristic human behavior is observed in a variety of situations.
Allport's example: in the 50s 20 this trait was observed very often “fear of communism”. This feature can make many stimuli functionally equivalent.
6 incentives: 1. all Russians; 2. books by Marx; 3. blacks fighting for their rights; 4. university teachers; 5. liberal parties; 6. UN. Thanks to this feature, they can be perceived as functionally equivalent: as sources of dissemination of the ideas of communism. When faced with these stimuli, a person may behave in a certain way.
Third, a) a trait can “both initiate and direct equivalent forms of adaptive and expressive behavior.” Allport gives a trait the ability to “initiate and direct behavior”—the trait can be viewed as a motive for behavior. (A polite person strives to behave politely.)
B) The trait initiates and directs equivalent forms of behavior. – a trait can initiate and direct not one specific behavior, but many behavioral acts that are similar in meaning to this trait. Equivalent forms of behavior are a set of specific behavioral acts that are similar in meaning to the trait that guides them. The general meaning gives these behavioral acts the characteristics characteristic of a person.
Example: the trait “fear of communism” can initiate forms of behavior - 1. participation in rallies with an anti-Soviet orientation, 2. negative statements regarding Marx’s books, 3. joining the KK Klan, 4. negative statements regarding university teachers 5. joining ... parties 6. speaking out against the UN.
Correlation of the concept features with concepts temperament and character (according to Allport):
Temperament– considered by Allport in the traditional sense. (as in Nebylitsin, Kreichmer, Sheldon) – formally dynamic characteristics of mental processes and states that are determined by the innate anatomical and physiological characteristics of a person.
Personality traits are not reduced to these formally dynamic characteristics of mental processes and states, but represent more complex formations. Temperament is a type of raw material from which personality traits are formed.
These are two completely different realities.
How does the concept of personality trait differ from the concept of character? It is difficult to distinguish between character traits and personality traits, but it is possible. When describing character traits, many authors use value judgments and their specificity is that they do not contain an objective description of a person’s behavior, but their subjective assessment.
Example: a teacher who gives all students an A is characterized as “kind” - which is not an objective description, but a subjective assessment.
Allport refuses to use the term character because... A personality trait is an objective characteristic that is completely freed from value judgments. “Personality is a character devoid of evaluation.”
Main types of personality traits (Allport):
1. Common features- these are those aspects of personality in relation to which a meaningful comparison can be made between the majority of people belonging to a given culture. ( Meaningful comparison - what are the traits by which it makes sense to compare people with each other - only according to those traits that are characteristic of them, but to varying degrees. For example: a tendency to dominate in relationships with other people - for some this trait is completely absent (propensity to submit) - for others this trait is exaggerated and there is an intermediate position between these poles. So comparison on this trait is meaningful. The technique for measuring general traits is well developed - questionnaire tests, which consist of a set of questions, based on the results, everyone receives a quantitative assessment of the degree of expression of the trait measured by the test relative to the average statistical norm. Average statistical norm - if you conduct a test on a sufficiently large sample of people, it turns out that the entire set of results obeys the law of normal distribution)
Lists of basic (general) traits obtained as a result of research by R. Cattell, G. Eysenck and W. Norman (16 personality factors):
1. high - low intelligence
2. emotional stability - instability
3. dominance - submission
4. courage - timidity
5. hardness - softness
6. gullibility - suspicion
7. daydreaming practicality
8. diplomacy, straightforwardness
9. tendency to fear calmness
10. lack of discipline - controllability
11. relaxation - tension
He identified 3 basic features (Eyzenck):
- Introversion - extroversion
- Neuroticism – emotional stability
- Psychotism - the power of the superego
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