Listening to my story, determine what role culture played in the development of mankind.
One of the thinkers said the following phrase: "Man is the most eccentric creature on Earth." The meaning of what has been said is this: there are many outlandish things in the world, but only a person is able to be most interested in a philosopher, because he is unique.
But isn't every living creature that lives on the planet distinguished by originality, uniqueness of the natural project?
Man is made up of paradoxes. Man is an animal, but exists not in nature, but in society. He has instincts, but he is guided primarily by reason. Man is born in nature, but tries to subjugate it to himself. He has natural lusts, but focuses primarily on cultural standards. Man has a mind, but there is also the unconscious. A person has everything to survive in the wild, but without long-term training and education, he cannot adapt to it ...
The exclusivity of a person is not only that he has many different qualities and inclinations. A person is “attuned” to several programs at the same time, each of them, like a demon, drags him in his direction. The biological program contradicts the social, the conscious - the unconscious, instincts - culture. Man is the only creature on earth capable of living in a situation of absurdity. He, for example, can be captured by passion, which the mind rejects, and his volitional decision is sometimes just the voice of attraction or instinct. That is why the American philosopher Erich Fromm (1900-1980) called man perhaps the most eccentric creature on earth.
However, how can one talk about the uniqueness of a person if he descended from a monkey? Almost all of our genes are the same as those of our animal ancestors. But it was man who created cultural traditions, moral norms.
Do wolves know pangs of conscience, and bees know customs? And then, a person has such obvious virtues as speech, reason, culture.
According to modern evolutionary theory, man evolved from apes. However, in those 2-4%, in which our totality of genes differs from that of a monkey, reason, creativity, culture fit in ... Yes, animals can live in a community. But everything that happens in their herds, flocks, clans, colonies, is due to instinct. Thus, the deer perceives the deer born by her together with the environment.
Moved to another forest, she may not recognize her own child, abandon him.
Man is the only creature in nature that has overcome its genetic program of instincts. Unlike genetic memory, social memory inherits not biological characteristics, but a set of knowledge, values and ideals, forms of activity of a social person. The Russian philosopher Nikolai Alexandrovich Berdyaev wrote: "Man is a fundamental novelty in nature." The German educator Johann Herder called man "a freedman of nature", and Arthur Schopenhauer - her "deserter"...
Having lost its rootedness in instinct, man found himself forced to rejoin the world around him. People have created a society, a new form of collective, joint life - social. And so a phenomenon was born that does not exist in nature.
But how did it happen, to put it jokingly, that the monkey went mad and turned into a man? How did man fall out of nature and even begin to resist it? Cultural values - that's what distinguishes a person in the environment.
People have never lived outside of culture. It makes no sense to look for a person in a pre-cultural era.
But there is also no culture that is not connected with a person, not born by him, or that preserves autonomy in relation to a person. Culture is a public good that people receive and pass on to their children. Social life is always cultural in nature.
Culture is evidence of human efforts and the result of purposeful work.
The river is nature, the canal is culture.
A piece of quartz is nature, an arrowhead is culture.
A groan is natural, a word is a heritage of culture.
Smell is nature, aroma and perfumes are culture.
Here is the stone. He fell off the rock and lies in the valley. This is a natural object. The primitive man picked up this object from the ground and tied it to a stick. Thus the tool was born. This is where the birth of culture is taking place.
Natural blessings are given to people unintentionally and unconsciously. A person breathes air, but does not feel gratitude towards nature, because this gift is natural. However, no one can master the gifts of culture without the application of their own efforts.
Culture is the specificity of exclusively human activity, something that characterizes a person as a species. Culture is "second nature", it is always social. Expressing the forms of human activity, culture is at the same time an arsenal of acquired knowledge, images of self-knowledge and symbolic designations of the surrounding world.
What happened to man when he created culture? Did he separate from nature or, on the contrary, stepped towards it, bringing order?
Listen to the parable.
The wealthy host called to his feast many guests from different countries and lands. Generous treats were exhibited, each of the guests received expensive gifts. Most of those invited thanked the host and used his gifts, but there were also those who thought that the neighbors were given more. Then they began to take food and drink from their neighbors and greedily consume what was taken away. A scuffle ensued, in which the rich table was ruined, quickly emptied, and nothing was left of the former abundance on it.
What do you think this parable is about?
This generous host is nature, who has prepared food and drink for us, and the unreasonable guests at the feast are the people who inhabit the Earth. The behavior of the guests indicates that we do not always know how to competently and responsibly dispose of what nature gives us, demand more and more from it, squandering its pantries and, ultimately, punish ourselves.
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Word “culture” comes from the Latin word colere, which means to cultivate, or cultivate the soil. In the Middle Ages, this word began to refer to a progressive method of cultivating cereals, thus the term arose. agriculture or the art of agriculture. But in the 18th and 19th centuries it began to be used in relation to people, therefore, if a person was distinguished by the elegance of manners and erudition, he was considered “cultured”. Then this term was applied mainly to aristocrats in order to separate them from the "uncivilized" common people. german word Culture also meant a high level of civilization. In our life today the word “culture” is still associated with the opera house, excellent literature, good education.
The modern scientific definition of culture has discarded the aristocratic shades of this concept. It symbolizes the beliefs, values, and expressions (used in literature and art) that are common to a group; they serve to streamline the experience and regulate the behavior of the members of that group. The beliefs and attitudes of a subgroup are often referred to as a subculture.
The assimilation of culture is carried out with the help of learning. Culture is created, culture is taught. Since it is not acquired biologically, each generation reproduces it and passes it on to the next generation. This process is the basis of socialization. As a result of the assimilation of values, beliefs, norms, rules and ideals, the formation of the child's personality and the regulation of his behavior take place. If the process of socialization were to stop on a massive scale, it would lead to the death of culture.
Culture forms the personalities of the members of society, thereby it largely regulates their behavior.
How important culture is for the functioning of the individual and society can be judged by the behavior of people who are not covered by socialization. The uncontrolled or infantile behavior of the so-called children of the jungle, who were completely deprived of human contact, indicates that without socialization, people are not able to adopt an orderly way of life, master the language and learn how to earn a livelihood. As a result of observing several “creatures that showed no interest in what was happening around, who rhythmically swayed back and forth like wild animals in a zoo,” an 18th-century Swedish naturalist. Carl Linnaeus concluded that they are representatives of a special species. Subsequently, scientists realized that these wild children did not have the development of personality, which requires communication with people. This communication would stimulate the development of their abilities and the formation of their "human" personalities.
If culture regulates people's behavior, can we go so far as to call it repressive? Often culture does suppress a person's motives, but it does not exclude them completely. Rather, it determines the conditions under which they are satisfied. The ability of culture to control human behavior is limited for many reasons. First of all, the limitless biological capabilities of the human body. Mere mortals cannot be taught to jump over tall buildings, even if society values such feats highly. In the same way, there is a limit to the knowledge that the human brain can absorb.
Environmental factors also limit the impact of the culture. For example, drought or volcanic eruptions can disrupt the established way of farming. Environmental factors may prevent the formation of some cultural patterns. According to the customs of people living in tropical jungles with a humid climate, it is not customary to cultivate certain plots of land for a long time, since they cannot receive high crop yields for a long time.
Maintaining a stable social order also limits the influence of culture. The very survival of society dictates the condemnation of acts such as murder, theft and arson. If these practices were to become widespread, it would be impossible for people to cooperate to collect or produce food, provide shelter, and carry out other essential activities.
Another important part of culture is that cultural values are formed on the basis of selection certain behaviors and experiences of people.
Each society has carried out its own selection of cultural forms. Each society, from the point of view of the other, neglects the main thing and engages in unimportant matters. In one culture, material values are hardly recognized, in another they have a decisive influence on people's behavior. In one society, technology is treated with incredible disdain, even in areas essential to human survival; in another similar society, constantly improving technology meets the requirements of the time. But each society creates a huge cultural superstructure that covers the whole life of a person - both youth, and death, and the memory of him after death.
As a result of this selection, past and present cultures are completely different. Some societies considered war to be the noblest human activity. In others, she was hated, and the representatives of the third had no idea about her. According to the norms of one culture, a woman had the right to marry her relative. Norms of other culture strongly forbid it. In our culture, hallucinations are considered a symptom of mental illness. Other societies regard "mystical visions" as the highest form of consciousness. In short, there are a great many differences between cultures.
Even a cursory contact with two or more cultures convinces us that the differences between them are innumerable. We and They travel in different directions, They speak a different language. We have different opinions about what behavior is crazy and what is normal, we have different concepts of a virtuous life. It is much more difficult to determine the common features common to all cultures - cultural universals.
Sociologists distinguish more than 60 cultural universals. These include sports, body decoration, community work, dancing, education, funeral rites, gift giving, hospitality, incest prohibitions, jokes, religious language, tool making, and attempts to influence the weather.
However, different cultures may have different sports, decorations, etc. The environment is one of the factors causing these differences. In addition, all cultural characteristics are conditioned by the history of a certain society and are formed as a result of a unique development of events. On the basis of different types of cultures, different kinds of sports, bans on consanguineous marriages and languages have arisen, but the main thing is that they exist in one form or another in every culture.
Why do cultural universals exist? Some anthropologists believe that they are formed on the basis of biological factors. These include having two sexes; helplessness of babies; the need for food and warmth; age differences between people; learning different skills. In this regard, there are problems that need to be solved on the basis of this culture. Certain values and ways of thinking are also universal. Every society forbids murder and denounces lying, none of them sanction suffering. All cultures must contribute to the satisfaction of certain physiological, social and psychological needs, although in particular, different options are possible.
There is a tendency in society to judge other cultures in terms of the superiority of one's own. This trend is called enthocentrism. The principles of ethnocentrism are clearly expressed in the activities of missionaries who seek to convert "barbarians" to their faith. Ethnocentrism is associated with xenophobia- fear and hostility to other people's views and customs.
Ethnocentrism marked the activity of the first anthropologists. They were inclined to compare all cultures with their own, which they considered the most advanced. According to the American sociologist William Graham Sumner, a culture can only be understood on the basis of an analysis of its own values, in its own context. This point of view is called cultural relativism. Readers of Sumner's book were shocked to read that cannibalism and infanticide made sense in societies where such customs were practiced.
Cultural relativism promotes the understanding of subtle differences between closely related cultures. For example, in Germany, the doors in an institution are always tightly closed in order to separate people. The Germans believe that otherwise employees are distracted from work. By contrast, in the United States, office doors are usually open. Americans who work in Germany often complained that closed doors made them feel unwelcoming and alienated. A closed door for an American has a completely different meaning than for a German.
Culture is the cement of the edifice of social life. And not only because it is transmitted from one person to another in the process of socialization and contact with other cultures, but also because it forms in people a sense of belonging to a certain group. Apparently, members of the same cultural group are more likely to understand each other, trust and sympathize with each other than with outsiders. Their shared feelings are reflected in slang and jargon, favorite foods, fashion, and other aspects of culture.
Culture not only strengthens solidarity between people, but also causes conflicts within and between groups. This can be illustrated by the example of language, the main element of culture. On the one hand, the possibility of communication contributes to the rallying of the members of the social group. A common language brings people together. On the other hand, a common language excludes those who do not speak this language or speak it in a slightly different way. In the UK, members of different social classes use slightly different forms of English. Although everyone speaks "English", some groups use
“more correct” English than others. There are literally a thousand and one varieties of English in America. In addition, social groups differ from each other in the peculiarity of gestures, clothing style and cultural values. All this can lead to conflicts between groups.
According to anthropologists, culture consists of four elements.
1. Concepts (concepts). They are found mainly in the language. Thanks to them, it becomes possible to streamline the experience of people. For example, we perceive the shape, color and taste of objects in the world around us, but in different cultures the world is organized differently.
In the Trobriand language, one word denotes six different relatives: father, father's brother, father's sister's son, father's mother's sister's son, father's sister's daughter's son, father's brother's son, and father's sister's son. The English language does not even have words for the last four relatives.
This difference between the two languages is due to the fact that the people of the Trobriand Islands need a word that covers all relatives, to whom it is customary to treat with special respect. English and American societies have developed a less complex system of family ties, so the English do not need words for such distant relatives.
Thus, the study of the words of the language allows a person to navigate in the world around him through the selection of the organization of his experience.
2. Relationships. Cultures not only single out certain parts of the world with the help of concepts, but also reveal how these constituent parts are interconnected - in space and time, by meaning (for example, black is the opposite of white), on the basis of causation (“spare the rod - spoil child"). Our language has words for earth and sun, and we are sure that the earth revolves around the sun. But before Copernicus, people believed the opposite was true. Cultures often interpret relationships differently.
Each culture forms certain ideas about the relationship between concepts related to the sphere of the real world and to the sphere of the supernatural.
3. Values. Values are generally accepted beliefs about the goals that a person should strive for. They form the basis of moral principles.
Different cultures may favor different values (heroism on the battlefield, artistic creativity, asceticism), and each social order determines what is and is not a value.
4.Rules. These elements (including norms) regulate people's behavior in accordance with the values of a particular culture. For example, our legal system includes many laws against killing, injuring or threatening other people. These laws reflect how much we value the life and well-being of the individual. In the same way, we have dozens of laws prohibiting burglary, embezzlement, property damage, etc. They reflect our desire to protect personal property.
Values not only need justification themselves, but, in turn, they themselves can serve as justification. They justify the norms or expectations and standards that are realized in the course of interaction between people.
Norms can represent standards of conduct. But why do people tend to obey them, even if it is not in their interests? During the exam, the student could copy the answer from a neighbor, but is afraid of getting a bad mark. This is one of several potentially limiting factors. Social rewards (such as respect) encourage adherence to a norm that requires students to be honest. Social punishments or rewards that encourage compliance with norms are called sanctions. Punishments that keep people from doing certain things are called negative sanctions. These include a fine, imprisonment, reprimand, etc. Positive sanctions (for example, monetary reward, empowerment, high prestige) are called rewards for compliance with the norms.
In the theories of culture, an important place has always been given to language.
Language can be defined as a system of communication carried out with the help of sounds and symbols, the meanings of which are conditional, but have a certain structure.
Language is a social phenomenon. It cannot be mastered outside of social interaction, i.e. without interacting with other people. Although the process of socialization is largely based on the imitation of gestures - nodding, smiling and frowning - language is the main means of transmitting culture. Another important feature is that it is almost impossible to unlearn how to speak a native language if its basic vocabulary, rules of speech and structure are learned at the age of eight or ten, although many other aspects of a person's experience can be completely forgotten. This indicates a high degree of adaptability of the language to human needs; without it, communication between people would be much more primitive.
Language includes rules You, of course, know that there is right and wrong speech. The language has many implied and formal rules that determine how words can be combined to express the desired meaning. Grammar is a system of generally accepted rules on the basis of which a standard language is used and developed. At the same time, deviations from grammatical rules are often observed, associated with the peculiarities of various dialects and life situations.
Language is also involved in the process of acquiring the experience of people from the organization. Anthropologist Binjamin. Lee Whorf has shown that many concepts seem “for granted” to us only because they are ingrained in our language. “Language divides nature into parts, forms concepts about them and gives them meanings, mainly because we have come to an agreement to organize them in this way. This convention ... is encoded in the patterns of our language.” It is revealed especially clearly in the comparative analysis of languages. We already know that colors and relationships are denoted differently in different languages. Sometimes there is a word in one language that is completely absent in another.
When using a language, it is necessary to follow its basic grammatical rules. Language organizes the experience of people. Therefore, like the whole culture as a whole, it develops generally accepted meanings. Communication is possible only if there are meanings that are accepted, used by its participants and understood by them. Indeed, our communication with each other in everyday life is largely due to our confidence that we understand each other.
The tragedy of mental disorders such as schizophrenia lies, first of all, in the fact that patients cannot communicate with other people and are cut off from society.
A common language also supports social cohesion. It helps people coordinate their actions by persuading or judging each other. In addition, between people who speak the same language, mutual understanding and sympathy almost automatically arise. The language reflects the general knowledge of people about the traditions that have developed in society and current events. In short, it contributes to the formation of a sense of group unity, group identity. The leaders of developing countries where there are tribal dialects are striving to ensure that a single national language is adopted, so that it spreads among groups that do not speak it, understanding the importance of this factor for uniting the whole nation and combating tribal disunity.
Although language is a powerful unifying force, at the same time it is capable of dividing people. The group using this language considers everyone who speaks it as their own, and people who speak other languages or dialects as strangers.
Language is the main symbol of the antagonism between the English and the French living in Canada. The struggle between supporters and opponents of bilingual teaching (English and Spanish) in some parts of the US suggests that language can be an important political issue.
Anthropologists of the late 19th century tended to compare culture to a huge collection of "cuts and scraps" that had no special connections between themselves and were collected by chance. Benedict (1934) and other anthropologists of the 20th century. argue that the formation of different models of one culture is carried out on the basis of common principles.
The truth is probably somewhere in the middle. Cultures do have predominant features, but no culture is exhausted by them, there is also diversity and conflict.
There are at least three types of conflicts associated with the development of culture: anomie, cultural delay and alien influence.
The term "anomie", denoting the violation of the unity of culture due to the lack of clearly formulated social norms, was first introduced by Emile Durkheim back in the 90s of the last century. At that time, the anomie was caused by the weakening of the influence of religion and the policy of increasing the role of commercial and industrial circles. These changes led to the disintegration of the system of moral values, which in the past was distinguished by its stability. Since then, social scientists have repeatedly noted that the increase in crime, the increase in the number of divorces occurred as a result of a violation of unity and culture, especially in connection with the instability of religious and family values.
At the turn of the century, William Fielding Osborne (1922) introduced the notion of cultural lag. It is observed when changes in the material life of society outstrip the transformation of non-material culture (customs, beliefs, philosophical systems, laws and forms of government). This leads to a constant discrepancy between the development of material and non-material culture, and as a result, many unresolved social problems arise. For example, progress in the woodworking industry is associated with the destruction of vast forest areas. But gradually society realizes the vital need for their preservation. Similarly, the invention of modern machines has led to a significant increase in industrial accidents. It took a long time before legislation providing for compensation for work-related injury was introduced.
A third kind of cultural conflict, caused by the dominance of a foreign culture, was observed in pre-industrial societies that were colonized by the peoples of Europe. According to B.K. Malinovsky (1945), many opposite elements of culture hampered the process of national integration in these societies. Studying the society of South Africa, Manilovsky revealed the conflict between the two cultures, formed in completely different conditions.
The social life of the natives before colonization was a single whole. On the basis of the tribal organization of society, a system of kinship ties, an economic and political structure, and even methods of warfare were simultaneously formed. The culture of the colonial powers, mainly Great Britain, arose under different conditions. But when European values were imposed on the natives, what happened was not a union of the two cultures, but their unnatural, fraught with tension mixing. According to Malinovsky, this mixture turned out to be unstable. He correctly predicted that there would be a long struggle between these two cultures, which would not stop even after the colonies gained independence. It will be supported by the desire of Africans to overcome tensions in their culture. At the same time, Malilovsky believed that Western values would eventually win.
Thus, models of culture are formed in the course of a constant struggle between opposing tendencies - towards unification and separation.
In most European societies by the beginning of the 20th century. there are two forms of culture.
high culture- fine arts, classical music and literature - were created and perceived by the elite.
folk culture, which included fairy tales, folklore, songs and myths, belonged to the poor. The products of each of these cultures were intended for a specific audience, and this tradition was rarely broken. With the advent of the mass media (radio, mass print media, television, records, tape recorders), the distinctions between high and popular culture were blurred. This is how Mass culture, which is not associated with religious or class subcultures. The media and popular culture are inextricably linked.
A culture becomes "mass" when its products are standardized and distributed to the general public.
In all societies, there are many subgroups with different cultural values and traditions. The system of norms and values that distinguish a group from the majority of society is called subculture.
A subculture is shaped by factors such as social class, ethnicity, religion, and location.
The values of the subculture influence the formation of the personality of the members of the group.
Some of the most interesting research on subcultures is about language. For example, William Labov (1970) tried to prove that the use of non-standard English by children from the Negro ghetto did not indicate their "linguistic inferiority." Lobov believes that Negro children are not deprived of the ability to communicate like whites, they just use a slightly different system of grammatical rules; over the years, these rules have become ingrained in the Negro subculture.
Lobov proved that in appropriate situations, both black and white children say the same thing, although they use different words.
However, the use of non-standard English inevitably causes a problem - the disapproving reaction of the majority to the so-called violation of generally accepted rules. Teachers often consider the use of the Negro dialect as a violation of the rules of the English language. Therefore, Negro children are undeservedly criticized and punished.
The term "subculture" does not mean that this or that group opposes the culture that dominates the society. However, in many cases, the majority of society treats the subculture with disapproval or distrust. This problem can arise even in relation to respected subcultures of doctors or the military. But sometimes the group actively seeks to develop norms or values that are in conflict with core aspects of the dominant culture. On the basis of such norms and values, a counterculture is formed. A well-known counterculture in Western society is Bohemia, and the most striking example in it is the hippies of the 60s.
Counterculture values can be the cause of long-term and irresolvable conflicts in society. However, sometimes they penetrate the mainstream culture itself. Long hair, ingenuity in language and dress, and hippie drug use have become widespread in American society, where, as often happens, mainly through the media, these values have become less provocative, therefore attractive to the counterculture and, accordingly, less threatening to the dominant culture.
Culture is an integral part of human life. Culture organizes human life. In human life, culture to a large extent performs the same function that genetically programmed behavior performs in the life of animals.
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Religion is an integral part of the culture and life of people
The Latin word "cultura" is translated - cultivation of the land, upbringing, education, development.
Initially, culture meant the cultivation of the land, taking care of it so that it becomes suitable for satisfying human needs in food, aesthetics, clothing, body care products, and medicines.
Since ancient times, man has tried to comprehend the secrets of being and, along with his material existence, discovered the spiritual world.
He tried to make a connection between these forms of being, especially in vital areas such as agriculture.
The cultivation of the land, sowing, harvesting was always preceded by certain religious rites, cult actions directed to higher powers for help.
The land itself was considered, considered sacred and deified by the peoples.
The word "culture" eventually spread to all spheres of human activity (education, art, communication) and began to be used in a broader sense - "ennoble, develop, educate, educate".
The Hellenes, for example, saw their main difference from the barbarians in their upbringing.
In the late Roman medieval period, culture was associated with signs of personal perfection.
The word culture came into scientific use in the second half of the 18th century, during the Enlightenment, and, from the point of view of the French Enlightenment, it meant rationality, a rational arrangement of life.
Later, the concept of culture became even broader and culture began to be divided into spiritual and material.
At present, the word "culture" is used both in a narrow sense, that is, in relation to the spiritual sphere (religion, art, philosophy), and in a broader sense, including material culture (industry, agriculture, transport, etc.) .
What is a religious culture? Religious culture should be understood as: religion (from Latin religio - restoration of connection with the Creator, piety, shrine, object of worship) - worldview, attitude, as well as appropriate behavior, special actions (cult), based on the belief in the existence of God (pagan religions - gods) and aimed at fellowship in Him, and receiving help from Him.
Art and folk traditions are directly related to religion, reflecting its content.
It remains to remember what history is. The Greek word "historia" means "a story about the past, about what has been learned" and is used in two main meanings: the process of development of nature and society; a set of social sciences that study the past of mankind (historical science).
Thus, the history of religious culture is a historical discipline that studies: The history of the formation of religious cultures, traditions of man's relationship with God; Religious ethics and philosophy; The history of origin and the meaning of basic religious concepts, symbols, divine services, church sacraments; Religious art and folk traditions associated directly with religion.
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