Tests in the discipline “Ecology and basic life safety”
1. The term “ecology” is translated from Greek as the science of............
e) about house, dwelling
In what year was the term “ecology” introduced?
Which scientist first proposed the term “ecology”.........
b) E. Haeckel
Select the scientists with whom the second stage of ecology development is associated (after the 60s of the 19th century – 50s of the 20th century.
e)K.F. Roulier, N.A. Severtsov, V.V. Dokuchaev
5. What ecology studies:
d) laws of existence (functioning) of living systems in their interaction with the environment.
The subject of ecology research is
f) biological macrosystems and their dynamics in time and space
Three main directions of ecology:
d) Autecology, synecology, de-ecology.
When did ecology finally take shape as an independent science?
d) at the beginning of the twentieth century
Which branch of ecology studies the interaction of geophysical living conditions and inanimate environmental factors...
e) geoecology
13. The interaction between individual organisms and environmental factors is studied by the section of ecology….
a) Autecology
14. The section of ecology that studies the relationship of a population with its environment is called:
a) demecology
Synecology studies
d) community ecology
16. The shell of the Earth inhabited by living organisms is called:
a) biosphere
17. A group of organisms with a similar external and internal structure, living in the same territory and producing fertile offspring is called:
a) population
The level at which a natural system has formed, covering all manifestations of life within our planet is called.....
c) biosphere
A set of pelagic actively moving animals that do not have a direct connection with the bottom. They are represented mainly by large animals that are able to overcome long distances and strong water currents..................
20. A set of pelagic organisms that do not have the ability for rapid active movements:
21. A set of organisms living at depth (on or in the ground) of water bodies:
b) Plankton
What levels of organization of living systems belong to the microsystem.....
a) molecular, cellular
23. Abiotic conditions that determine the field of existence of life:
a) oxygen and carbon dioxide
Which factor is not abiotic?
c) agricultural development
25. Plant communities are called:
e) phytocenosis
26. By type of nutrition, green plants and photosynthetic bacteria are:
a) Autotrophs.
27. Organisms that permanently live in the soil:
a) Geobinds
28. Decomposers are:
a) bacteria and fungi
29. Organisms that produce organic substances are called:
b) producers
The main source of oxygen in the atmosphere
d) plants
31.Organisms with a mixed type of nutrition:
e) Mixotrophs.
32. Light-loving plants:
b) Heliophytes
33.Shade-loving plants:
e) Sciophytes.
34. Plants growing in conditions of increased moisture:
a) Hygrophytes.
35. Adaptation of organisms develops with the help of:
c) Variation, heredity and natural selection.
36. Types of adaptation of organisms:
d) Morphological, ethological, physiological.
37. What is photoperiodism…..
a) Adaptation to the length of the day;
38.What factors limit during some process, phenomenon or existence of an organism: a) Limiting.
39.Environmental factors are divided into:
a) Abiotic, biotic, anthropogenic.
40.What is the limiting factor in water….
d) Oxygen.
41. Microbiogenic biotic environmental factors include:
b) Microbes and viruses.
Which law states that the endurance of the body is determined
the weakest link in the chain of its environmental needs:
d) Liebig's law of the minimum.
When was the law of “tolerance” discovered?
44. Which of the scientists discovered the maximum law:
c) W. Shelford.
45. The law of the minimum discovered:
e) J. Liebig.
Two species cannot exist sustainably in a limited space if the growth of both is limited by one vital resource, the quantity and availability of which is limited
b) Gause's law
What law indicates that the endurance of an organism is determined by the weakest link in the chain of its environmental needs.......
c) Gause's law (rule of competitive exclusion)
48. In 1903, V. Johansen introduced the term….
d) population
What is population homeostasis?
d) Constancy of population size;
50. Types of population growth are:
e) Exponential and logistic.
51. The territory occupied by a population is called:
52. Population size is:
e) The number of individuals included in it.
53. Define ecological population density:
b) the average number of individuals per unit area or volume occupied by the population of space
What is called biocenosis?
a) A deeply regular combination of organisms in certain environmental conditions.
Which scientist introduced the concept of “biocenosis”.......
B)K. Moebius
56.The term “biocenosis” was introduced:
What characterizes the tiering of a biocenosis?
d) Spatial structure
58. What is habitat...
a) The entire environment surrounding a living organism;
59. Pollution of the natural environment by living organisms that cause various diseases in humans is called:
a) Radioactive.
60. The set of abiotic factors within a homogeneous area is..."
61. What do they call the latest formations of a relatively stable stage of change of biocenoses that are in equilibrium with the environment...
d) Succession;
62. What is the name of the community of animals in ecosystems….
a) Biocenosis;
Biogeocenosis is
c) a group of animals and plants living in the same territory
64.What is amensalism….
b) Inhibition of the growth of one species by excretory products of another;
65. What is competition….
d) Suppression of some species by others in biocenoses;
66. This form of connections between species in which the consumer organism uses a living host not only as a source of food, but also as a place of permanent or temporary habitat….
c) Commensalism
67. Mutualism is….
b) Mutually beneficial cooperation;
68. Commensalism is….
b) A relationship that is beneficial for one and not beneficial for the other;
69. The normal existence of two species that do not interfere with each other is……
d) Neutrality;
70. The coexistence of invertebrate animals in a rodent burrow is called..
c) Tenancy;
71. Organisms of one species exist at the expense of nutrients or tissues of other organisms. This form of communication is called:
72. An ecological niche is:
e) +The totality of living conditions within an ecological system.
73. Individuals of one species eat individuals of another species. This relationship is called:
c) predation
The joint, mutually beneficial existence of individuals of 2 or more than 2 species is called:
b) symbiosis
75. The ecological niche of organisms is determined by:
e) +the whole set of conditions of existence
76. The concept of ecological niche applies to:
b) plants
77. Organisms with a mixed type of nutrition:
Types of relationships between organisms
Animals and plants, fungi and bacteria do not exist in isolation from each other, but enter into complex relationships. There are several forms of interaction between populations.
Neutralism
Cohabitation of two species in the same territory, which has neither positive nor negative consequences for them.
In neutralism, cohabiting populations of different species do not influence each other. For example, we can say that a squirrel and a bear, a wolf and a cockchafer, do not directly interact, although live in the same forest.
Antibiosis
When both interacting populations or one of them experience a harmful, life-suppressing influence.
Antagonistic relationships can manifest themselves as follows:
1. Competition.
A form of antibiotic relationship in which organisms compete with each other for food resources, sexual partners, shelter, light, etc.
In competition for food, the species whose individuals reproduce faster wins. Under natural conditions, competition between closely related species weakens if one of them switches to a new food source (that is, they occupy a different ecological niche). For example, in winter, insectivorous birds avoid competition by searching for food in different places: on tree trunks, in bushes, on stumps, on large or small branches.
Displacement of one population by another: In mixed crops of different types of clover, they coexist, but competition for light leads to a decrease in the density of each of them. Thus, competition that arises between closely related species can have two consequences: either the displacement of one species by another, or different ecological specialization of species, which makes it possible to coexist together.
Suppression of one population by another: Thus, fungi that produce antibiotics suppress the growth of microorganisms. Some plants that can grow on nitrogen-poor soils secrete substances that inhibit the activity of free-living nitrogen-fixing bacteria, as well as the formation of nodules in legumes. In this way, they prevent the accumulation of nitrogen in the soil and the colonization of it by species that require large amounts of it.
3. Amensalism
A form of antibiotic relationship in which one organism interacts with another and suppresses its vital activity, while it itself does not experience any negative influences from the suppressed one (for example, spruce and lower tier plants). A special case is allelopathy - the influence of one organism on another, in which waste products of one organism are released into the external environment, poisoning it and making it unsuitable for the life of another (common in plants).
5. Predation
This is a form of relationship in which an organism of one species uses members of another species as a food source once (by killing them).
Cannibalism is a special case of predation - killing and eating one’s own kind (found in rats, brown bears, humans).
Symbiosis
A form of relationship in which the participants benefit from cohabitation or at least do not harm each other. Symbiotic relationships also come in a variety of forms.
1. Protocooperation is a mutually beneficial, but optional coexistence of organisms, from which all participants benefit (for example, hermit crab and sea anemone).
2. Mutualism is a form of symbiotic relationship in which either one of the partners or both cannot exist without a cohabitant (for example, herbivorous ungulates and cellulose-degrading microorganisms).
Lichens are an inseparable cohabitation of fungus and algae, when the presence of a partner becomes a condition of life for each of them. The hyphae of the fungus, entwining the cells and filaments of the algae, receive substances synthesized by the algae. Algae extract water and minerals from the fungal hyphae.
Many grasses and trees develop normally only when soil fungi (mycorrhiza) settle on their roots: root hairs do not develop, and the mycelium of the fungus penetrates into the root. Plants receive water and mineral salts from the fungus, which in turn receives organic substances.
3. Commensalism is a form of symbiotic relationship in which one of the partners benefits from cohabitation, and the other is indifferent to the presence of the first. There are two types of cohabitation:
Housing (some sea anemones and tropical fish). The fish sticks by clinging to large fish (sharks), uses them as a means of transportation and, in addition, feeds on their waste.
The use of structures and body cavities of other species as shelters is widespread. In tropical waters, some fish hide in the respiratory cavity (water lungs) of sea cucumbers (or sea cucumbers, an order of echinoderms). The fry of some fish find refuge under the umbrella of jellyfish and are protected by their stinging threads. To protect the developing offspring, fish use the durable shell of crabs or bivalves. The eggs laid on the gills of the crab develop under conditions of an ideal supply of clean water passing through the gills of the host. Plants also use other species as habitats. These are the so-called epiphytes - plants that settle on trees. These can be algae, lichens, mosses, ferns, flowering plants. Woody plants serve as a place of attachment for them, but not as a source of nutrients.
Freeloading (large predators and scavengers). For example, hyenas follow lions, picking up the remains of their uneaten prey. There may be different spatial relationships between partners. If one partner is outside the cells of the other, they speak of ectosymbiosis, and if inside the cells, they speak of endosymbiosis.
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EXAMINATION CARD No. 4 |
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Types of nutrition of living organisms. |
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Theories of the origin of life. |
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There are two types of nutrition of living organisms: autotrophic and heterotrophic.
Autotrophs (autotrophic organisms) are organisms that use carbon dioxide as a carbon source (plants and some bacteria). In other words, these are organisms capable of creating organic substances from inorganic ones - carbon dioxide, water, mineral salts.
Heterotrophs (heterotrophic organisms) are organisms that use organic compounds (animals, fungi and most bacteria) as a carbon source. In other words, these are organisms that are not capable of creating organic substances from inorganic ones, but require ready-made organic substances.
Some living beings, depending on living conditions, are capable of both autotrophic and heterotrophic nutrition. Organisms with a mixed type of nutrition are called mixotrophs. Mixotrophs are organisms that can both synthesize organic substances from inorganic ones and feed on ready-made organic compounds (insectivorous plants, representatives of the euglena algae department, etc.)
Nature is beautiful and diverse. Existing on the same planet, plants and animals were forced to learn to coexist with each other. The relationship between organisms is a complex but interesting topic that will help to better understand the world around us.
Types of relationships
There are different types of relationships with each other. But scientists divide them into three large groups.
The first group combines all those types of relationships between organisms that can be called positive, the result of which helps two organisms to exist without contradictions.
The second group includes those types of relationships that are called negative. As a result of the interaction of two organisms, only one benefits, while the other is oppressed. Sometimes the latter may even die as a result of such relationships. This group also includes such interaction of organisms that negatively affects both the first and second individuals.
The third group is considered the smallest. This group includes relationships between organisms that bring neither benefit nor harm to both parties.
Positive types of relationships between organisms
In order to exist in the world, you need to find allies and helpers. This is exactly what many plants and animals do throughout their evolutionary development. The result is connections where both parties benefit from the relationship. Or those relationships that are beneficial only to one side, and they do not harm the other.
Positive relationships, also called symbiosis, come in many forms. Currently, cooperation, mutualism and commensalism are distinguished.
Cooperation
Cooperation is a relationship between living organisms where both parties benefit. Most often this benefit comes from obtaining food. But sometimes one of the parties receives from the other not only food, but also protection. Such relationships between organisms are very interesting. Examples can be seen in the animal kingdom in different parts of the planet.
One of them is the cooperation of hermit crab and sea anemone. Thanks to the sea anemone, the crayfish finds a home and protection from other inhabitants of the aquatic space. Without the hermit crab, the sea anemone cannot move. But cancer allows you to expand the radius of searching for food. In addition, what the sea anemone does not eat will sink to the bottom and go to the crayfish. This means that both parties benefit from this relationship.
Another example was the relationship between rhinoceroses and cowbirds. Such relationships between organisms allow one of the parties to find food. Cowbirds eat insects, which live in abundance on the huge rhinoceros. Rhinos also benefit from neighbors. Thanks to these birds, he can lead a healthy life and not worry about insects.
Commensalism
Commensalism is those relationships between organisms in ecosystems when one of the organisms benefits, and the second does not experience inconvenience from these relationships, but does not benefit either. This type of relationship is also called freeloading.
Sharks are terrifying marine predators. But for sticky fish, they become a chance to survive and protect themselves from other aquatic predators, which are weak compared to sharks. Sticky fish benefit from sharks. But they themselves do not bring them any benefit. At the same time, there is no harm. For the shark, such relationships go unnoticed.
In rodent burrows you can find not only babies, but also a huge number of different insects. The hole created by the animal becomes their home. It is here that they find not only shelter, but also protection from those animals that love to feast on them. In a rodent burrow, the insect is not afraid of this. Moreover, here they can find enough food to lead a life without troubles. Rodents do not experience any difficulties from these types of relationships.
Negative types of relationships between organisms
Existing together on the planet, animals can not only help each other, but also cause harm. It is not easy to learn these relationships between organisms. The table will help schoolchildren and students.
Predation
Anyone can tell you what predation is without preparation. This is the relationship between organisms when one side benefits and the other suffers. In order to better understand who eats whom, you can compile And then it is easy to find out that many herbivores become food for other animals. At the same time, predators can also be someone's food.
Despite the fact that hedgehogs are often depicted in pictures with apples and mushrooms, they are predators. Hedgehogs feed on small rodents. But they also cannot feel safe. They can be eaten by foxes. In addition, foxes, like wolves, feed on hares.
Despite the bloodthirsty predators hunting for weaker animals day and night, competition is considered the most cruel type of relationship between organisms. After all, these include the struggle for a place in the sun among representatives of the same species. And each species has its own means of obtaining the required amount of food or better housing.
Stronger and more agile animals win the fight. Strong wolves get good prey, while others are left either to feed on other, less nourishing animals, or to die of hunger. A similar struggle is waged between plants to get as much moisture or sunlight as possible.
Neutral relationship
There are also types of relationships between organisms when both parties receive neither benefit nor harm. Despite the fact that they live in the same territory, they have absolutely nothing in common. If one of the parties to this relationship disappears from the face of the planet, then the other party will not be directly affected.
Thus, in warm countries, different herbivores feed on the leaves of the same tree. Giraffes eat the leaves that are on top. They are the most juicy and delicious. And other herbivores are forced to feed on the remains growing below. Giraffes do not bother them and do not take away their food. After all, low animals will not be able to reach the leaves that tall animals eat. And it makes no sense for tall people to bend over and take food from others.
There are different forms of relationships between organisms. And learning them all is not so easy. But it is important to remember that everything in nature is interconnected. Most often, animals and plants influence each other positively or negatively, less often they do not influence each other at all. But even if they are not directly related, this does not mean that the disappearance of one cannot lead to the death of the other. The relationship between organisms is an important part of the surrounding world.
Species of any organisms living in the same territory and in contact with each other enter into various relationships with each other. The position of the species in different forms of relationships is indicated by conventional signs. The minus sign (?) indicates an unfavorable effect (individuals of the species are oppressed). A plus sign (+) indicates a beneficial effect (individuals of the species benefit). The zero sign (0) indicates that the relationship is indifferent (no influence).
Biotic connections? relationships between different organisms. They can be direct (direct impact) and indirect (mediated). Direct connections occur through the direct influence of one organism on another. Indirect connections are manifested through influence on the external environment or another species. 
Thus, all biotic connections can be divided into 6 groups:
1 Neutralism - populations do not influence each other (00);
2a. Proto-cooperation - populations have mutually beneficial relationships (++) (Interaction with each other is beneficial for both populations, but is not necessary);
2c. Mutualism - populations have mutually beneficial relationships (++) (Obligatory interaction beneficial for both populations);
3. Competition - relationships are harmful to both species (? ?);
5. Commensalism - one species benefits, the other does not experience harm (+0);
6. Ammensalism - one species is oppressed, the other does not benefit (? 0);
Types of interactions
In nature, cohabitation of two or more species is often found, which in some cases becomes necessary for both partners. Such cohabitation is called a symbiotic relationship between organisms (from the combination of sym? together, bio? life) or symbiosis. The term “symbiosis” is a general one; it refers to cohabitation, a prerequisite for which is living together, a certain degree of cohabitation of organisms.
A classic example of symbiosis are lichens, which are a close, mutually beneficial cohabitation of fungi and algae.
A typical symbiosis is the relationship between termites and single-celled organisms living in their intestines? Flagellates. These protozoa produce an enzyme that breaks down fiber into sugar. Termites do not have their own enzymes to digest cellulose and would die without their symbionts. And flagellates find favorable conditions in the intestine that promote their survival. A well-known example of symbiosis? cohabitation of green plants (primarily trees) and mushrooms.
A close, mutually beneficial relationship in which the presence of each of the two partner species becomes mandatory is called mutualism (++). Such are, for example, the relationships between highly specialized plants for pollination (figs, figs, datura, orchids) with the insect species that pollinate them.
A symbiotic relationship in which one species receives some advantage without bringing any harm or benefit to the other is called commensalism (+0). The manifestations of commensalism are varied, so a number of variants are distinguished.
Freeloading? consumption of the owner's food scraps. This is, for example, the relationship between lions and hyenas picking up the remains of half-eaten food, or sharks with sticky fish. Companionship? consuming different substances or parts of the same food. Example? the relationship between various types of soil saprophyte bacteria, which process various organic substances from rotted plant residues, and higher plants, which consume the mineral salts formed during this process. Tenancy? the use by one species of another (their bodies, their homes) as a shelter or home. Is this type of relationship widespread in plants? An example is lianas and epiphytes (orchids, lichens, mosses) that settle directly on the trunks and branches of trees.
In nature, there are also such forms of relationships between species when coexistence is not obligatory for them. These relationships are not symbiotic, although they play an important role in the existence of organisms. An example of mutually beneficial connections is protocooperation (literally: primary cooperation) (++), which includes the dispersal of seeds of some forest plants by ants or the pollination of various meadow plants by bees.
If two or more species use similar ecological resources and live together, competition (? ?), or struggle for possession of the necessary resource, may arise between them. Competition occurs where environmental resources are scarce, and rivalry inevitably occurs between species. Each species experiences oppression, which negatively affects the growth and survival of organisms and the size of their populations.
Competition is extremely widespread in nature. For example, plants compete for light, moisture, soil nutrients and, therefore, to expand their territory. Animals fight for food resources and for shelters (if they are in short supply), that is, ultimately, also for territory. Competitive struggle weakens in areas with sparse populations represented by a small number of species: for example, in arctic or desert areas there is almost no competition between plants for light
Predation (+ ?) ? this type of relationship between organisms in which representatives of one species kill and eat representatives of another. Predation? one of the forms of food relations.
If the two species do not affect each other, then this? neutralism (00). In nature, true neutralism is very rare, since indirect interactions are possible between all species, the effect of which we do not see due to the incompleteness of our knowledge.
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Living organisms are connected to each other in a certain way. The following types of connections between species are distinguished:
- trophic,
- topical,
- phoric,
- factory
The most important are trophic and topical connections, since they are the ones that hold organisms of different species near each other, uniting them into communities.
Trophic connections arise between species when one species feeds on another: living individuals, dead remains, waste products. Trophic connections can be direct or indirect. Direct connection manifests itself when lions feed on live antelopes, hyenas on the corpses of zebras, dung beetles on the droppings of large ungulates, etc. Indirect connection occurs when different species compete for one food resource.
Topical connections manifest themselves in one species changing the living conditions of another species. For example, under a coniferous forest, as a rule, there is no grass cover.
Phoric connections occur when one species participates in the spread of another species. The transfer of seeds, spores, and pollen by animals is called zoochory, and small individuals - phoresia.
Factory connections consist in the fact that one species uses excretory products, dead remains, or even living individuals of another species for its structures. For example, when building nests, birds use tree branches, grass, down and feathers of other birds.
Types of relationships between organisms
The impact of one species on another can be positive, negative and neutral. In this case, different combinations of impact types are possible. There are:
Neutralism- cohabitation of two species on the same territory, which has neither positive nor negative consequences for them. For example, squirrels and moose do not have significant effects on each other.
Protocooperation- mutually beneficial, but not obligatory coexistence of organisms, from which all participants benefit. For example, hermit crabs and sea anemones. A coral sea anemone polyp, which has stinging cells that secrete poison, can settle on the shell of a crayfish. The sea anemone protects the crayfish from predatory fish, and the hermit crab, by moving, contributes to the spread of the sea anemones and an increase in their feeding space.
Mutualism (obligate symbiosis) - mutually beneficial cohabitation, when either one of the partners or both cannot exist without a cohabitant. For example, herbivorous ungulates and cellulose-degrading bacteria. Cellulose-degrading bacteria live in the stomach and intestines of herbivorous ungulates. They produce enzymes that break down cellulose, so they are essential for herbivores who do not have such enzymes. Herbivorous ungulates, for their part, provide bacteria with nutrients and a habitat with optimal temperature, humidity, etc.
Commensalism- a relationship in which one of the partners benefits from cohabitation, and the other is indifferent to the presence of the first. There are two forms of commensalism: sinoikia (lodging) And trophobiosis (freeloading). An example of synoikia is the relationship between some sea anemones and tropical fish. Tropical fish take refuge from predators among the tentacles of sea anemones, which have stinging cells. An example of trophobiosis is the relationship between large predators and scavengers. Scavengers, such as hyenas, vultures, and jackals, feed on the remains of victims killed and partially eaten by large predators - lions.
Predation- a relationship in which one of the participants (predator) kills the other (prey) and uses him as food. For example, wolves and hares. The state of the predator population is closely related to the state of the prey population. However, when the population size of one prey species decreases, the predator switches to another species. For example, wolves can use hares, mice, wild boars, roe deer, frogs, insects, etc. as food.
A special case of predation is cannibalism- killing and eating one's own kind. It is found, for example, in rats, brown bears, and humans.
Competition- relationships in which organisms compete with each other for the same environmental resources when the latter are in short supply. Organisms may compete for food resources, sexual partners, shelter, light, etc. There are direct and indirect, intraspecific and interspecific competition. Indirect (passive) competition- consumption of environmental resources necessary for both types. Direct (active) competition- suppression of one type by another. Intraspecific competition- competition between individuals of the same species. Interspecific competition occurs between individuals of different but ecologically similar species. Its result can be either mutual adjustment two types, or substitution a population of one species of a population of another species that moves to another place, switches to another food, or goes extinct.
Competition leads to natural selection in the direction of increasing ecological differences between competing species and the formation of different ecological niches by them.
Amensalism- a relationship in which one organism influences another and suppresses its vital activity, while it itself does not experience any negative influences from the suppressed one. For example, spruce and lower tier plants. The dense crown of spruce prevents the penetration of sunlight under the forest canopy and suppresses the development of plants in the lower tier.
A special case of amensalism is allelopathy (antibiosis)- the influence of one organism on another, in which waste products of one organism are released into the external environment, poisoning it and making it unsuitable for the life of another. Allelopathy is common in plants, fungi, and bacteria. For example, the penicillium fungus produces substances that suppress the activity of bacteria. Penicillium is used to produce penicillin, the first antibiotic discovered in medicine. Recently, the concept of “allelopathy” has also included a positive effect.
In the course of evolution and development of ecosystems, there is a tendency to reduce the role of negative interactions at the expense of positive ones, increasing the survival of both species. Therefore, in mature ecosystems the proportion of strong negative interactions is less than in young ones.
Characteristics of the types of interaction between populations of different species are also given in the table:
Notes:
- (0)—there is no significant interaction between populations.
- (+) - a beneficial effect on growth, survival or other characteristics of the population.
- (-) - inhibitory effect on growth or other characteristics of the population.
- Types 2-4 can be considered "negative interactions", 7-9 can be considered "positive interactions", and types 5 and 6 can be classified as both groups.
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