Why was the Christian Church divided? A Brief History of the Division of Churches in the 11th Century

Department of Humanities

Test

in the discipline "Religious Studies"

"Split in Christianity"

Plan

Introduction

1. The emergence of Christianity

2. Reasons for the Schism of the Church into three main directions

2.1 Schism of the Roman Church

2.2 Separation of Protestantism

3. Results of church schisms

Conclusion

List of sources used

Christianity is the most widespread world religion and one of the most developed religious systems in the world. At the beginning of the third millennium it is the largest religion in the world. And although Christianity, represented by its followers, is found on all continents, and on some it is absolutely dominant (Europe, America, Australia), this is precisely the only religion that is characteristic of the Western world as opposed to the Eastern world with its many different religious systems.

Christianity is a collective term to describe three main movements: Orthodoxy, Catholicism and Protestantism. In reality, Christianity has never been a single organization. In numerous provinces of the Roman Empire, it acquired its own specificity, adapting to the conditions of each region, to the local culture, customs, and traditions.

Knowledge of the reasons, prerequisites and conditions for the split of one world religion into three main directions gives an important understanding of the formation of modern society and helps to understand the main processes on the path to the formation of religion. Issues of conflicts of religious movements make you think about their essence, offer to solve them for yourself and are important aspects on the path of personality formation. The relevance of this topic in the era of globalization and alienation from the church of modern society is confirmed by the ongoing disputes between churches and confessions.

Goal of the work:

· identify the preconditions for conflicts;

· consider the period preceding the split;

· show the progress of the dispute;

· explain the main reasons for the separation.

Christianity began in the 1st century in the Judean lands in the context of the messianic movements of Judaism. Already in the time of Nero, Christianity was known in many provinces of the Roman Empire.

The roots of Christian doctrine are connected with Judaism and the teachings of the Old Testament (in Judaism - the Tanakh). According to the gospels and church tradition, Jesus (Yeshua) was raised as a Jew, observed the Torah, attended synagogue on Shabbat (Saturday), and observed holidays. The apostles and other early followers of Jesus were Jews. But just a few years after the founding of the church, Christianity began to be preached among other nations.

According to the New Testament text of the Acts of the Apostles (Acts 11:26), noun «Χριστιανοί» - Christians, adherents (or followers) of Christ, first came into use to designate supporters of the new faith in the Syriac-Hellenistic city of Antioch in the 1st century.

Initially, Christianity spread among the Jews of Palestine and the Mediterranean diaspora, but, starting from the first decades, thanks to the preaching of the Apostle Paul, it gained more and more followers among other peoples (“pagans”). Until the 5th century, the spread of Christianity occurred mainly within the geographical boundaries of the Roman Empire, as well as in the sphere of its cultural influence (Armenia, eastern Syria, Ethiopia), later (mainly in the 2nd half of the 1st millennium) - among the Germanic and Slavic peoples, later (by the XIII-XIV centuries) - also among the Baltic and Finnish peoples. In modern and recent times, the spread of Christianity outside of Europe occurred due to colonial expansion and the activities of missionaries.

In the period from IV to VIII centuries. The Christian Church was strengthened, with its centralization and strict implementation of the instructions of senior officials. Having become the state religion, Christianity also became the dominant worldview of the state. Naturally, the state needs a single ideology, a single teaching, and therefore it was interested in strengthening church discipline, as well as a single worldview.

The Roman Empire united many different peoples, and this allowed Christianity to penetrate into all its remote corners. However, differences in the level of culture and lifestyles of different peoples of the state gave rise to different interpretations of contradictory places in the doctrine of Christians, which was the basis for the emergence of heresies among newly converted people. And the collapse of the Roman Empire into a number of states with different socio-political systems raised contradictions in theology and cult politics to the level of irreconcilability.

The conversion of huge masses of yesterday's pagans sharply lowers the level of the Church and contributes to the emergence of mass heretical movements. By interfering in the affairs of the Church, emperors often become patrons and even initiators of heresies (for example, monothelitism and iconoclasm are typically imperial heresies). The process of overcoming heresies occurs through the formation and disclosure of dogmas at seven Ecumenical Councils.

The threat of schism, which translated from Greek means “schism, division, strife,” became real for Christianity already in the middle of the 9th century. Usually, the causes of schism are sought in economics, politics, and in the personal likes and dislikes of the popes and patriarchs of Constantinople. Researchers perceive the peculiarities of the doctrine, cult, and lifestyle of believers of Western and Eastern Christianity as something secondary, insignificant, preventing them from explaining the true reasons, which, in their opinion, lie in economics and politics, in anything but the religious specifics of what is happening. And on this note the church approached its main schism.

One of the largest divisions of Christianity was the emergence of two main directions - Orthodoxy and Catholicism. This split has been brewing for several centuries. It was determined by the peculiarities of the development of feudal relations in the eastern and western parts of the Roman Empire and the competitive struggle between them.

The preconditions for the schism arose at the end of the 4th and beginning of the 5th century. Having become the state religion, Christianity was already inseparable from the economic and political upheavals experienced by this huge power. During the Councils of Nicaea and the First Council of Constantinople, it appeared relatively unified, despite internal divisions and theological disputes. However, this unity was based not on everyone’s recognition of the authority of the Roman bishops, but on the authority of the emperors, which extended to the religious area. Thus, the Council of Nicea was held under the leadership of Emperor Constantine, and the Roman episcopate was represented at it by presbyters Vitus and Vincent.

With the help of political intrigue, the bishops managed not only to strengthen their influence in the Western world, but even to create their own state - the Papal States (756-1870), which occupied the entire central part of the Apennine Peninsula. Having strengthened their power in the West, the popes tried to subjugate all of Christianity, but without success. The Eastern clergy was subordinate to the emperor, and he did not even think of giving up even part of his power in favor of the self-proclaimed “vicar of Christ,” who sat on the episcopal see in Rome. Quite serious differences between Rome and Constantinople appeared at the Council of Trulla in 692, when out of 85 rules, Rome (the Roman pope) accepted only 50.

In 867, Pope Nicholas I and Patriarch Photius of Constantinople publicly cursed each other. And in the 11th century. enmity flared up with renewed vigor, and in 1054 a final split in Christianity occurred. It was caused by the claims of Pope Leo IX to the territories subordinate to the patriarch. Patriarch Michael Kerullariy rejected these harassments, which was followed by mutual anathemas (ie, church curses) and accusations of heresy. The Western Church began to be called Roman Catholic, which meant the Roman universal church, and the eastern - Orthodox, i.e. true to dogma.

Thus, the reason for the split in Christianity was the desire of the highest hierarchs of the Western and Eastern churches to expand the boundaries of their influence. It was a struggle for power. Other differences in doctrine and cult were also discovered, but they were more likely a consequence of the mutual struggle of church hierarchs than the cause of the split in Christianity. Thus, even a cursory acquaintance with the history of Christianity shows that Catholicism and Orthodoxy have purely earthly origins. The split in Christianity was caused by purely historical circumstances.

Throughout the Middle Ages, the church played a significant role in the life of society, fitting perfectly into the feudal system dominant in the West. Being a large feudal lord, the church in various states of Western Europe owned up to 1/3 of all cultivated land, on which it used the labor of serfs, using the same methods and techniques as secular feudal lords, and receiving countless fruits from them.

The feudal Catholic Church could exist and flourish as long as its material basis, the feudal system, dominated. But already in the 14th-15th centuries, first in Central Italy and Flanders, and from the end of the 15th century throughout Europe, the formation of a new class began, which gradually took control of the economy - the bourgeois class. She needed a new religion that would differ from Catholicism primarily in its simplicity and cheapness. For them, the Catholic diocese became not only unnecessary, but also simply harmful, the entire expensive organization of the church with its pope, cardinals, bishops, monasteries and church land ownership.

Schism of the Christian Church (1054)

Schism of the Christian Church in 1054, Also Great Schism- church schism, after which division finally occurred Churches on Roman Catholic Church on West And Orthodox- on East centered at Constantinople.

HISTORY OF THE SCHIPT

In fact, disagreements between pope And Patriarch of Constantinople started long before 1054 , however, it is in 1054 Roman Pope Leo IX sent to Constantinople legates led by Cardinal Humbert to resolve the conflict, which began with the closure of 1053 Latin churches in Constantinople by order Patriarch Michael Kirulariy, at which it Sacellarium Konstantin thrown out of tabernacles Holy Sacrament, prepared according to Western custom from unleavened bread, and trampled them underfoot

[ [ http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10273a.htm Mikhail Kirulariy (English)] ].

However, it was not possible to find a path to reconciliation, and July 16, 1054 in the cathedral Hagia Sophia papal legates announced on the deposition of Kirularius and him excommunication. In response to this July 20 the patriarch betrayed anathema to legates. The split has not yet been overcome, although in 1965 mutual curses were lifted.

REASONS FOR THE SPIT

The split had many reasons:

ritual, dogmatic, ethical differences between western And Eastern Churches, property disputes, the struggle between the Pope and the Patriarch of Constantinople for championship among Christian patriarchs, different languages of worship

(Latin in the Western Church and Greek in eastern).

POINT OF VIEW OF THE WESTERN (CATHOLIC) CHURCH

The letter of excommunication was handed over July 16, 1054 in Constantinople V Sophia Church on the holy altar during the service of legate of the Pope Cardinal Humbert.

Letter of excommunication contained the following charges to eastern church:

PERCEPTION OF THE SCHIPT in Rus'

After leaving Constantinople, the papal legates went to Rome in a roundabout way to notify of excommunication Mikhail Kirularia other eastern hierarchs. Among other cities they visited Kyiv, Where With were received with due honors by the Grand Duke and the Russian clergy .

In subsequent years Russian church did not take a clear position in support of any of the parties to the conflict, although it remained Orthodox. If hierarch of Greek origin were prone to anti-Latin polemic, then actually Russian priests and rulers not only did they not participate in it, but also did not understand the essence of the dogmatic and ritual claims made by the Greeks against Rome.

Thus, Rus' maintained communication with both Rome and Constantinople, making certain decisions depending on political necessity.

Twenty years after "division of churches" there was a significant conversion case Grand Duke of Kyiv (Izyaslav-Dimitri Yaroslavich ) to authority Pope St. Gregory VII. In his feud with his younger brothers over Kyiv throne Izyaslav, the legitimate prince, was forced run abroad(V Poland and then in Germany), from where he appealed in defense of his rights to both heads of the medieval "Christian republic" - To to the emperor(Henry IV) and to dad.

Princely Embassy V Rome headed it son Yaropolk -Peter who had an assignment “to give all Russian land under the protection of St. Petra" . Dad really intervened in the situation Rus'. In the end, Izyaslav returned to Kyiv(1077 ).

Myself Izyaslav and him son Yaropolk canonized Russian Orthodox Church .

Near 1089 V Kyiv To Metropolitan John the embassy has arrived Antipope Guibert (Clement III), apparently wanting to strengthen his position at the expense of his confessions in Rus'. John being by birth Greek, responded with a message, although composed in the most respectful terms, but still directed against "misconceptions" Latins(this is the first time non-apocryphal scripture "against the Latins", compiled on Rus', but not by a Russian author). However, the successor John a, Metropolitan Ephraim (Russian by origin) himself sent to Rome a trusted person, probably with the aim of personally verifying the state of affairs on the spot;

V 1091 this messenger returned to Kyiv And “bring many relics of saints” . Then, according to Russian chronicles, ambassadors from dads came to 1169 . IN Kyiv there were Latin monasteries(including Dominican- With 1228 ), on lands subject to Russian princes, acted with their permission Latin missionaries(so, in 1181 Princes of Polotsk allowed Augustinian monks from Bremen baptize those under their control Latvians And Livs on the Western Dvina).

The upper class included (to the displeasure Greeks) numerous mixed marriages. Great Western influence is noticeable in some areas of church life. Similar situation remained until Tatar-Mongolian invasions.

REMOVAL OF MUTUAL ANATHEMAS

IN 1964 year in Jerusalem a meeting took place between Ecumenical Patriarch Athenagoras, head Orthodox Church of Constantinople And by Pope Paul VI, as a result of which mutual anathemas were filmed in 1965 year was signed Joint Declaration

[ [ http://www.krotov.info/acts/20/1960/19651207.html Declaration on the lifting of anathemas] ].

However, this formal "goodwill gesture" had no practical or canonical significance.

WITH Catholic points of view remain valid and cannot be canceled anathemas First Vatican Council against all who deny the doctrine of the primacy of the Pope and the infallibility of his judgments on matters of faith and morals, pronounced "ex cathedra"(that is, when Dad acts as earthly head and mentor of all Christians), as well as a number of other dogmatic decrees.

John Paul II was able to cross the threshold Vladimir Cathedral V Kyiv accompanied by leadership unrecognized others Orthodox churches Ukrainian Orthodox Church of the Kyiv Patriarchate .

A April 8, 2005 for the first time in history Orthodox Church in Vladimir Cathedral passed funeral service committed by representatives Ukrainian Orthodox Church of the Kyiv Patriarchate head of the Roman Catholic Church .

Literature

[http://www.krotov.info/history/08/demus/lebedev03.html Lebedev A.P. History of the division of churches in the 9th, 10th and 11th centuries. St. Petersburg 1999 ISBN 5-89329-042-9],

[http://www.agnuz.info/book.php?id=383&url=page01.htm Taube M. A. Rome and Rus' in the pre-Mongol period] .

Consequences of the split

The split was inevitable, since in addition to cultural differences and differences in the interpretation of faith and rituals, there was such an important factor as a sense of self-worth and irreconcilability with the fact that someone is superior. It is this factor that has played a leading role many times throughout history, both world history in general and church history in particular. The separation of churches such as the Protestant (much later) occurred precisely according to the same principle. However, no matter how much you prepare, no matter how much you predict, any division will certainly lead to a violation of established traditions and principles, and the destruction of possible prospects. Namely:

The schism introduced discord and dissonance into the Christian faith, became the pre-final point of division and destruction of the Roman Empire and contributed to the approach of the final one - the fall of Byzantium.
Against the backdrop of the strengthening of Muslim movements to unite the Middle East under the banners of one color and the increase in the military power of direct opponents of Christianity, the worst thing that could be imagined is division. If by joint efforts it was possible to restrain the hordes of Muslims even on the outskirts of Constantinople, then the fact that the west and east (the churches) turned away from each other contributed to the fact that the last stronghold of the Romans fell under the onslaught of the Turks, and then he himself found himself under a real threat Rome.
The schism, initiated by the “Christian brothers” with their own hands, and confirmed by the two main clergy, became one of the worst phenomena in Christianity. For if you compare the influence of Christianity before and after, you can see that “before” the Christian religion grew and developed practically on its own, the ideas promoted by the Bible themselves fell into the minds of people, and the Islamic threat was an extremely unpleasant, but solvable problem. “After” - the expansion of the influence of Christianity gradually faded away, and the already increasing area of coverage of Islam began to grow by leaps and bounds.

Then many people appeared who protested against Catholicism, and so the Protestants appeared, led by the Augustinian monk Martin Luther in the 15th century. Protestantism is the third branch of Christianity, which is quite widespread.
And now the schism in the Ukrainian church is causing such confusion in the ranks of believers that it’s becoming scary, what will all this lead to?!

Gdeshinsky Andrey

Simon asks
Answered by Igor, 02/03/2013

Hello Simon.

Let's start by defining the meaning of the words "Catholic", "Orthodox", "Protestant". I will try to use so that the text contains a minimum of subjective information.

Catholicism or Catholicism(from the Greek Catholicos - universal; for the first time in relation to the church, the term “Catholic Church” was used around 110 in a letter from St. Ignatius to the inhabitants of Smyrna and enshrined in the Nicene Creed). The motto of Catholicism is: “Quod ubique, quod semper, quod ad omnibus creditum est” (“What is recognized everywhere, always and by everyone”).

Orthodoxy (tracing paper from Greek “orthodoxy”, lit. “correct judgment”)

Protestantism (from the Latin protestans, gen. protestantis - publicly proving) is one of the three, along with Catholicism and Orthodoxy, main directions of Christianity, which is a collection of numerous and independent Churches and denominations associated in their origin with the Reformation - a broad anti-Catholic movement XVI century in Europe.

The schism of the Christian Church in 1054 is a church schism, after which the Christian Church was finally divided into the Roman Catholic Church and the Orthodox Church, centered in Constantinople.

In fact, disagreements between the Pope and the Patriarch of Constantinople began long before 1054, but it was in 1054 that Pope Leo IX sent legates to Constantinople led by Cardinal Humbert to resolve the conflict, which began with the closure of 1053 Latin churches in Constantinople by order of Patriarch Michael Cyrularius , in which his “chancellor” Nikephoros threw out the Holy Gifts, prepared according to Western custom from unleavened bread, from the tabernacles, and trampled them under his feet. However, it was not possible to find a path to reconciliation, and on July 16, 1054, in the Cathedral of Hagia Sophia, the papal legates announced the deposition of Kirularius and his excommunication from the Church. In response to this, on July 20, the patriarch anathematized the legates.

The split has not yet been overcome, although in 1965 the mutual curses were lifted.

The schism had many reasons: ritual, dogmatic, ethical differences between the Western and Eastern Churches, property disputes, the struggle between the Pope and the Patriarch of Constantinople for primacy among the Christian patriarchs, different languages of worship (Latin in the Western Church and Greek in the Eastern).

You can also find even more detailed information on the topic of the Great Schism.

Emergence of Protestantism, Reformation(from Latin reformatio - transformation) - a social movement in Western and Central Europe in the 16th century, directed against the traditions of the Christian faith that had developed in the Catholic Church.

The Reformation began with the speech of Martin Luther in Germany in 1517. The ideologists of the Reformation put forward theses that actually denied both the need for the Catholic Church with its hierarchy, and for the clergy in general. The Catholic Sacred Tradition was rejected, the rights of the church to land wealth were denied, etc.

The Reformation marked the beginning of Protestantism (in the narrow sense, reformation is the implementation of religious reforms in its spirit).

The Bible's point of view. However, if you want an answer about the reasons for the splits precisely from the point of view of the Bible, it will be somewhat different: the Bible writes about this in several books (I recommend Jacques Ducan’s study of the book of Daniel!). This is a very extensive separate topic.

Read more on the topic "Religion, rituals and the church":

Federal Agency for Education

Higher professional education

"National Research Technological University

"Moscow Institute of Steel and Alloys"

Novotroitsk branch

DEPARTMENT OF GISEN

ABSTRACT

discipline: Culturology

on the topic: “Orthodoxy and Catholicism: causes of the schism and characteristic features”

Completed by: student of group PI(e)-08-36

Mikhailik D. E.

Checked by: teacher

Akhmedova Yu. A

Novotroitsk 2010

Introduction………………………………………………………………………………..….3

1 Reasons for the split……………………………………………………….……….4

1.1 The emergence of Christianity…………………………...………..………..4

1.2 Schism of the Roman Church……………………………………………………..6

2 Characteristic features of Orthodoxy…………………………………………………………8

2.1 Orthodox doctrine…………………………………….…………….8

2.2 Sacraments………………………………………………………………………………10

2.3 Orthodox holidays………………………………………….………13

3 Characteristic features of Catholicism…………………………….………….17

3.1 Creed of the Roman Catholic Church………………….………………17

3.2 Sacraments and rituals in Catholicism………………………………………………………..22

Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………...…..24

References……………………………………………………………25

Introduction

Knowledge of the reasons, prerequisites and conditions for the split of one world religion into two main directions gives an important understanding of the formation of modern society and helps to understand the main processes on the path to the formation of religion. Issues of conflicts of religious movements make you think about their essence, offer to solve them for yourself and are important aspects on the path of personality formation. The relevance of this topic in the era of globalization and alienation from the church of modern society is confirmed by the ongoing disputes between churches and confessions.

Catholicism and Orthodoxy are often called the Western and Eastern Churches, respectively. The split of Christianity into the Western and Eastern Churches is considered to be the great schism of 1054, generated by disagreements that began around the 9th century. The final schism occurred in 1274.

1 Reasons for the split in Christianity

1.1 The emergence of Christianity

According to the New Testament text of the Acts of the Apostles (Acts 11:26), the noun “Χριστιανοί” - Christians, adherents (or followers) of Christ, first came into use to designate supporters of the new faith in the Syrian-Hellenistic city of Antioch in the 1st century.

1.2 Schism of the Roman Church

In 867, Pope Nicholas I and Patriarch Photius of Constantinople publicly cursed each other. And in the 11th century. enmity flared up with renewed vigor, and in 1054 a final split in Christianity occurred. It was caused by the claims of Pope Leo IX to the territories subordinate to the patriarch. Patriarch Michael Kerullariy rejected these harassments, which was followed by mutual anathemas (i.e. church curses) and accusations of heresy. The Western Church began to be called Roman Catholic, which meant the Roman universal church, and the Eastern Church - Orthodox, i.e. true to dogma.

2 Characteristic features of Orthodoxy

2.1 Orthodox doctrine

The basis of Orthodox dogma is the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed - a statement of the main Christian dogmas, the unconditional recognition of which is mandatory for every Orthodox Christian. It was approved by the Nicene (325) and Constantinople (381) Ecumenical Church Councils.

The Creed provides for faith in one God, who exists in three equally essential faces (hypostases) that made up the Holy Trinity - God the Father, God the Son and God the Holy Spirit, in the incarnation of God the Son - Jesus Christ, his sacrifice on the cross for the sake of overcoming the firstborn sin, resurrection, ascension into heaven, subsequent coming to Earth to judge the living and the dead, as well as the saving power of the “one holy catholic apostolic Church.”

The enumeration of the members of the "Creed in Orthodoxy" ("I Believe") is a basic prayer, similar in function to the Islamic shahada. The recitation of the Creed is an obligatory part of the ritual of accepting the Orthodox faith.

Particular importance in Orthodox theology is given to the dogma of the Holy Trinity. The difference between Orthodoxy and the doctrine of other Christian confessions is the doctrine of the Divine unity of command in the Holy Trinity: God the Father, as the First Principle, gives birth to the Son and wills the Holy Spirit through him. In Catholic doctrine, this is understood as the participation of the Son in the emanation of the Holy Spirit (the formula “filioque” - “and from the Son”), which from the point of view of Orthodox theology is heresy.

Holy books

The main holy book of Orthodox Christians, like all Christians in the world, is the Bible, traditionally called the Holy Scriptures in Russia. It is divided into the Old Testament - Hebrew texts, considered as a divinely inspired account of the prehistory of the appearance of Christ, and the New Testament - the Christian sacred books themselves, containing the biography of Christ and setting out the essence of Christian doctrine. The Old Testament consists of 50 books. The New Testament is from 27. The historical language of the Old Testament is Hebrew, the New Testament is Hellenistic Greek.

Immediately after the Holy Scriptures, the Orthodox Church places the Holy Tradition in importance; the Holy Tradition includes: -decisions of the first seven Ecumenical Councils;

Decisions of Local Councils of autocephalous churches recognized as generally valid;

The so-called patristics (patristic literature) are the writings of the Eastern “fathers of the church”, who established the ranks, canons and apostolic rules of Orthodoxy.

In the Russian Church, in worship and prayer, the Church Slavonic text of the Bible is used, established and unchanged since 1751. In secular circulation and reading, the Russian text of the Bible is used, first published in full in 1876. The Church Slavonic translation of the Bible is traditionally attributed to the holy brothers Cyril (Constantine) and Methodius ( 9th century). The Russian translation was carried out in 1818 -1875. a group of learned hierarchs and theologians (the so-called Synodal translation). Currently it is very widespread.

In the text of the Orthodox Bible, 39 books of the Old Testament are translated from Hebrew and are considered canonical. 10 books were translated from the Greek text of the 3rd - 2nd centuries BC (the so-called Septuagint, translation of the “70 Interpreters”), one book was translated from the Latin translation of the 4th century (the so-called Vulgate). The last 11 books are considered non-canonical, but are included in the Bible. There are a number of non-canonical insertions into canonical books (special notes in the text of the Bible). These features are the main difference between the Orthodox Bible and the Catholic Bible, in which all texts are recognized as canonical. The New Testament is the same for all Christians without canonical differences.

The Orthodox Church, unlike the Catholic Church, does not condemn independent reading of the Bible, considering it a worthy and godly deed. At the same time, she considers such reading difficult for unprepared people and therefore warns them against attempting to interpret sacred texts.

2.2 Sacraments

The grace-filled power of the church, transmitted by Christ through the apostles, finds expression in sacred rites (special religious rites) - the sacraments. Their effectiveness is associated with the presence of apostolic succession. The external expression of the sacraments of the Christian church has analogues in the sacred rites of the pre-Christian religion (paganism), but takes on a completely different meaning.

Christianity adopted the “forms” of the pagan religion, since “the whole idea of Christianity is not to replace all the “forms” in this world with new ones, but to fill them with new and true content... Baptism with water, a religious meal, anointing with oil - all these The church did not invent the fundamental religious acts... all of them already existed in the religious practice of mankind.

In Orthodoxy, the seven sacraments are considered basic: baptism, confirmation, repentance, communion (Eucharist), priesthood, marriage and consecration of oil (unction).

1. Baptism is a person’s joining the church. It is performed by three times immersion in water in the name of the Holy Trinity. In Orthodoxy, baptism is performed both on adults who have undergone the “catechumen” (conscious acceptance of the time), and on infants according to the faith of their godparents (godparents). Orthodoxy recognizes as valid baptism in any Christian denomination performed in the name of the Holy Trinity. Unlike other sacraments, it can be performed in exceptional cases (absence of a priest, illness of a child) by any lay Christian. But at the first opportunity, the person baptized in this way and the person who performed the baptism must turn to the temple to the priest, who will check the correctness of the performed rite and “complete” it.

2. Confirmation is a rite performed immediately after baptism. It is performed by anointing parts of the body (forehead, palms, feet) with holy myrrh - a special aromatic oil consecrated by the Council of Bishops. Means the introduction to the title of a lay member of the church.

3. Repentance - confession of sins to a priest - spiritual father. In Orthodoxy, repentance combined with the remission of sins (confession) occurs both by the conscious will of the penitent, and in the absence of his will, for example, in relation to a seriously ill person in an unconscious state - the so-called “dumb confession”.

4. Communion (Eucharist) - the believer’s communion with Christ. It is performed during the main Orthodox service - the liturgy by consuming small portions of bread and wine, embodying the body and blood of Christ.

According to the Holy Scriptures, the first Eucharist was celebrated by Christ himself during the evening meal on the eve of his betrayal into the hands of his enemies. He distributed bread and wine to the apostles, which he blessed and called his body and blood. According to Orthodox doctrine, the Eucharist has the meaning of a bloodless sacrifice, as an expression of the Savior’s sacrifice on the cross.

5. Priesthood (ordination to the priesthood) is an expression of the apostolic succession of the church hierarchy through the transmission of the gifts of the Holy Spirit through ordination. The meaning of the priesthood is to empower the recipient to perform the sacraments. In Orthodoxy, the priesthood has three degrees (episcopal, presbyterate, diaconate), which make up the church hierarchy - clergy. The powers of the hierarchy include priesthood (celebrating the sacraments), pastoring (caring for the spiritual life of church members), and teaching (preaching the Word of God).

The bishop has all the fullness of the sacrament. including the ordination of elders and deacons. In Orthodox churches, patriarchs, metropolitans, all bishops (regardless of differences in power and in part), archbishops are equal in grace, while in Catholicism the highest bishop (the Pope of Rome) constitutes a special highest degree of priesthood - primate.

The ordination of bishops is carried out both by the senior bishop of any of the Orthodox churches, and by the Council of Bishops (Bishops). Unlike bishops, presbyters (priests, archpriests) have limited sacramental powers - the right to perform all sacraments except ordination. Deacons have only the right to assist elders in the sacramental activities.

6. Marriage is the grace-filled sanctification of the union of a man and a woman who are members of the church for a common Christian life and childbearing. The Orthodox Church, unlike the Catholic Church, recognizes the possibility of desacralizing the sacrament of marriage - its dissolution, but within limited limits, with many reservations and restrictions (infertility of any spouse, proven adultery, commission of a serious crime, excommunication of one of the spouses from the church).

7. Blessing of Unction (unction) is a special rite performed on a sick or dying person, imparting healing to the soul and giving strength to accept Christian death.

A symbolic sacred gesture, which is a mandatory attribute of Christian behavior in church, during prayer and in some everyday situations, is the sign of the cross. It has become commonly used since the 7th century. It represents the movement of the right hand in the order “Forehead - middle of the chest - both shoulders”, which symbolizes the Life-Giving Cross and the Cross of the Crucifixion of Christ.

The sign of the cross is recognized and performed by Orthodox and Catholics, but is not recognized and not performed by Protestants. The sign of the cross in Orthodoxy is performed with three folded fingers (symbol of the Holy Trinity) in the order “from right to left” (for Old Believers - with two fingers in the same order). Catholics perform it with all fingers of an open palm in the order "from left to right." The sick and disabled can make the sign of the cross with either healthy hand.

In addition to the main sacraments, the Orthodox Church has adopted a number of less significant sacraments that impart the grace of the Holy Spirit, for example, the consecration of a temple, icons, liturgical objects, water, bread, fruits, and dwellings.

Orthodoxy does not reject the validity of the sacraments performed in the Catholic Church, as it has preserved the apostolic succession of the hierarchy. Catholic clergy, when they express a desire to convert to Orthodoxy, are accepted into their existing rank.

2.3 Orthodox holidays

The main holiday of all Christians is Easter - the Feast of the Bright Resurrection of Christ, established in honor of the resurrection of Christ on the third day after the crucifixion. According to the Gospel of John, Jesus was crucified on the eve of the Jewish Passover, which fell on Saturday that year, and on the first day after Passover his tomb was empty.

Modern Bible scholars date these events to April 7-9, 30 AD. The main reference point for the annual calculation of the date of the Feast of the Resurrection of Christ has long been the Jewish Passover. Jewish Christians who observed this holiday combined it with the celebration of the Resurrection of Christ, retaining the former name Easter. After the First Ecumenical Council in 325, it was decided to celebrate Easter regardless of the Jewish holiday - on the first Sunday of the first full moon after the spring equinox.

Easter opens the 12 most important Orthodox holidays, called the twelve. They are divided into “transitory” (calculated by the date of Easter) and “enduring” (falling on a strictly defined date). The first include the Feast of the Ascension of the Lord and the Day of the Holy Trinity.

The Ascension of the Lord is celebrated on Thursday of the sixth week after Easter. Installed in memory of the ascension of Christ to heaven after his appearance to the apostles, which occurred on the 40th day after the Resurrection of Christ.

The Day of the Holy Trinity (Pentecost) is established in memory of the descent of the Holy Spirit on the Apostles. This happened in Jerusalem during the Jewish holiday of Pentecost (50th day after Passover). It is considered the day of the founding of the Church of Christ. Celebrated on Sunday seven weeks after Easter.

The “enduring” ones include the main holidays of the church year, which, according to the Old Testament tradition, begins in the fall.

Nativity of the Virgin Mary

Celebrated on September 21st. The date of birth of Mary in the family of the pious righteous Joachim and Anna is celebrated by the church as the “beginning of salvation.”

Exaltation of the Holy Cross. Celebrated on September 27th. The origin of the holiday is associated with the restoration of the Christian shrines of Jerusalem by order of the Roman Emperor Constantine I the Great. According to the story of a number of church historians (Eusebius, John Chrysostom, Rufinus), the mother of the emperor, Empress Etena, visited Jerusalem. She carried out excavations on Mount Golgotha, where the cross on which Christ was crucified was found. The holiday symbolizes Jesus' atonement for the sins of the world through the suffering of the cross.

Introduction to the Temple of the Blessed Virgin Mary

Celebrated on December 4th. Installed in memory of the bringing, according to Jewish custom, of little Mary to the Jerusalem Temple for her dedication to God. This custom existed only in relation to boys. The dedication of the girl was an exceptional event - evidence of the highest chosenness of the Virgin Mary.

Nativity

Celebrated on January 7th. The exact date of Christ's birth has not been established. The Holy Scriptures mention the 30th year of the reign of the Roman Emperor Octavian Augustus; At the same time, the birth of Christ is spoken of “in the days of King Herod.” Some church historians place the birth of Jesus several years earlier than the starting point of the European chronology "from the Nativity of Christ", to 7 - 6 years. BC, since the Jewish king Herod I the Great died in 4 BC.

The holiday of Epiphany, celebrated since the 2nd century by Egyptian Christians as an expectation of the Divine Deliverer, was originally chosen as a holiday date. However, since the 4th century, the feast of the Nativity of Christ was assigned to the winter solstice, widely celebrated by the peoples of the Mediterranean, while Epiphany was identified with the Baptism of the Lord.

Epiphany

Celebrated on January 19th. The origin of the holiday is associated with the preaching of the prophet John the Baptist, who announced the imminent coming of the Savior and called people to repentance. John performed the ritual of washing over the repentant people in the Jordan River, symbolizing the beginning of a righteous life. In Slavic translations of the New Testament, the Greek word "baptism" (washing) was rendered as "baptism" (in connection with Christ's subsequent consecration of the ritual of washing with his sacrifice on the cross).

According to the story of the Holy Scriptures, John performed this ritual over Jesus who appeared to him. At the moment of Jesus' baptism, the voice of God from heaven announced him as the Son of God, and the Holy Spirit descended on Christ in the form of a dove. The Feast of the Epiphany is also called Epiphany.

Presentation of the Lord

Celebrated on February 15, on the 40th day after the Nativity of Christ. Introduced by the Jerusalem Church from the 4th century in memory of the bringing of the baby Jesus to the Jerusalem Temple to dedicate him to God. During the dedication, a meeting (“meeting”) of Jesus took place with the elder Simeon, who lived at the temple, who was predicted that he would see the Savior during his lifetime.

Annunciation

Celebrated on April 7th. Installed in memory of the appearance of the Archangel Gabriel to the Virgin Mary, who announced the future birth of the Son of God. Approved in the 9th century, counting 9 months ago from the Nativity of Christ.

Transfiguration

Celebrated on August 19. It was erected in memory of Christ’s stay on Mount Tabor, when, during prayer, the apostles Peter, John and James, who were with him, saw Jesus transfigured by the Divine Light, surrounded by the prophets Moses and Elijah. The holiday was celebrated in Palestine as the beginning of the collection of the first fruits. In this regard, in Eastern Christianity, the custom of consecrating the first fruits (apples, grapes) on the Feast of the Transfiguration of the Lord was established, after which it was allowed to eat them.

Dormition of the Blessed Virgin Mary

Celebrated on August 28 in memory of the death of the Mother of God, who after the Resurrection of Christ lived in the house of the Apostle John the Theologian. Her death occurred around 48 AD in the city of Ephesus, where John the Theologian lived after exile. Some church historians call Gethsemane the place of her death. In both points there are churches dedicated to the Dormition of the Mother of God.

3 Characteristic features of Catholicism

Catholicism - from the Greek word katholikos - universal (later - ecumenical). Catholicism is a Western version of Christianity. It appeared as a result of a church schism prepared by the division of the Roman Empire into Western and Eastern. The core of all the activities of the Western Church was the desire to unite Christians under the authority of the Bishop of Rome (Pope). Catholicism finally took shape as a creed and church organization in 1054.

The Catholic Church is strictly centralized, has a single world center (Vatican), a single head - the Pope, who crowns a multi-level hierarchy. The Pope is considered the vicar of Jesus Christ on earth, infallible in matters of faith and morality (the Orthodox Church rejects this statement).

The source of Catholic doctrine is the Holy Scripture (Bible) and holy tradition, which (unlike Orthodoxy) includes the decrees of the ecumenical assemblies of the Catholic Church and the judgments of the popes.

The clergy takes a vow of celibacy. Established in the 13th century to prevent the division of lands between the heirs of a clergyman. Celibacy is one of the reasons for the refusal of many Catholic priests these days.

Catholicism is characterized by a magnificent theatrical cult, widespread veneration of relics (the remains of “Christ’s clothing,” pieces of “the cross on which He was crucified,” nails “with which He was nailed to the cross,” etc.), the cult of martyrs, saints and blessed ones.

3.1 Beliefs of the Roman Catholic Church

Although the traditional date for the division of churches is considered to be 1054, the final dogmatic and canonical formation of Catholicism occurred much later, and this process began much earlier than this date. The first symptoms of a future schism appeared already in the 5th - 6th centuries. The uniqueness of the sociocultural situation that developed in Western Europe during this period was the almost complete absence of competitors for the church in influencing society as a result of the decline of cities, the low cultural level of the population and the weakness of secular power. Therefore, the Western Church, unlike the Eastern Church, was freed from the need to constantly prove its correctness, its fidelity to the teachings of Christ and the apostles, and convince society and the state of its exclusive right to mediate between God and people. She had incomparably greater freedom of maneuver and could even afford to make changes to dogma without fear of causing anyone to doubt her orthodoxy.

Thus, already in the heat of a dispute with the Arians, the Western Church saw a “temptation” in the 8th member of the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed - about the procession of the Holy Spirit from the Father. In this, the Western church fathers saw the “belittlement” of God the Son in relation to God the Father. Therefore, at the Council of Toledo in 589, it was decided to “correct” this clause in order to “equalize” the Father and the Son: the word “filioque” - “and son” was added to it. The doctrine of the procession of the Holy Spirit from the Father and the Son became the first stumbling block in relations between the West and the East of the Christian world.

On the other hand, the position of the fathers of the Council of Toledo is explained not only by the presence of freedom of maneuver in canonical and dogmatic issues, but also by a specific way of thinking. Western theologians, being the spiritual heirs of the Romans, famous for their rationality and iron logic, early discovered in their theology a tendency towards straightforward simplicity and unambiguity in the spirit of Roman jurisprudence. The Greek taste for antinomies and paradoxes was alien to them. In the contradiction contained in the statement, Western theologians saw a logical error that must be eliminated, either by clarifying the thesis or rejecting it. This position was clearly manifested in the controversy between Augustine and Pelagius, the outcome of which set the vector for the entire subsequent development of the Western theological tradition.

The dispute boiled down to the question of the relationship between divine grace and free will. Pelagius gave priority to the second, believing that achieving salvation is impossible without a person’s conscious desire to reunite with God. In Augustine’s understanding, such an interpretation meant diminishing the importance of grace, and therefore the church. In Pelagianism, Augustine saw such a serious threat to the authority of the church that he was forced to completely reject the concept of free will, developing the exact opposite doctrine of single-saving grace. And this led Augustine, and after him the entire Western Church, to a radical revision of the doctrine of man (anthropology) and his path to salvation (soteriology). According to this theological concept, God created man from two opposite, and therefore inevitably opposing principles - soul and body. But God eliminated this natural discord by endowing man with the supernatural gift of grace. Grace, like a “bridle,” restrained the base impulses inherent in the flesh and thereby preserved the harmony of soul and body.

Thus, sinfulness, according to Catholic doctrine, is a natural property of human nature, and righteousness is supernatural, the result of the action of divine grace. Original sin did not change human nature, but it meant the loss of grace, i.e. that “bridle” that held back the base impulses of the flesh. With His suffering on the cross, Christ atoned for original sin and thereby returned grace to the world again. But joining it is possible only through the church founded by Christ.

The logical conclusion from this thesis was the doctrine of “extraordinary merit.” His initial premise was the thought suggested by reason that the righteousness of the saints and apostles was disproportionately greater than that of ordinary monks or pious laymen, which means their services to the church and God were beyond their due, i.e. “minimum necessary” to achieve heavenly bliss. And this, in turn, gives rise to a new question: what happens to this “surplus of good deeds,” the difference between what is proper and what is perfect? Obviously, it is the church, being the “receptacle of grace,” that can and should manage this difference, allocating some of the “reserve of good deeds” to those good Catholics who sincerely strive for the salvation of the soul, but whose own good deeds are not enough to gain heavenly bliss. On the other hand, a similar conclusion followed from the statement that sinfulness is natural to human nature, and therefore, by tolerating his weakness, another sin can be forgiven.

This teaching received its dogmatic form in the bull of Pope Clement VI in 1349, and the practical conclusion from it was the distribution and then the sale of indulgences - special letters confirming the forgiveness of a given person’s sins by endowing him with some of the “stock of good deeds” .

Another conclusion from the same premises was the dogma of purgatory - a kind of intermediate authority through which the souls of the dead pass before going to heaven or hell. Theologians were confused by the contradiction between the idea of paradise as the abode of sinless righteous people and the conviction that “everything is not without sin.” A solution was found in the statement that after death, human souls undergo purification by fire, and only those whose sins were small, having been purified, go to heaven. Whereas souls stained with mortal sins are cast into hell after purgatory. At the same time, the time spent in purgatory depends not only on the severity of a person’s sins, but also on how earnestly the Church prays for him (and this, in turn, depends on how ready the relatives of the deceased are to order funeral services, donate for the good of the church and etc.). This teaching was known in the West in the early Middle Ages, but it received official dogmatic formalization only at the Ferrara-Florence Council in 1439.

The idea of sinfulness as a quality immanent in human nature forced Catholics to make significant changes in the interpretation of the image of the Virgin Mary. According to Catholic doctrine, the Virgin Mary, in order to be worthy to become the mother of the Savior, was, as an exception, “privileged”, freed from original sin even before birth. She was conceived immaculately and received the gift of “primitive righteousness,” as if becoming like Eve before the Fall. This doctrine arose back in the 9th century, and in 1854 it was officially recognized by the church as the dogma of the immaculate conception of the Virgin Mary.

In turn, the conviction of the special qualities of the physical nature of the Mother of God in comparison with ordinary human flesh forced Catholics to change their ideas about her death. In 1950, Pope Pius XII promulgated the dogma of the bodily ascension of the Virgin Mary.

Of all the doctrinal principles of Catholicism, the dogma of the infallibility of the Pope in matters of faith, adopted at the First Vatican Council in 1870, caused and continues to cause the greatest controversy. However, it in no way contradicts the spirit and letter of Catholic ecclesiology (the doctrine of the church), but on the contrary, it is its logical conclusion, the final conclusion from its entire development, starting with the concept of “saving grace alone.”

According to the doctrine of the infallibility of the pope in matters of faith, the Roman Pontiff, as the successor of the Supreme Apostle Peter, being the personification of the Church, has the infallibility that the Savior himself endowed the church with. Moreover, according to Catholic theologians, the pope himself is the living embodiment of Christ.

As Bishop Bugo wrote in 1922, Christ is really present in the Church in the sacrament of the Eucharist - under the cover of bread and wine, transubstantiated into the flesh and blood of Christ. But in the Eucharist his presence is not complete, because... in it Christ is silent. The other, “speaking” half of Christ is the pope. Thus, the Eucharist and the Pope, Bugo concludes, are two covers under which Jesus Christ resides in his integrity, and together they form the fullness of the Incarnation.

3.2 Sacraments and rituals in Catholicism

There are significant differences from Orthodoxy in the Roman Catholic Church and in the area of cult.

The Western Church recognizes the same sacraments as the Orthodox, Monophysite and Nestorian: baptism, confirmation, communion (Eucharist), repentance (confession), priesthood, marriage, unction (unction). Moreover, this composition initially took shape in the West: already in the 12th century. we find reference to the sacraments listed above in the writings of Peter of Lombardy, while among Eastern theologians up to the 13th century. initiation into monasticism was also considered a sacrament. Catholics do not consider all sacraments to be of equal importance and adhere to rules for their implementation that are somewhat different from those of the Orthodox Church.

Baptism is not performed by threefold immersion, but by sprinkling. Confirmation does not take place after baptism, as in the Orthodox Church, but at the age of 7-12 years. This sacrament, called confirmation in Catholicism, is given special significance, and therefore its performance is recognized as the exclusive prerogative of the bishop. For communion, Catholics, unlike the Orthodox, use unleavened, unleavened bread (wafers), which, according to them, symbolizes the purity and immaculate nature of Christ. Moreover, starting from the 13th century. in the West they began to practice communion with bread alone, in contrast to the clergy, who took communion with both bread and wine. This reveals the characteristic idea of Catholicism about the presence of a significant distance between the church and society, the imperfection and inferiority of worldly existence. It is no coincidence, therefore, that one of the slogans of the early Reformation movements, which demanded equal rights for parishioners and clergy, was communion “under both types” (sub utraque specie - hence the name of this movement in the Reformation: “Utraquists”). Although the Second Vatican Council (1962-1965) permitted the communion of the laity with bread and wine, in many Catholic churches it is still celebrated “under both kinds.” To perform the sacrament of penance, Catholics use a special confessional chamber in which the priest is separated from the parishioner by an opaque cloth. The fact that the confessor and the confessor do not see each other, according to Catholics, removes a certain psychological tension that is inevitable in the process of repentance. The performance of the remaining sacraments, apart from minor purely ritual differences, occurs in approximately the same way as in the Orthodox Church.

Other, less significant cult differences of Catholicism include:

Recognition of Latin as the sole liturgical language (although the Second Vatican Council allowed the use of national languages);

Making the sign of the cross with an open palm from left to right;

Use of organ music during worship;

Allowing three-dimensional images in the interior of the temple;

Allowing parishioners to sit during worship.

Conclusion

At the moment, the Catholic Church is the largest (by number of believers) branch of Christianity. As of 2008, there were 1.086 billion Catholics in the world. Their number is constantly increasing due to the growing number of believers in Asia, America and Africa, while in Europe the number of Catholics is gradually decreasing.

Catholicism is practiced in almost all countries of the world. It is the main religion in many European countries, and there are approximately 115 million Catholics in Africa. Until 1917, according to official data, more than 10 million Catholics lived in the Russian Empire. In modern Russia there are about 300 parishes of the Roman Catholic Church.

Orthodoxy is historically traditionally widespread in the Balkans among the Greeks, Romanians and Albanians, in Eastern Europe among the East and South Slavic peoples, as well as Georgians, Ossetians, Moldovans and, along with Russians, among some other peoples of the Russian Federation.

In Orthodoxy there is no single point of view on whether to consider the “Latins” as heretics who distorted the Creed through an arbitrary later pretext of the filioque, or as schismatics who broke away from the One Catholic Apostolic Church. But the Orthodox unanimously reject the dogma of the infallibility of the pope in matters of doctrine and his claim to supremacy over all Christians - at least in the interpretation that is accepted in the modern Roman Church.

Bibliography

1. Velikovich L.N. Catholicism in the modern world. M., 1991.

2. Garadzha V.I. Religious Studies. – M., 1995.

3. Cultural studies. History of world culture.. / Under. ed. Professor A.N. Markova. - M., 2000.

4. Marchenkov V. G. The beginnings of Orthodoxy. M.: Petit, 1991

5. Christianity: Encyclopedic Dictionary: In 3 volumes. /Ch. ed. S.S. Averintsev. – M., 1995.

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