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Vladimir Aleksandrovich Yadov

Vladimir Aleksandrovich Yadov was born in 1929, in Leningrad, into the family of a social sciences teacher. By the beginning of the war, Vladimir had graduated from the fourth grade and in June 1941, during the bombing, together with other boys, he was on duty on the roofs of Leningrad houses, throwing down lighter bombs.

In July, his school was evacuated, and his parents remained in Leningrad (during the evacuation, he saw the fascists breaking through to the city from the window of a bus, which miraculously reached the railway station). He lived in boarding schools, first in the Vologda region, and then in the Yaroslavl region. Returning to Leningrad.

In 1946, he entered the Faculty of Philosophy of Leningrad University and prepared for scientific and teaching activities. He was actively involved in social work and even joined the party. He was expelled from the university in 1952, during the next “cleansing of the ranks,” for “not telling the truth about his father,” who was in the Zinoviev opposition in 1928. Yadov recalled how, during the hearing of the case at the regional party commission, he honestly admitted that his father had never told him about this, but the “party investigator” did not believe it and, like a bad detective story, hit the table with her fist and shouted: “Are you going to tell the truth?”

The road to graduate school turned out to be closed, and Yadov went to work at an automatic machine factory as an apprentice lathe operator. A month later he himself became a turner-patterner of the second category. One day he decided to “rationalize” a standard turning operation in order to spend less time making a part, but the result was a “defect.” To rectify the situation, he had to turn to workers from other workshops for help, and no one refused - Yadov recalled this incident many years later, while working on the sociological project “Solidarization in the Work Environment.”

In general, Yadov studies the factory topic throughout his life. One of his first scientific studies was an analysis of the time budgets of workers at the Kirov plant, and one of his first large-scale projects was “Man and His Work,” within the framework of which almost 3 thousand young workers were interviewed.

At his factory, Yadov, as a professional philosopher, conducted political studies.

So until 1954, he worked first as a teacher of logic and psychology, then as a lathe-patterner at an automatic machine tool factory.

After Stalin’s death in 1954, he was reinstated in the CPSU and accepted into graduate school at Leningrad State University, and after the 20th Congress of the CPSU he switched to Komsomol work and was elected first secretary of the Vasileostrovsky district committee of the Komsomol of Leningrad. Returning to the university, V.A. Yadov began to study the social genesis of the forms of ideology and spiritual life of the individual. Under the influence of the ideas of MacIntyre, Uznadze, Ananyev, Myasishchev, he developed the premises of a dispositional theory of regulation of an individual’s social behavior.

While teaching historical mathematics at the Faculty of Philosophy, he ran around party meetings and even criticized individual comrades for their lack of Bolshevik maturity. During the “thaw”, for two years he was the first secretary of the Vasileostrovsky district committee of the Komsomol of Leningrad. When asked if he felt constrained by the fact that he had to work within the framework of Marxism, many years later, Yadov replied: “We were Marxists, but those who were later dubbed the idealists of the sixties. And today I am in no way ashamed of this.” .

At the end of the 50s V.A. Yadov, together with Andrei Zdravomyslov, organized a sociological research laboratory at Leningrad State University, which for the first time in the USSR began to study work motivation.

In 1963-1964, he completed an internship at the University of Manchester and the London School of Economics and Political Science, where he studied the methods and techniques of sociological research. Going to England, he honestly completed the KGB task - to meet a young English student who could become a prominent figure in the future, and introduce him to the London KGB agent as his friend (however, the meaning of this task remained a mystery to him). Under the leadership of V.A. Yadov in Leningrad, a team of highly qualified specialists was formed who carried out the research project “Man and His Work”. Throughout the 60-70s, headed by V.A. Yadov, the Leningrad sociological school conducted fundamental research into value orientations, as a result of which a dispositional theory of regulation of an individual’s social behavior was developed and widely recognized, which played an important role in isolating sociological theory from the doctrine of historical materialism.

At the end of the 60s, when the Institute of Concrete Social Research of the USSR Academy of Sciences was created, V.A. Yadov headed its Leningrad department, then the sociological department of the Institute of Socio-Economic Problems of the USSR Academy of Sciences. Under conditions of strict ideological control, he was able to ensure high quality research and training of professional sociologists.

The scientific and pedagogical work of V.A. is of fundamental importance for the institutionalization of sociological science in Russia. Yadova.

In 1968, he published the first textbook in the USSR on the methodology of sociological research, which was reprinted several times and is currently a basic textbook for universities. V.A. Yadov published more than 360 scientific works on the sociology of labor, sociology of science, theory and history of sociology, many of which have been translated into foreign languages, are actively cited by researchers and are included in the lists of recommended literature for undergraduate and graduate students.

Estonia has become a kind of foreign country for Yadov, which he calls his “second small homeland” and where he even bought a farm back in Soviet times.

In Estonia, he participated in meetings of sixties scientists, under the guise of “Estonian comrades”, who discussed scientific topics forbidden in the Soviet Union (among the meeting participants were Yuri Lotman, Yuri Levada and other intellectuals). Estonia is associated with the appearance of the “Sociologist's Bible” - the first Soviet book on the methodology of sociological research, published in 1968.

Yadov wrote it hot on the heels of his lectures at the University of Tartu, where he is an honorary professor today.

During the period of perestroika, Yadov organized one of the first television programs in Leningrad, which was conducted in an interactive format - “Public Opinion”. In the studio, invited politicians and their teams discussed various perestroika topics (elections of deputies, the law on cooperatives, etc.), viewers called the studio by phone to vote for or against, and cameras from two points in the city broadcast opinions from places." Yadov, as a sociologist, commented on the reasons for this or that distribution of votes, the program was a huge success, and he even began to be recognized on the streets.

During the years of “perestroika” the moral and scientific authority of V.A. Yadova played a decisive role in consolidating the liberal wing of the professional community of sociologists. He was an active participant in Gorbachev’s reforms and participated in the preparation of a new, never adopted, CPSU Program. In 1988, on the wave of democratization of public life, V.A. Yadov was elected director of the Institute of Sociology of the Academy of Sciences.

Over the following years, he radically reformed the country's leading sociological institution and actively contributed to progressive changes in Russian social sciences. According to his friends, “the directorship hasn’t changed him at all.” As Professor Alexander Goffman said, the image of Yadov in his mind is a man who runs very quickly at the blackboard and writes something, saying the words “strategic research plan.” Today, Yadov holds leadership positions in various international and Russian sociological organizations, conducts sociological research, and works with students at the State University of Humanities and the Higher School of Economics.

In the 1990s, V.A. Yadov is developing an activity-activist, integration version of sociological theory, and is leading a large-scale study of social identification of individuals and solidarity processes among workers. He actively participates in the socio-political life of Russian society, defending the principles of “freedom from evaluation” in science and social democratic values in politics, while considering membership in any party unacceptable.

In 2000, V.A. Yadov leaves the post of director of the Institute of Sociology of the Russian Academy of Sciences and becomes the head of the Center for the Study of Social Transformations, since 2005 of the Center for Theoretical and Historical-Sociological Research of the Institute of Sociology of the Russian Academy of Sciences.

In the 2000s, he led the Russian-Canadian project “Labor relations in modern Russia”, the Russian-Polish project “Social identification of citizens of Russia and Poland”, as well as the project “Development of innovative teaching methods, in the format of a methodological workshop”, which was carried out within the framework of Megaproject "Development of Education in Russia" of the J. Soros Foundation.

From 1995 to present V.A. Yadov is the dean of the sociological faculty of the State Academic University for the Humanities. At the same time, he is a professor at the Department of General Sociology at the State University - Higher School of Economics. Teaching experience - 50 years.

Occupying leadership positions in the International Sociological Association, the International Institute of Sociology, the European Association of Experimental Social Psychology, heading the Russian Society of Sociologists, the Institute of Sociology of the State University of Humanities, working as an expert of Russian and international scientific foundations, chairman of the dissertation council, member of the Supreme Attestation Committee of the Russian Federation, editor and member of the editorial boards of academic journals, V.A. Yadov made an outstanding contribution to the institutionalization of sociological science in Russia, its recognition abroad and the reproduction of scientific personnel.

He has trained over 50 doctors and candidates of science who work at leading universities and research institutions in Russia and foreign countries.

According to Yadov, sociology in post-Soviet society is in an advantageous state. biography of Soviet sociologist

It has not particularly suffered from a lack of funding, since sociologists do not need expensive equipment, today representatives of the generation who did not know the “Iron Curtain” are coming into science, and “doctors of sciences who have completed internships in Western countries speak English as if it were their native language.” It is not surprising that not only Vladimir Aleksandrovich’s wife, who became the founder of Russian sociopedagogy, and his son, but also his granddaughters, who began to engage in sociological research in modern Russia, devoted their lives to sociology.

Awarded state awards: medal "For Labor Valor" - 1958, medal "In Memory of the 250th Anniversary of Leningrad" - 1959, medal "For Valiant Labor in Commemoration of the 100th Anniversary of the Birth of V.I. Lenin" - 1979 Medal "Veteran of Labor" - 1988, Medal "In Commemoration of the 850th Anniversary of Moscow" - 1998, Medal of the Order "For Services to the Fatherland" II degree - 1999, Order of "Friendship of Peoples" - 2009 ., Big gold medal "Pitirim Sorokin" - 2009

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Elissa

In ancient times, the Phoenician city-state of Tyre was located on the territory of what is now Lebanon. After the death of the king, the throne went to the adult princess Elissa and her brother, the young prince Pygmalion. But in fact, the state was ruled by Elissa Sihei’s husband. The matured Pygmalion ordered the death of the ruler, and his sister, fearing the fate of her husband, fled from Tire.

The princess's ships sailed to the shores of North Africa, and Elissa decided to settle here. She offered the Libyan king a precious stone in exchange for a suitable plot of land. Having accepted the stone, the cunning king allowed the princess to occupy land with an area equal to the skin of a bull. But Elissa outwitted him. She ordered the skin to be cut into cords, stretched them out and fenced off a huge area.

The king was amazed at her resourcefulness, and besides, he really liked the princess, so he ordered the fenced area to be given to her. A citadel called Birsa (skin) was built on this site, and then the city of Carthage arose on the hill and the adjacent seashore with access to the sea in the south and north. This location of the city allowed it to become a leader in maritime trade, since all ships crossing the Mediterranean Sea went between Sicily and the Tunisian coast.

By the way, the city residents, like the founder, were famous for their business acumen. They built shipyards and an artificial port, the two parts of which were connected by a narrow canal, thanks to which the city became the largest trading center of its time. Carthage became a monopolist in the import of metals. Two artificial harbors were dug within the city. One was intended for commercial trade, the other for the navy. It could accommodate 220 warships!

On the isthmus that separated the harbors, they built a huge tower and surrounded it with a massive wall 37 km long. The height of the city walls in some areas reached 12 m. The fortress walls reliably protected the city from the sea, and the monopoly on trade was maintained with the help of mercenary troops and a powerful fleet.

In addition, the Carthaginians planted olive groves, grew wheat, fished, planted gardens, planted vineyards, built houses, engaged in science, invented various mechanisms, and wrote books. The famous glass and magnificent purple fabrics were known far beyond the borders of Carthage! And by the way, it was the Phoenicians who invented 22 letters, which later became the basis of Latin and Greek writing.

Carthage was divided into four identical residential areas. The citadel of Birsa stood in the center. The city had other towers, places of worship, a municipality, markets, a theater and a huge cemetery.

And Elissa’s fate was tragic. The Libyan king wanted to get her as his wife at all costs, otherwise he threatened to destroy Carthage. The princess was forced to agree, but on the condition that the king would under no circumstances encroach on her city. After the wedding ceremony, the proud queen, who did not want to be the wife of an unloved man, threw herself off the fortress wall. But Carthage remained... It was considered one of the largest cities of antiquity!

Religion

From their Phoenician ancestors, the Carthaginians inherited the Canaanite religion. The main deity was Baal Hamm. It was believed that the inhabitants of Carthage made annual sacrifices at the temple of Melqart in Tire. According to legends, the Carthaginians slaughtered slaves on altars and even sacrificed children - the firstborn of noble families; it was believed that this could appease the gods, but this is known only from the testimony of enemies of the state, and it is hardly possible to trust them 100%. In addition, the Romans always presented their enemies as savages.

Some historians argue that children who were stillborn in Carthage were buried not in the necropolis, but in a separate cemetery, which archaeologists designated as a place of sacrifice, since the remains of sacrificial animals were found there. Also, there was no documentary confirmation of the legend that the Carthaginians in each family sacrificed the first born boy.

Perhaps not the least role in escalating the situation was played by Christian priests, who have a very negative attitude towards paganism, and therefore regal parishioners with terrible legends about sacrifices. However, there is no doubt that prisoners of war were sacrificed to the gods. But it was not the Carthaginians who did this, but the Phoenicians on the walls of Tire during the siege of the city by Greek-Macedonian troops in the 4th century AD. Such cruelty makes your blood run cold, but this is history.

Rise of Carthage

After the death of Elissa, the monarchy in Carthage was abolished, and it became an oligarchic republic. The Carthaginians became related to the local residents and began to be called not Phoenicians, but Punics. Power belonged to the aristocracy. The highest body was the council of elders, first consisting of 10, and later of 30 people. Formally, the national assembly played a significant role, but in fact it was rarely addressed.

Then, in order to counter the desire of some clans to gain full power, a council of judges consisting of 104 people was created in Carthage. His task is to administer justice to those in power after their powers expire. But over time, the council of judges itself became the center of power. The executive and supreme judicial powers were considered to be two suffets, whose votes were openly bought every year. Council 104 was appointed by pentarchy - special commissions consisting of people belonging to noble families. The commander-in-chief was elected by the council of elders for an indefinite period and endowed with the broadest powers. Officials performed their duties for free.

The peoples who inhabited Carthage had unequal social rights. At the lowest level were the Libyans. They paid the highest taxes and were recruited into the army. The Sicilian inhabitants of the Siculi were limited by "Sidonian law". At the same time, they could trade freely. People from the Phoenician cities annexed to Carthage enjoyed full civil rights. Non-Phoenician peoples were also limited by "Sidonian law".

Army

The army of Carthage consisted mainly of mercenaries. The infantry was based on African, Gallic, Greek and Spanish mercenaries. Noble Carthaginians served in heavily armed cavalry, which was called the “sacred band”. In antiquity, the Numedians were considered skilled horsemen. They, as well as the Iberians, formed the basis of the mercenary cavalry. The light infantry was formed by the Iberians, Citratei and Balearic slingers, the heavy infantry by the Scoutatii. Spanish heavy cavalry was also highly valued.

The Celtiberian tribes used long double-edged swords in battle. Elephants played an important role; there were about 300 of them. Technically, the army was equipped with ballistas, catapults and other weapons. By the end of Carthage's existence, the commander-in-chief was elected by the army, which speaks of monarchical tendencies.

By the time of the Punic Wars, the democratic opposition had strengthened, but it did not have time to play a decisive role in the reorganization of Carthage. Despite the corruption of the system, the country had enormous government revenues, which allowed it to develop successfully. In addition, despite the fact that Carthage was actually ruled by an oligarchy, decisions were made by the plebs - the people.

Carthaginian merchants constantly conquered new markets. In 480 BC. The navigator Himilkon reached British Cornwall, rich in tin. 30 years later, Hanno, a member of the famous Carthaginian family, led a large expedition. 30,000 men and women sailed on 60 ships. They landed in different parts of the coast and founded new colonies. It is believed that Hanno could have reached the Gulf of Guinea and the shores of Cameroon.

After Phoenician influence in the western Mediterranean waned, Carthage re-subordinated the former Phoenician colonies, subjugated Southern Spain, Corsica, Sicily, Sardinia, North Africa and by the 3rd century BC. became the largest state in the Western Mediterranean. Carthaginian war galleys and merchant sailing ships sailed the Atlantic Ocean, reaching the shores of Ireland, England and Cameroon.

Carthage was considered the second richest state, after Persia, and the first in military power. By that time, the influence of Greece, which was a constant enemy of Carthage, had significantly decreased. But Rome became a strong power.

When talking about Carthage, one cannot help but mention Hannibal. He was the son of Hamilcar Barca. Brought up in the spirit of hatred of Rome, having become a military leader, Hannibal himself began to look for a reason for war.

In 218 BC. Hannibal captured the Spanish city of Saguntum, an ally of Rome. The Carthaginian commander-in-chief led the army into Italian territory, bypassing the Alps. He won victories at Trebia, Ticinus and Lake Trasimene. And 216 BC. Hannibal crushed the Romans at Cannae, as a result, a significant part of Italy was annexed to Carthage, including the second most important city, Capua.

Fall of Carthage

After a series of Punic Wars against the Roman Empire, Carthage lost its conquests and in 146 BC. was destroyed and became a province of Africa. Marcus Porcius Cato in the Roman Senate repeatedly repeated the now famous phrase “Carthage must be destroyed!”, and he achieved his goal. The city was taken by storm by Roman troops led by Aemilian Spizion, who, looking at the death of a powerful power, cried. The 55,000 Carthaginians who escaped death were sold into slavery. After the death of Julius Caesar, a colony was founded here.

According to legend, the fertile lands of Carthage were covered with salt, and nothing could grow on them for a long time. Since then, spilling salt in Tunisia is still considered a very bad omen. Also, the winners took all the gold and jewelry in Carthage, and burned the city. As a result of the fire, the famous Carthaginian library was destroyed and all the chronicles about the Punic Wars disappeared.

The city, which previously ruled over half of the ancient world, turned into ruins. Instead of the palace of the admiral of the Carthaginian fleet, there were fragments of columns and blocks of yellow stone. Piles of stones remained from the foundation of the temple of the gods and the acropolis.

In the 420-430s, separatist revolts began, the lands were seized by the Germanic tribe of Vandals, and the Western Roman Empire lost control over the province. Carthage became the capital of the Vandal state.

Then, after North Africa was conquered by the Byzantine emperor Justinian, Carthage became the capital of the Carthaginian Exarchate, but after the conquest by the Arabs it finally lost its importance.

The historical oversight is that since the Romans and Carthaginians did not enter into a peace treaty following the destruction of Carthage, the Third Punic War legally lasted 2131. Only on February 2, 1985, the mayors of Rome and the revived Carthage signed an agreement on peace and mutual cooperation.

Carthage was founded in 814 BC. e. colonists from the Phoenician city of Tire. After the fall of Phoenician influence in the Western Mediterranean, Carthage reassigned the former Phoenician colonies. By the 3rd century BC. e. it becomes the largest state in the western Mediterranean, subjugating Southern Spain, North Africa, Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica. After a series of wars against Rome, it lost its conquests and was destroyed in 146 BC. e., its territory was turned into the province of Africa. Julius Caesar proposed to found a colony in its place (it was founded after his death). After the conquest of North Africa by the Byzantine emperor Justinian, Carthage was the capital of the Carthaginian Exarchate. It finally lost its name after being conquered by the Arabs.

Location

Carthage is located on a promontory with entrances to the sea in the north and south. The city's location made it a leader in Mediterranean maritime trade. All ships crossing the sea inevitably passed between Sicily and the coast of Tunisia.

Two large artificial harbors were dug within the city: one for the navy, capable of accommodating 220 warships, the other for commercial trade. On the isthmus that separated the harbors, a huge tower was built, surrounded by a wall.

The length of the massive city walls was 37 kilometers, and the height in some places reached 12 meters. Most of the walls were located on the shore, which made the city impregnable from the sea.

The city had a huge cemetery, places of worship, markets, a municipality, towers, and a theater. It was divided into four equal residential areas. Approximately in the middle of the city stood a high citadel called Birsa. It was one of the largest cities in Hellenistic times (according to some estimates, only Alexandria was larger), and was among the largest cities of antiquity.

State structure

Carthage was ruled by the aristocracy. The highest body was the council of elders, headed by 10 (later 30) people. The People's Assembly also formally played a significant role, but in fact it was rarely addressed. Around 450 BC. e. In order to create a counterbalance to the desire of some clans (especially the Mago clan) to gain full control over the council, a council of judges was created. It consisted of 104 people and was initially supposed to judge the remaining officials after the expiration of their terms of office, but subsequently concentrated all power in its hands. The executive (and highest judicial) power was exercised by two suffets; they, like the council of elders, were elected annually by open purchase of votes (most likely, there were other officials, but information about this has not been preserved). The Council of 104 was not elected, but was appointed by special commissions - pentarchy, which themselves were replenished on the basis of belonging to one or another aristocratic family. The Council of Elders also elected the commander-in-chief - for an indefinite period and with the broadest powers. The performance of the duties of officials was not paid; in addition, there was a qualification of nobility. The democratic opposition only strengthened during the Punic Wars and did not have time to play almost any role in history. The whole system was highly corrupt, but colossal government revenues allowed the country to develop quite successfully.

According to Polybius (i.e. from the point of view of the Romans), decisions in Carthage were made by the people (plebs), and in Rome - by the best people, that is, the Senate. And this despite the fact that, according to many historians, Carthage was ruled by an Oligarchy.

Religion

Although the Phoenicians lived scattered throughout the Western Mediterranean, they were united by common beliefs. The Carthaginians inherited the Canaanite religion from their Phoenician ancestors. Every year for centuries, Carthage sent envoys to Tire to perform a sacrifice there in the temple of Melqart. In Carthage, the main deities were the pair Baal Hammon, whose name means “fire-master,” and Tanit, identified with Astarte.

The most notorious feature of Carthage's religion was child sacrifice. According to Diodorus Siculus, in 310 BC. e., during the attack on the city, in order to pacify Baal Hammon, the Carthaginians sacrificed more than 200 children from noble families. The Encyclopedia of Religion states: “The sacrifice of an innocent child as a sacrifice of atonement was the greatest act of propitiation of the gods. Apparently, this act was intended to ensure the welfare of both the family and the community.”

In 1921, archaeologists discovered a site where several rows of urns were found containing the charred remains of both animals (they were sacrificed instead of people) and small children. The place was called Tophet. The burials were located under steles on which requests were written that accompanied the sacrifices. It is estimated that the site contains the remains of more than 20,000 children sacrificed in just 200 years. Today, some revisionists argue that the burial site was simply a cemetery for children who were stillborn or were not old enough to be buried in the necropolis. However, it cannot be said with complete confidence that people were not sacrificed in Carthage.

Social system

The entire population, according to its rights, was divided into several groups based on ethnicity. The Libyans were in the most difficult situation. The territory of Libya was divided into regions subordinate to the strategists, taxes were very high, and their collection was accompanied by all sorts of abuses. This led to frequent uprisings, which were brutally suppressed. Libyans were forcibly recruited into the army - the reliability of such units, of course, was very low. The Siculi - Sicilian Greeks - made up another part of the population; their rights in the field of political administration were limited by “Sidonian law” (its content is unknown). The Siculs, however, enjoyed free trade. People from the Phoenician cities annexed to Carthage enjoyed full civil rights, and the rest of the population (freedmen, settlers - in a word, not Phoenicians) enjoyed “Sidonian law” like the Siculs.

The Wealth of Carthage

Built on the foundation laid by the Phoenician ancestors, Carthage created its own trading network (it was mainly involved in the import of metals) and developed it to unprecedented proportions. Carthage maintained its monopoly on trade through a powerful fleet and mercenary troops.

Carthaginian merchants were constantly looking for new markets. Around 480 BC. e. The navigator Gimilkon landed in British Cornwall, rich in tin. And 30 years later, Hanno, who came from an influential Carthaginian family, led an expedition of 60 ships with 30,000 men and women. People were landed in different parts of the coast to found new colonies. It is possible that, having sailed through the Strait of Gibraltar and along the African coast, Hanno reached the Gulf of Guinea and even the shores of Cameroon.

Entrepreneurship and business acumen helped Carthage become, by all accounts, the richest city of the ancient world. “At the beginning of the 3rd century [BC. BC] thanks to technology, the fleet and trade... the city moved to the forefront,” says the book “Carthage”. The Greek historian Appian wrote about the Carthaginians: “Their power militarily became equal to the Hellenic, but in terms of wealth it was in second place after the Persian.”

Army

Carthage's army was mainly mercenary. The basis of the infantry were Spanish, African, Greek, and Gallic mercenaries; the Carthaginian aristocracy served in the “sacred detachment” - heavily armed cavalry. The mercenary cavalry consisted of Numidians, who were considered the most skilled warriors in antiquity, and Iberians. The Iberians were also considered good warriors - the Balearic slingers and caetrati (correlated with the Greek peltasts) formed the light infantry, the scutatii (armed with a spear, javelin and bronze shell) - the heavy, Spanish heavy cavalry (armed with swords) was also highly valued. The Celtiberian tribes used the weapons of the Gauls - long double-edged swords. An important role was also played by elephants, which were kept in numbers of about 300. The “technical” equipment of the army was also high (catapults, ballistas, etc.). In general, the composition of the Punic army was similar to the armies of the Hellenistic states. At the head of the army was the commander-in-chief, elected by the council of elders, but towards the end of the existence of the state, this election was also carried out by the army, which indicates monarchical tendencies.

Story

Carthage was founded by immigrants from the Phoenician city of Tire at the end of the 9th century BC. e. According to legend, the city was founded by the widow of a Phoenician king named Dido. She promised the local tribe to pay a precious stone for a piece of land limited by the skin of a bull, but on the condition that the choice of place would be hers. After the deal was concluded, the colonists chose a convenient location for the city, ringing it with narrow belts made from a single bull hide.

The authenticity of the legend is unknown, but it seems unlikely that without the favorable attitude of the natives, a handful of settlers could have established a foothold in the allotted territory and founded a city there. In addition, there is reason to believe that the settlers were representatives of a political party that was not popular in their homeland, and they could hardly hope for the support of the mother country. According to Herodotus, Justin and Ovid, soon after the founding of the city, relations between Carthage and the local population deteriorated. The leader of the Maksitan tribe Giarb, under the threat of war, demanded the hand of Queen Elissa, but she preferred death to marriage. The war, however, began and was not in favor of the Carthaginians. According to Ovid, Giarbus even captured the city and held it for several years.

Judging by the objects found during archaeological excavations, at the beginning of its history, trade relations connected Carthage with the metropolis, as well as Cyprus and Egypt.

In the 8th century BC. e. The situation in the Mediterranean has changed greatly. Phenicia was conquered by Assyria and numerous colonies became independent. Assyrian rule caused a massive exodus of population from the ancient Phoenician cities to the colonies. Probably, the population of Carthage was replenished with refugees to such an extent that Carthage was able, in turn, to form colonies itself. The first Carthaginian colony in the Western Mediterranean was the city of Ebessus on the island of Pitiuss (first half of the 7th century BC).

At the turn of the 7th and 6th centuries. BC e. Greek colonization began. In order to counter the advance of the Greeks, the Phoenician colonies began to unite into states. In Sicily - Panormus, Soluent, Motia in 580 BC. e. successfully resisted the Greeks. In Spain, a league of cities led by Hades fought Tartessus. But the basis of a single Phoenician state in the west was the union of Carthage and Utica.

The advantageous geographical position allowed Carthage to become the largest city in the western Mediterranean (the population reached 700,000 people), unite around itself the rest of the Phoenician colonies in North Africa and Spain and conduct extensive conquests and colonization.

6th century BC e.

In the 6th century, the Greeks founded the colony of Massalia and entered into an alliance with Tartessus. Initially, the Punes suffered defeats, but Mago carried out a reform of the army (now mercenaries became the basis of the troops), an alliance was concluded with the Etruscans, and in 537 BC. e. In the battle of Alalia, the Greeks were defeated. Soon Tartessus was destroyed and all the Phoenician cities of Spain were annexed.

The main source of wealth was trade - Carthaginian merchants traded in Egypt, Italy, Spain, the Black and Red Seas - and agriculture, based on the widespread use of slave labor. There was strict regulation of trade - Carthage sought to monopolize trade turnover; for this purpose, all subjects were obliged to trade only through the mediation of Carthaginian merchants. This brought huge profits, but greatly hampered the development of the territories under their control and contributed to the growth of separatist sentiments. During the Greco-Persian Wars, Carthage was allied with Persia, and together with the Etruscans an attempt was made to completely capture Sicily. But after the defeat at the Battle of Himera (480 BC) by a coalition of Greek city-states, the struggle was suspended for several decades. The main enemy of the Punics was Syracuse (by 400 BC this state was at the height of its power and sought to open trade in the west, completely captured by Carthage), the war continued at intervals of almost a hundred years (394-306 BC) and ended with the almost complete conquest of Sicily by the Punics.

III century BC e.

In the 3rd century BC. e. the interests of Carthage came into conflict with the strengthened Roman Republic. Relations, previously allied, began to deteriorate. This first appeared at the final stage of the war between Rome and Tarentum. Finally, in 264 BC. e. The First Punic War began. It was carried out mainly in Sicily and at sea. Quite quickly, the Romans captured Sicily, but this was affected by the almost complete absence of Rome’s fleet. Only by 260 BC. e. The Romans created a fleet and, using boarding tactics, won a naval victory at Cape Mila. In 256 BC. e. The Romans moved the fighting to Africa, defeating the fleet and then the land army of the Carthaginians. But the consul Attilius Regulus did not use the advantage gained, and a year later the Punic army under the command of the Spartan mercenary Xanthippus inflicted a complete defeat on the Romans. In this battle, as in many previous and subsequent ones, elephants brought victory (even though the Romans had already encountered them when fighting against Pyrrhus, king of Epirus). Only in 251 BC. e. In the battle of Panorma (Sicily), the Romans won a great victory, capturing 120 elephants. Two years later, the Carthaginians won a great naval victory (almost the only one in the entire war) and there was a lull due to the complete exhaustion of both sides.

Hamilcar Barca

In 247 BC. e. Hamilcar Barca (Lightning) became the commander-in-chief of Carthage; thanks to his outstanding abilities, success in Sicily began to lean toward the Punics, but in 241 BC. e. Rome, having gathered its strength, was able to field a new fleet and army. Carthage could no longer resist them and, after defeat, was forced to make peace, ceding Sicily to Rome, and pay an indemnity of 3,200 talents for 10 years.

After the defeat, Hamilcar resigned, power passed to his political opponents, led by Hanno. The Carthaginian government made a highly unreasonable attempt to reduce pay to mercenaries, which caused a strong uprising - the Libyans supported the army. Thus began the mercenary uprising, which almost ended in the death of the country. Hamilcar was again called to power. During the three-year war, he suppressed the uprising, but the garrison of Sardinia sided with the rebels and, fearing the tribes living on the island, recognized the power of Rome. Carthage demanded the return of the island. Since Rome was looking for an opportunity to destroy Carthage, under an insignificant pretext in 237 BC. e. declared war. Only by paying 1,200 talents to reimburse military expenses was the war averted.

The apparent inability of the aristocratic government to govern effectively led to the strengthening of the democratic opposition, led by Hamilcar. The People's Assembly vested him with the powers of commander-in-chief. In 236 BC. e., having conquered the entire African coast, he transferred the fighting to Spain. He fought there for 9 years until he fell in battle. After his death, the army chose his son-in-law Hasdrubal as commander in chief. In 16 years (236-220 BC), most of Spain was conquered and firmly tied to the metropolis. Silver mines brought very large incomes, and a magnificent army was created in battles. Overall, Carthage became much stronger than it had been even before the loss of Sicily.

Hannibal

After the death of Hasdrubal, the army chose Hannibal - the son of Hamilcar - as commander in chief. Hamilcar raised all his children - Mago, Hasdrubal and Hannibal - to hate Rome, therefore, having gained control of the army, Hannibal began to look for a reason to start a war. In 218 BC. e. he captured Saguntum - a Greek city and an ally of Rome - the war began. Unexpectedly for the enemy, Hannibal led his army around the Alps into Italian territory. There he won a number of victories - at Ticino, Trebia and Lake Trasimene. A dictator was appointed in Rome, but in 216 BC. e. near the city of Canna, Hannibal won a crushing victory, the consequence of which was the transition to his side of a significant part of Italy, and the second most important city - Capua. The fighting took place in both Spain and Sicily. Initially, Carthage was successful, but then the Romans managed to win a number of important victories. With the death of Hannibal's brother Hasdrubal, who led him with significant reinforcements, the position of Carthage became very complicated. Mago's landing in Italy was unsuccessful - he was defeated and killed in battle. Soon Rome moved the fighting to Africa. Having concluded an alliance with the king of the Numidians, Massinissa, Scipio inflicted a series of defeats on the Punes. Hannibal was called home. In 202 BC. e. In the battle of Zama, commanding a poorly trained army, he was defeated, and the Carthaginians decided to make peace. Under its terms, they were forced to give Spain and all the islands to Rome, maintain only 10 warships and pay 10,000 talents of indemnity. In addition, they had no right to fight with anyone without the permission of Rome.

After the end of the war, Hanno, Gisgon and Hasdrubal Gad, the heads of the aristocratic parties, who were hostile towards Hannibal, tried to get Hannibal condemned, but, supported by the population, he managed to retain power. Hopes for revenge were associated with his name. In 196 BC. e. Rome defeated Macedonia, which was an ally of Carthage, in the war. But there was one more ally left - the king of the Seleucid Empire, Antiochus. It was in alliance with him that Hannibal hoped to wage a new war, but first it was necessary to put an end to the oligarchic power in Carthage itself. Using his powers as suffet, he provoked a conflict with his political opponents and practically seized sole power. His tough actions against corruption among aristocratic officials caused opposition on their part. A denunciation was made to Rome about Hannibal's diplomatic relations with Antiochus. Rome demanded his extradition. Realizing that refusal would cause war, and the country was not ready for war, Hannibal was forced to flee the country to Antiochus. There he received virtually no powers, despite the greatest honors that accompanied his arrival. After the defeat of Antiochus, he hid in Crete, in Bithynia and, finally, constantly pursued by the Romans, was forced to commit suicide, not wanting to fall into the hands of the enemy.

III Punic War

Even after losing two wars, Carthage managed to quickly recover and soon became one of the richest cities again. In Rome, trade had long been an essential sector of the economy; competition from Carthage greatly hampered its development. His rapid recovery was also a big concern. Marcus Cato, who headed one of the commissions investigating the disputes of Carthage, managed to convince most of the Senate that he still posed a danger. The issue of starting the war was resolved, but it was necessary to find a convenient excuse.

The Numidian king Massinissa constantly attacked the Carthaginian possessions; Having realized that Rome always supports the opponents of Carthage, he moved on to direct seizures. All complaints of the Carthaginians were ignored and resolved in favor of Numidia. Finally, the Punes were forced to give him a direct military rebuff. Rome immediately made claims regarding the outbreak of hostilities without permission. The Roman army arrived at Carthage. The frightened Carthaginians asked for peace, the consul Lucius Censorinus demanded the surrender of all weapons, then demanded that Carthage be destroyed and that a new city be founded far from the sea. Having asked for a month to think it over, the Punes prepared for war. Thus began the Third Punic War. The city was superbly fortified, so it was possible to capture it only after 3 years of a difficult siege and heavy fighting. Carthage was completely destroyed, out of a population of 500,000, only 50,000 remained alive. A Roman province was created on its territory, ruled by a governor from Utica.

Rome in Africa

Just 100 years after the destruction of Carthage, Julius Caesar decided to found a colony on the site of the city. These plans were destined to come true only after his death. In honor of the founder, the colony was named "Colonia Julia Carthago" or "Carthaginian Colony of Julia". Roman engineers removed about 100,000 cubic meters of earth, destroying the top of Birsa to level the surface and eliminate traces of the past. Temples and beautiful public buildings were erected on this site. After some time, Carthage became “one of the most luxurious cities of the Roman world,” the second largest city in the West after Rome. To meet the needs of the city's 300,000 residents, a circus for 60,000 spectators, a theater, an amphitheater, baths and a 132-kilometer aqueduct were built there.

Christianity reached Carthage around the middle of the 2nd century AD. e. and quickly spread throughout the city. Around 155 AD. e. The famous theologian and apologist Tertullian was born in Carthage. Thanks to his works, Latin became the official language of the Western Church. In the 3rd century, Cyprian was the Bishop of Carthage, who introduced a system of seven-tier church hierarchy and died a martyr in 258 AD. e. Another North African, Augustine (354-430), the greatest Christian theologian of antiquity, combined the doctrines of the church with Greek philosophy.

By the beginning of the 5th century AD, the Roman Empire was in decline and the same was happening with Carthage. In 439 AD e. the city was captured and plundered by vandals. A hundred years later, the conquest of the city by the Byzantines temporarily stopped its final fall. In 698 AD e. the city was taken by the Arabs, its stones served as material for the construction of the city of Tunisia. In the following centuries, the marble and granite that once adorned the Roman city were looted and taken out of the country. Later they were used to build cathedrals in Genoa, Pisa, and Canterbury Cathedral in England. Today it is a suburb of Tunisia and an object of tourist pilgrimage.

Carthage today

Just 15 km from Tunisia, on a coast whitened by sea foam, opposite the Bukornina mountain range protecting its peace, stands ancient Carthage.

Carthage was built 2 times. The first time was in 814 BC, by the Phoenician princess Elissa, and was named Carthage, which means “new city” in Punic. Situated at the crossroads of the Mediterranean trade routes, it grew rapidly to become the main rival of the Roman Empire.

After the destruction of Carthage by Rome in 146 BC. During the Punic Wars, it was rebuilt as the capital of the Roman colony of Africa and continued to prosper. But it, too, eventually suffered the sad fate of Rome: the powerful cultural and commercial center was overwhelmed by crowds of barbarians in 430, then it was captured by the Byzantines in 533. After the Arab conquest, Carthage gave way to Kairouan, which became the capital of the new Arab state. Carthage was destroyed so many times, but each time it rose again. It’s not for nothing that when it was laid, the skulls of a horse and a bull were found - symbols of strength and wealth.

The city is interesting for its archaeological excavations. During excavations in the so-called Punic quarter, Punic water pipes were discovered under Roman buildings, studies of which showed how cleverly the water supply to tall (even six-story) buildings was carried out. At the beginning of our era, the Romans first leveled the site where the ruins of what was destroyed in 146 BC were located. Carthage, erected expensive retaining fortifications around the hill and built a forum on its flat top.

According to information from ancient history, first-born boys were sacrificed at this place to the patron god of the city, the god Baal-Hammon and the goddess Tanit, starting in the 5th century. BC. The whole ritual is expressively described by Gustave Flaubert in his novel Salammbô. During searches in the territory of Punic burials, archaeologists discovered about 50,000 urns with the remains of infants. On the restored tombstones one can discern the symbols of the gods carved with a chisel, the crescent moon or a stylized female figure with raised hands - the symbol of the goddess Tanit, as well as the sun disk - the symbol of Baal Hammon. Nearby are the harbors of Carthage, which later served the Romans: a commercial harbor in the south and a military harbor in the north.

Attractions

Birsa Hill. Here is the Cathedral of St. Louis. Finds from the excavations are on display at the National Museum of Carthage (Musee National de Carthage) on Birsa Hill.

The baths of Emperor Antoninus Pius in the Archaeological Park attract the greatest attention of tourists in Carthage. They were the largest in the Roman Empire after the Baths of Trajan in Rome. The aristocracy of Carthage met here for relaxation, bathing and business conversations. All that remains of the building itself are a few massive marble seats.

Next to the baths is the summer palace of the beys: today it is the residence of the President of Tunisia.

CARTHAGE
an ancient city (near modern Tunisia) and a state that existed in the 7th-2nd centuries. BC. in the western Mediterranean. Carthage (which means "new city" in Phoenician) was founded by people from Phoenician Tire (traditional founding date 814 BC, actually founded somewhat later, perhaps c. 750 BC). The Romans called it Carthago, the Greeks - Carchedon. According to legend, Carthage was founded by Queen Elissa (Dido), who fled from Tire after her brother Pygmalion, the king of Tire, killed her husband Sychaeus in order to take possession of his wealth. Throughout the history of Carthage, the city's inhabitants were renowned for their business acumen. According to the legend of the city's founding, Dido, who was allowed to occupy as much land as an ox's hide would cover, took possession of a large area by cutting the hide into narrow strips. That is why the citadel erected at this place was called Birsa (which means “skin”). Carthage was not the oldest of the Phoenician colonies. Long before him, Utica was founded somewhat to the north (the traditional date is c. 1100 BC). Probably around the same time, Hadrumet and Leptis, located on the east coast of Tunisia to the south, Hippo on the north coast and Lyx on the Atlantic coast of modern Morocco were founded. Long before the founding of the Phoenician colonies, ships from Egypt, Mycenaean Greece and Crete plied the Mediterranean Sea. The political and military failures of these powers starting around 1200 BC. provided the Phoenicians with freedom of action in the Mediterranean Sea and a favorable opportunity to acquire skills in navigation and trade. From 1100 to 800 BC The Phoenicians virtually dominated the sea, where only rare Greek ships dared to go. The Phoenicians explored the lands in the west up to the Atlantic coast of Africa and Europe, which later came in handy for Carthage.

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CITY AND POWER
Carthage owned fertile lands in the interior of the continent, it had an advantageous geographical position, which was conducive to trade, and also allowed it to control the waters between Africa and Sicily, preventing foreign ships from sailing further to the west. Compared to many famous cities of antiquity, Punic (from Latin punicus or poenicus - Phoenician) Carthage is not so rich in finds, since in 146 BC. The Romans methodically destroyed the city, and intensive construction took place in Roman Carthage, founded on the same site in 44 BC. Based on the scant evidence of ancient authors and their often unclear topographical indications, we know that the city of Carthage was surrounded by powerful walls with a length of approx. 30 km. Its population is unknown. The citadel was very strongly fortified. The city had a market square, a council building, a court and temples. The quarter, called Megara, had many vegetable gardens, orchards and winding canals. The ships entered the trading harbor through a narrow passage. For loading and unloading, up to 220 ships could be pulled ashore at the same time (ancient ships should have been kept on land if possible). Behind the trading harbor there was a military harbor and an arsenal.
System of government. In terms of its government structure, Carthage was an oligarchy. Despite the fact that in their homeland, in Phenicia, power belonged to the kings and the founder of Carthage, according to legend, was Queen Dido, we know almost nothing about royal power here. Ancient authors, who mostly admired the structure of Carthage, compared it with the political system of Sparta and Rome. Power here belonged to the Senate, which was in charge of finances, foreign policy, declarations of war and peace, and also carried out the general conduct of the war. Executive power was vested in two elected magistrates - suffets (sufetes called them by the Romans, this is the same position as "shofetim", i.e. judges, in the Old Testament). Obviously, these were senators, and their duties were exclusively civilian, not involving control over the army. Together with the army commanders, they were elected by the people's assembly. The same positions were established in cities under the rule of Carthage. Although many aristocrats owned vast agricultural lands, land ownership was not the only basis for achieving high social status. Trade was considered a completely respectable occupation, and wealth obtained in this way was treated with respect. Nevertheless, some aristocrats from time to time actively opposed the dominance of merchants, such as Hanno the Great in the 3rd century. BC.
Regions and cities. The agricultural areas in mainland Africa - the area inhabited by the Carthaginians themselves - roughly correspond to the territory of modern Tunisia, although other lands also fell under the city’s rule. When ancient authors speak of the numerous cities that were in the possession of Carthage, they undoubtedly mean ordinary villages. However, there were also real Phoenician colonies here - Utica, Leptis, Hadrumet, etc. Information about Carthage's relations with these cities and some Phoenician settlements in Africa or elsewhere is scarce. The cities of the Tunisian coast showed independence in their politics only in 149 BC, when it became obvious that Rome intended to destroy Carthage. Some of them then submitted to Rome. In general, Carthage was able (probably after 500 BC) to choose a political line, which was joined by the rest of the Phoenician cities both in Africa and on the other side of the Mediterranean Sea. The Carthaginian power was very extensive. In Africa, its easternmost city was more than 300 km east of Eia (modern Tripoli). Between it and the Atlantic Ocean the ruins of a number of ancient Phoenician and Carthaginian cities were discovered. Around 500 BC or a little later, the navigator Hanno led an expedition that founded several colonies on the Atlantic coast of Africa. He ventured far to the south and left a description of gorillas, tom-toms and other African sights rarely mentioned by ancient authors. Colonies and trading posts were for the most part located approximately one day's sailing distance from each other. Usually they were located on islands near the coast, on capes, at the mouths of rivers, or in those places on the mainland of the country from where it was easy to reach the sea. For example, Leptis, located near modern Tripoli, in the Roman era served as the final coastal point of the great caravan route from the interior, from where merchants brought slaves and gold sand. This trade probably began early in Carthage's history. The power included Malta and two neighboring islands. Carthage fought against the Sicilian Greeks for centuries, under its rule were Lilybaeum and other reliably fortified ports in the west of Sicily, as well as, at various periods, other areas on the island (it so happened that almost all of Sicily was in its hands, except Syracuse). Gradually, Carthage established control over the fertile regions of Sardinia, while the inhabitants of the mountainous regions of the island remained unconquered. Foreign merchants were prohibited from entering the island. At the beginning of the 5th century. BC. The Carthaginians began to explore Corsica. Carthaginian colonies and trading settlements also existed on the southern coast of Spain, while the Greeks gained a foothold on the eastern coast. Since arriving here in 237 BC. Hamilcar Barca and before Hannibal's campaign in Italy, great successes were achieved in subjugating the interior regions of Spain. Apparently, when creating its power scattered across different territories, Carthage did not set any goals other than establishing control over them in order to obtain the maximum possible profit.
CARTAGE CIVILIZATION
Agriculture. The Carthaginians were skilled farmers. The most important grain crops were wheat and barley. Some grain was probably delivered from Sicily and Sardinia. Average quality wine was produced for sale. Fragments of ceramic containers found during archaeological excavations in Carthage indicate that the Carthaginians imported higher quality wines from Greece or the island of Rhodes. The Carthaginians were famous for their excessive addiction to wine; even special laws against drunkenness were adopted, for example, prohibiting the consumption of wine by soldiers. In North Africa, olive oil was produced in large quantities, although of low quality. Figs, pomegranates, almonds, date palms grew here, and ancient authors mention vegetables such as cabbage, peas and artichokes. Horses, mules, cows, sheep and goats were bred in Carthage. The Numidians, who lived to the west, in the territory of modern Algeria, preferred thoroughbred horses and were famous as riders. Apparently, the Carthaginians, who had strong trade ties with the Numidians, bought horses from them. Later, the gourmets of imperial Rome highly valued poultry from Africa. Unlike Republican Rome, in Carthage small farmers did not form the backbone of society. Most of Carthage's African possessions were divided among wealthy Carthaginians, in whose large estates farming was carried out on a scientific basis. A certain Mago, who probably lived in the 3rd century. BC, wrote a guide to farming. After the fall of Carthage, the Roman Senate, wanting to attract wealthy people to restore production in some of its lands, ordered the translation of this manual into Latin. Passages from the work cited in Roman sources indicate that Mago used Greek agricultural manuals, but tried to adapt them to local conditions. He wrote about large farms and touched on all aspects of agricultural production. Probably local Berbers, and sometimes groups of slaves under the leadership of overseers, worked as tenants or sharecroppers. The emphasis was mainly on cash crops, vegetable oil and wine, but the nature of the area inevitably suggested specialization: the hillier areas were devoted to orchards, vineyards or pastures. There were also medium-sized peasant farms.
Craft. Carthaginian artisans specialized in the production of cheap products, mostly reproducing Egyptian, Phoenician and Greek designs and intended for sale in the western Mediterranean, where Carthage captured all markets. The production of luxury goods, such as the vibrant purple dye commonly known as Tyrian purple, dates back to the later period of Roman rule in North Africa, but may be considered to have existed before the fall of Carthage. Purple, a sea snail containing this dye, was best collected in the fall and winter - seasons not suitable for seafaring. Permanent settlements were founded in Morocco and on the island of Djerba, in the best places for obtaining murex. In accordance with Eastern traditions, the state was a slave owner, using slave labor in arsenals, shipyards or construction. Archaeologists have not found evidence that would indicate the presence of large private craft enterprises, whose products would be distributed in the Western market closed to outsiders, while many small workshops have been noted. It is often very difficult to distinguish among finds Carthaginian products from objects imported from Phenicia or Greece. Craftsmen were successful in reproducing simple items, and the Carthaginians do not seem to have been too keen on making anything other than copies. Some Punic craftsmen were very skilled, especially in carpentry and metalwork. A Carthaginian carpenter could use cedar wood for work, the properties of which were known from ancient times by the craftsmen of Ancient Phenicia who worked with Lebanese cedar. Due to the constant need for ships, both carpenters and metal workers were invariably distinguished by a high level of skill. There is evidence of their skill in working iron and bronze. The amount of jewelry found during excavations is small, but it seems that these people were not inclined to place expensive objects in tombs to please the souls of the dead. The largest of the handicraft industries, apparently, was the manufacture of ceramic products. The remains of workshops and pottery kilns filled with products intended for firing were discovered. Each Punic settlement in Africa produced pottery, which is found throughout the areas that were part of Carthage's sphere - Malta, Sicily, Sardinia and Spain. Carthaginian pottery is also discovered from time to time on the coast of France and Northern Italy - where the Greeks from Massalia (modern. Marseille) and where the Carthaginians were probably still allowed to trade. Archaeological finds paint a picture of a stable production of simple pottery not only in Carthage itself, but also in many other Punic cities. These are bowls, vases, dishes, goblets, pot-bellied jugs for various purposes, called amphorae, water jugs and lamps. Research shows that their production existed from ancient times until the destruction of Carthage in 146 BC. Early products for the most part reproduced Phoenician designs, which in turn were often copies of Egyptian ones. It seems that in the 4th and 3rd centuries. BC. The Carthaginians especially valued Greek products, which was evident in the imitation of Greek pottery and sculpture and the presence of large quantities of Greek products from this period in materials from excavations in Carthage.
Trade policy. The Carthaginians were especially successful in trade. Carthage can well be called a trading state, since its policies were largely guided by commercial considerations. Many of its colonies and trading settlements were undoubtedly founded for the purpose of expanding trade. It is known about some expeditions undertaken by the Carthaginian rulers, the reason for which was also the desire for wider trade relations. In a treaty concluded by Carthage in 508 BC. with the Roman Republic, which had just emerged after the expulsion of the Etruscan kings from Rome, it was stipulated that Roman ships could not sail into the western part of the sea, but they could use the harbor of Carthage. In the event of a forced landing elsewhere in Punic territory, they asked for official protection from the authorities and, after repairing the ship and replenishing food supplies, immediately set sail. Carthage agreed to recognize Rome's borders and respect its people as well as its allies. The Carthaginians entered into agreements and, if necessary, made concessions. They also resorted to force to prevent rivals from entering the waters of the western Mediterranean, which they considered as their patrimony, with the exception of the coast of Gaul and the adjacent coasts of Spain and Italy. They also fought against piracy. The authorities maintained the complex structures of Carthage's trading harbor in good repair, as well as its military harbor, which was apparently open to foreign ships, but few sailors entered it. It is striking that such a trading state as Carthage did not show due attention to coinage. Apparently, there was no own coin here until the 4th century. BC, when silver coins were issued which, if the surviving examples are considered typical, varied considerably in weight and quality. Perhaps the Carthaginians preferred to use the reliable silver coins of Athens and other states, and most transactions were carried out through direct barter.
Goods and trade routes. Specific data on Carthage's trade items is surprisingly scant, although evidence of its trading interests is quite numerous. Typical of such evidence is Herodotus' story about how trade took place on the west coast of Africa. The Carthaginians landed at a certain place and laid out goods, after which they retired to their ships. Then local residents appeared and placed a certain amount of gold next to the goods. If there was enough of it, the Carthaginians took the gold and sailed away. Otherwise, they left it untouched and returned to the ships, and the natives brought more gold. What kind of goods these were is not mentioned in the story. Apparently, the Carthaginians brought simple pottery for sale or exchange to those western regions where they had a monopoly, and also traded in amulets, jewelry, simple metal utensils and simple glassware. Some of them were produced in Carthage, some in the Punic colonies. According to some evidence, Punic traders offered wine, women and clothing to the natives of the Balearic Islands in exchange for slaves. It can be assumed that they were engaged in extensive purchases of goods in other craft centers - Egypt, Phenicia, Greece, Southern Italy - and transported them to those areas where they enjoyed a monopoly. Punic traders were famous in the harbors of these craft centers. Finds of non-Carthaginian items during archaeological excavations of western settlements suggest that they were brought there on Punic ships. Some references in Roman literature indicate that the Carthaginians brought various valuable goods to Italy, where ivory from Africa was highly valued. During the empire, huge quantities of wild animals were brought from Roman North Africa for games. Figs and honey are also mentioned. It is believed that Carthaginian ships sailed the Atlantic Ocean to obtain tin from Cornwall. The Carthaginians themselves produced bronze and may have shipped some tin to other places where it was needed for similar production. Through their colonies in Spain, they sought to obtain silver and lead, which could be exchanged for the goods they brought. The ropes for Punic warships were made from esparto grass, native to Spain and North Africa. An important trade item, due to its high price, was the purple dye from scarlet. In many areas, traders purchased wild animal skins and leather and found markets to sell them. As in later times, caravans from the south must have arrived at the ports of Leptis and Aea, as well as Gigtis, which lay somewhat to the west. They carried ostrich feathers and eggs, popular in ancient times, which served as decorations or bowls. In Carthage, they were painted with fierce faces and used, as they say, as masks to scare away demons. The caravans also brought ivory and slaves. But the most important cargo was gold sand from the Gold Coast or Guinea. The Carthaginians imported some of the best goods for their own use. Some of the pottery found in Carthage came from Greece or from Campania in southern Italy, where it was produced by visiting Greeks. The characteristic handles of Rhodian amphorae found during excavations in Carthage show that wine was brought here from Rhodes. Surprisingly, no high-quality Attic ceramics are found here.
Language, art and religion. We know almost nothing about the culture of the Carthaginians. The only lengthy texts in their language that have come down to us are contained in the play of Plautus the Punic, where one of the characters, Hanno, pronounces a monologue, apparently in the original Punic dialect, which is immediately followed by a significant part of it in Latin. In addition, there are many replicas of the same Gannon scattered throughout the play, also translated into Latin. Unfortunately, the scribes who did not understand the text distorted it. In addition, the Carthaginian language is known only by geographical names, technical terms, proper names and individual words given by Greek and Latin authors. In interpreting these passages, the similarity of the Punic language to the Hebrew language is very helpful. The Carthaginians did not have their own artistic traditions. Apparently, in everything that can be classified as art, these people limited themselves to copying other people's ideas and techniques. In ceramics, jewelry and sculpture, they were content with imitation, and sometimes they copied not the best examples. As far as literature is concerned, we have no evidence of them producing any other works than purely practical ones, such as Mago's manual on agriculture, and one or two smaller compilations of texts in Greek. We are not aware of the presence in Carthage of anything that could be called “fine literature.” Carthage had an official priesthood, temples and its own religious calendar. The main deities were Baal (Baal) - a Semitic god known from the Old Testament, and the goddess Tanit (Tinnit), the heavenly queen. Virgil in the Aeneid called Juno a goddess who favored the Carthaginians, since he identified her with Tanit. The religion of the Carthaginians is characterized by human sacrifices, which were especially widely practiced during periods of disaster. The main thing in this religion is belief in the effectiveness of cult practice for communicating with the invisible world. In light of this, it is especially surprising that in the 4th and 3rd centuries. BC. the Carthaginians actively joined the mystical Greek cult of Demeter and Persephone; in any case, the material traces of this cult are quite numerous.
RELATIONS WITH OTHER PEOPLES
The most ancient rivals of the Carthaginians were the Phoenician colonies in Africa, Utica and Hadrumet. It is unclear when and how they had to submit to Carthage: there is no written evidence of any wars.
Alliance with the Etruscans. The Etruscans of northern Italy were both allies and trade rivals of Carthage. These enterprising sailors, traders and pirates dominated the 6th century. BC. over a large part of Italy. Their main area of settlement was immediately north of Rome. They also owned Rome and the lands to the south - right up to the point where they came into conflict with the Greeks of southern Italy. Having concluded an alliance with the Etruscans, the Carthaginians in 535 BC. won a major naval victory over the Phocians - the Greeks who occupied Corsica. The Etruscans occupied Corsica and held the island for about two generations. In 509 BC. the Romans expelled them from Rome and Latium. Soon after this, the Greeks of southern Italy, enlisting the support of the Sicilian Greeks, increased pressure on the Etruscans and in 474 BC. put an end to their power at sea, inflicting a crushing defeat on them near Qom in the Gulf of Naples. The Carthaginians moved to Corsica, already having a bridgehead in Sardinia.
The fight for Sicily. Even before the major defeat of the Etruscans, Carthage had the opportunity to measure its strength with the Sicilian Greeks. The Punic cities in western Sicily, founded at least no later than Carthage, were forced to submit to him, like the cities of Africa. The rise of two powerful Greek tyrants, Gelon in Syracuse and Pheron in Acragantum, clearly foreshadowed to the Carthaginians that the Greeks would launch a powerful offensive against them to drive them out of Sicily, just as happened with the Etruscans in southern Italy. The Carthaginians accepted the challenge and for three years actively prepared to conquer all of eastern Sicily. They acted together with the Persians, who were preparing an invasion of Greece itself. According to later tradition (no doubt erroneous), the defeat of the Persians at Salamis and the equally decisive defeat of the Carthaginians in the land battle of Himera in Sicily occurred in 480 BC. in the same day. Having confirmed the worst fears of the Carthaginians, Feron and Gelon put up an irresistible force. Much time passed before the Carthaginians again launched an offensive in Sicily. After Syracuse successfully repelled the Athenian invasion (415-413 BC), completely defeating them, it sought to subjugate other Greek cities in Sicily. Then these cities began to turn to Carthage for help, which was not slow to take advantage of this and sent a huge army to the island. The Carthaginians were close to capturing the entire eastern part of Sicily. At this moment, the famous Dionysius I came to power in Syracuse, who based the power of Syracuse on cruel tyranny and for forty years fought against the Carthaginians with varying success. At the end of hostilities in 367 BC. The Carthaginians again had to come to terms with the impossibility of establishing complete control over the island. The lawlessness and inhumanity committed by Dionysius were partly compensated by the assistance he provided to the Sicilian Greeks in their fight against Carthage. The persistent Carthaginians made another attempt to subjugate eastern Sicily during the tyranny of Dionysius the Younger, who succeeded his father. However, this again did not achieve its goal, and in 338 BC, after several years of fighting, which made it impossible to talk about the advantage of either side, peace was concluded. There is an opinion that Alexander the Great saw his ultimate goal in establishing dominion over the West as well. After Alexander's return from the great campaign in India, shortly before his death, the Carthaginians, like other nations, sent an embassy to him, trying to find out his intentions. Perhaps Alexander's untimely death in 323 BC. saved Carthage from many troubles. In 311 BC The Carthaginians made another attempt to occupy the eastern part of Sicily. A new tyrant, Agathocles, ruled in Syracuse. The Carthaginians had already besieged him in Syracuse and seemed to have the opportunity to capture this main stronghold of the Greeks, but Agathocles and his army sailed from the harbor and attacked the Carthaginian possessions in Africa, posing a threat to Carthage itself. From this moment until the death of Agathocles in 289 BC. The usual war continued with varying success. In 278 BC The Greeks went on the offensive. The famous Greek commander Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, arrived in Italy to fight against the Romans on the side of the southern Italian Greeks. Having won two victories over the Romans with great damage to himself (“Pyrrhic victory”), he crossed over to Sicily. There he pushed back the Carthaginians and almost cleared the island of them, but in 276 BC. with his characteristic fatal inconstancy, he abandoned further struggle and returned to Italy, from where he was soon expelled by the Romans.
Wars with Rome. The Carthaginians could hardly have foreseen that their city was destined to perish as a result of a series of military conflicts with Rome, known as the Punic Wars. The reason for the war was the episode with the Mamertines, Italian mercenaries who were in the service of Agathocles. In 288 BC part of them captured the Sicilian city of Messana (modern Messina), and when in 264 BC. Hieron II, the ruler of Syracuse, began to overcome them, they asked for help from Carthage and at the same time from Rome. For a variety of reasons, the Romans responded to the request and came into conflict with the Carthaginians. The war lasted 24 years (264-241 BC). The Romans landed troops in Sicily and initially achieved some successes, but the army that landed in Africa under the command of Regulus was defeated near Carthage. After repeated failures at sea caused by storms, as well as a number of defeats on land (the Carthaginian army in Sicily was commanded by Hamilcar Barca), the Romans in 241 BC. won a naval battle off the Aegadian Islands, off the western coast of Sicily. The war brought enormous damage and losses to both sides, Carthage finally lost Sicily, and soon lost Sardinia and Corsica. In 240 BC a dangerous uprising of Carthaginian mercenaries dissatisfied with the delay of money broke out, which was suppressed only in 238 BC. In 237 BC, just four years after the end of the first war, Hamilcar Barca went to Spain and began the conquest of the interior. To the Roman embassy, who came with a question about his intentions, he replied that he was looking for a way to pay the indemnity to Rome as quickly as possible. The riches of Spain - flora and fauna, minerals, not to mention its inhabitants - could quickly compensate the Carthaginians for the loss of Sicily. However, conflict began again between the two powers, this time due to unrelenting pressure from Rome. In 218 BC Hannibal, the great Carthaginian commander, traveled overland from Spain through the Alps to Italy and defeated the Roman army, winning several brilliant victories, the most important of which took place in 216 BC. at the Battle of Cannae. Nevertheless, Rome did not ask for peace. On the contrary, he recruited new troops and, after several years of confrontation in Italy, transferred the fighting to North Africa, where he achieved victory at the Battle of Zama (202 BC). Carthage lost Spain and finally lost its position as a state capable of challenging Rome. However, the Romans feared the revival of Carthage. They say that Cato the Elder ended each of his speeches in the Senate with the words “Delenda est Carthago” - “Carthage must be destroyed.” In 149 BC Rome's exorbitant demands forced the weakened but still wealthy North African state into a third war. After three years of heroic resistance, the city fell. The Romans razed it to the ground, sold the surviving inhabitants into slavery and sprinkled the soil with salt. However, five centuries later, Punic was still spoken in some rural areas of North Africa, and many of the people who lived there probably had Punic blood in their veins. Carthage was rebuilt in 44 BC. and turned into one of the major cities of the Roman Empire, but the Carthaginian state ceased to exist.
ROMAN CARTHAGE
Julius Caesar, who had a practical bent, ordered the founding of a new Carthage, since he considered it pointless to leave such an advantageous place in many respects unused. In 44 BC, 102 years after its destruction, the city began a new life. From the very beginning it prospered as the administrative center and port of an area with rich agricultural production. This period of Carthage's history lasted almost 750 years. Carthage became the main city of the Roman provinces in North Africa and the third (after Rome and Alexandria) city in the empire. It served as the residence of the proconsul of the province of Africa, which, in the minds of the Romans, more or less coincided with the ancient Carthaginian territory. The administration of the imperial land holdings, which made up a significant part of the province, was also located here. Many famous Romans are associated with Carthage and its surroundings. The writer and philosopher Apuleius studied in Carthage as a youth, and later achieved such fame there for his Greek and Latin speeches that statues were erected in his honor. A native of North Africa was Marcus Cornelius Fronto, the mentor of Emperor Marcus Aurelius, as well as Emperor Septimius Severus. The ancient Punic religion survived in Romanized form, and the goddess Tanit was worshiped as Juno the Celestial, and the image of Baal merged with Cronus (Saturn). However, it was North Africa that became the stronghold of the Christian faith, and Carthage gained prominence in the early history of Christianity and was the site of a number of important church councils. In the 3rd century. The Carthaginian bishop was Cyprian, and Tertullian spent most of his life here. The city was considered one of the largest centers of Latin learning in the empire; St. Augustine, in his Confessions, gives us several vivid sketches of the lives of students who attended the rhetoric school of Carthage at the end of the 4th century. However, Carthage remained only a major urban center and had no political significance. Do we hear stories about the public executions of Christians, do we read about Tertullian’s furious attacks on noble Carthaginian women who came to church in magnificent secular attire, or do we meet references to some outstanding personalities who found themselves in Carthage at important moments in history, above the level of a large provincial city he never rises again. For some time here was the capital of the Vandals (429-533 AD), who, like pirates once upon a time, set sail from the harbor that dominated the Mediterranean straits. This area was then conquered by the Byzantines, who held it until Carthage fell to the Arabs in 697.

Collier's Encyclopedia. - Open Society. 2000 .

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Carthage- Carthage. The lid of the so-called princess sarcophagus. Marble with painting. Around 300 BC e. Carthage. The lid of the so-called princess sarcophagus. Marble with painting. Around 300 BC e. Carthage (,) city state in North Africa,... ... Encyclopedic Dictionary of World History

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