Word as a unit of language
Lexicology is a branch of the science of language that studies the vocabulary of a language, or vocabulary. In lexicology, the word is studied as an individual unit, as well as the place of the word in the lexical system of the modern Russian literary language.
Word- the main nominative and cognitive (cognitive) unit of language, which serves to name objects, processes, properties and communicate about them. It belongs to the lexical-semantic level of language and consists of units of lower levels: phonemes and morphemes.
One of the most important functions of a word is the nominative function. It is known that every newly appearing object, every new discovery receives a name (title).
The naming function in the language is carried out significant parts of speech: noun, adjective, numeral, verb, adverb.
By its linguistic nature, a word is a complex, multidimensional, diverse unit of language. The following main features of the word are noted:
1) Phonetic design, i.e. a word is a sound complex constructed according to the laws of the phonetic structure of a given language.
2) The presence of a word with a meaning that is assigned to it in the minds of all speakers of a given language.
3) Separateness and impenetrability of the word, i.e. the impossibility of additional insertions inside a word without changing its meaning.
4) Reproducibility, i.e. words are not created in the process of communication, but are extracted from the linguistic memory of native speakers.
5) Isolability, i.e. a word can be isolated from speech or context.
6) Non-two-accent, i.e. the word has one main emphasis - students.
7) Referral to a specific part of speech.
Lexical and grammatical meaning of the word
A word is a two-way linguistic unit ( sign), having a form, i.e. sound or graphic shell and meaning - a specific linguistic reflection of reality. For example, a sequence of letters tree becomes a sign (word) because it has meaning.
However, not every set of sounds (letters) will be a word. N.: And I came up with a word, a simple word - plim.. Here he jumps and jumps. Plim, plim, plim. And it doesn't mean anything. Plim, plim, plim(I. Tokmakova). This set of sounds, although designed according to the laws of language. has no meaning, therefore it does not become a word (sign).
The ability of certain sound complexes that form words to express certain meanings is studied by l sexual semantics- the science of the meaning of words
Lexical meaning a word is its “material” meaning, it is the correlation of the sound shell of a word with a certain object or phenomenon of reality with a single national understanding of this correlation.
Lexical meaning of the word individually: it is inherent in a given word and thereby distinguishes this word from others, each of which has its own, also individual meaning.
Along with the lexical meaning, the word has a grammatical meaning. The grammatical meaning of the word- this is a characteristic of it as an element of a certain grammatical class ( table – noun m.r..). Grammatical meaning characterizes entire categories and classes of words; it categorically.
Let's compare the words table, house, knife. Each of them has its own lexical meaning. At the same time, they are characterized by common, one and the same grammatical meanings: they all belong to the same part of speech - noun, to the same grammatical gender - husband. and have the same number - the only one.
An important feature of grammatical meaning that distinguishes it from lexical meaning is obligatory expression: we cannot use a word without expressing its grammatical meaning. So, saying the word book, we not only name a specific object, but also express such characteristics of this noun as gender (g.), number (sing.), case (i.).
Types of lexical meanings
A comparison of various words and their meanings allows us to identify several types of lexical meanings of words in the Russian language.
1. By nomination method, i.e. Based on the nature of the connection between the meaning of a word and the subject of objective reality, two types of lexical meanings are distinguished: direct And indirect(portable).
Direct is the meaning of a word that directly indicates an object, sign, process, etc. and acts as its main nomination in the modern period of language development. Portable a meaning is called, the appearance of which is due to functional-associative connections that unite one object, feature, process with another: bear: 1. ‘animal’; 2. ‘clumsy person’.
II. According to the degree of semantic motivation There are two types of word meanings: unmotivated (non-derivative, primary) and motivated (derivative, secondary).
Unmotivated is called a meaning that is genetically non-derivative for the modern Russian language N.: road, donkey1– ‘animal of burden’.
Motivated is a meaning that is derivative in semantic or word-formation terms. N.: donkey2– ‘dumb stubborn’ (a person is compared to a donkey based on such characteristics as stupidity and stubbornness), roadside– ‘growing by the road’.
III. If possible, lexical compatibility free and non-free values are distinguished.
Free is the meaning of a word that has a relatively wide syntagmatics (combinability). The connections between words in this case are determined by the real connections of the phenomena of reality. N.: noun. bread has a wide range of compatibility: fresh, rye, stale, ... But freedom of compatibility is relative, it is limited by the semantic relations of words: combinations like wooden, smart, stupid bread.
Unfree is the meaning of words whose compatibility is limited by semantic and extralinguistic factors. Among the lexically constrained, three groups of word meanings are distinguished: phraseologically related, syntactically limited and structurally determined.
Phraseologically related is the meaning of a word that is realized in combination with a certain and at the same time limited range of words. N.: adj. dun can only be combined with words horse, stallion, horse (it is forbidden dun cow or bus).
Phraseologically related meanings of words real(trifle, trifle, nonsense, true); look down (glance, eyes, look), gape (mouth, mouth).
Syntactically limited is a figurative meaning of a word that is realized by this word only in a certain syntactic position: the position of the predicate, address, or definitions of various types. N.: hat(about a sluggish, uninitiative person, a bungler): He's a real hat; Hat! Wherever you go, He, the hat, can’t handle anything.
Similar syntactic restrictions apply to the figurative use (in relation to a person) of words donkey, bear, elephant, snake, oak.
Structurally determined is the meaning of a word that is expressed only in a certain construction. So, verb cry expresses its meaning only in combination with a prepositional-case combination on + noun in V.p.: cry at fate, respond for what(on request).
IV. By the nature of the functions performed Two types of lexical meanings can be distinguished: proper nominative and expressive-synonymous.
Nominative- such meanings of words that are used primarily to name objects, phenomena, qualities. Additional features (for example, evaluative ones) are not reflected in the semantic structure of words with a similar meaning. The meaning of the words will be nominative eyes, move, horse, payback and a lot others. Each of them is directly related to the concept and names it.
Expressive-synonymous is a meaning in which the main one is connotative, or emotional-evaluative sign. Words with this meaning arose as additional expressive-emotional names for nominations already existing in the language with a denotative meaning. For example, each of the above words can be replaced by a word that has an expressive-synonymous meaning: eyes - zenki, move - trudge, horse - nag, retribution - retribution.
Words with such meanings exist independently in the language and are reflected in dictionaries, but are perceived in the minds of native speakers by association with their nominative synonyms.
Polysemy of the word
Words in a language can have not one, but two or more meanings. The ability of a word to be used in more than one meaning is called polysemy, or polysemy. The “lower limit” of polysemy is uniqueness (monosemy), which is characterized by the presence of only one meaning for a word: birch, tram.
At the moment of its occurrence, the word is always unambiguous. The new meaning is the result of the figurative use of a word, when the name of one phenomenon is used as the name of another. The following types of figurative meanings are distinguished: metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche.
Metaphor- this is the transfer of a name by similarity, as well as the figurative meaning itself, which is based on similarity.
The similarities between objects can be very diverse. Items may be similar:
A) shape: arched eyebrows, a wheel of cheese, a pot-bellied teapot;
b ) location: comet tail, trains, building wing;
V) size: a mountain of things, a stream of tears, a cloud of mosquitoes;
G) color: copper hair, coral lips, chocolate tan;
d) degree of density, permeability: iron muscles, wall of rain;
e) degree of mobility, re shares: spinning top, dragonfly (about an active child)
and) sound: rain drumming, saw squealing;
h) degree of value: golden words, the highlight of the program.
There are metaphors general language, when one or another metaphorical meaning of a word is used widely and is known to all speakers of a given language (a nail head, a river branch) and individual, created by a writer or poet, characterizing his stylistic style:
For example, the metaphors of S.A. Yesenina: fire of red rowan, chintz of the sky, ripe star.
Metonymy- this is the transfer of the name of one object to another based on the contiguity of these objects.
Metonymy is the result of semantic shifts in the language system. It can arise as a result of transfers based on various connections:
a) material - product (mining gold - gold in the ears)
b) vessel - contents of the vessel (drank a glass)
c) room - people (the audience listened carefully)
d) action - place of action (crossing the street - pedestrian crossing)
e) plant - fruit (pear, cherry)
e) animal - fur (fox)
Synecdoche- using the name of some part of an object instead of the whole and vice versa (Synecdoche is a type of metonymic shift). For example: face, mouth, head, hand represent the corresponding parts of the human body. But each of them can be used to name a person: A person of Caucasian nationality. There are 5 mouths in a family. Lena is a bright-headed person.
Synecdoche can be expressed in the use of the singular number of a noun to denote a collection, a set: The student (=students) went the wrong way today.
Some characteristic features of a person - a beard, glasses, clothes - are often used to designate a person, to address him (in colloquial speech): I stand here for blue cloak(=behind the man in the blue cloak).
Homonyms
Homonyms- these are words that have the same sound and spelling, but different meanings: marriage(marriage) - marriage(defect), p ys(animal) - lynx(horse running).
The largest and most diverse group consists of lexical (absolute) homonyms: rook(boat) - rook(chess figure). In lexicology, there are two types of lexical homonyms - full And incomplete(partial).
TO complete Lexical homonyms include words of the same part of speech, which have the same entire system of forms: key(door) - key(spring)
TO incomplete Lexical homonyms include words of the same part of speech, in which not the entire system of forms coincides: factory (company) - factory(mechanism) - has no plural forms.
From lexical homonyms, complete and partial, other types of homonymy should be distinguished: phonetic, graphic, morphological.
1. Phonetic (sound) homonymy- word matching in sound: onion - meadow, mushroom - flu. Phonetic homonyms are called homophones.
2. Graphic homonymy- words that are identical only in spelling, but sound differently: roast(dish) and roast(summer); flour - flour. T what words are called homographs.
3. Morphological homonymy- coincidence of words belonging to both one and different parts of speech, in one or more forms: ate(the form of the verb is) and ate(plural noun spruce); three(num.) and three(implementative verb. rub). Such words are called homoforms.
Homonymy must be distinguished from polysemy (multiple meanings). With polysemy, different meanings of one word retain an internal connection with the main meaning. For example, the word build may mean:
1) construct (build a house); 2) make (make plans);
3) draw (build a triangle); 4) put in ranks (build squads).
All these meanings have not lost connection with the basic general ‘to create, to construct’, i.e. the word retains its polysemantic nature.
With homonymy, the connection between the meanings of a word is lost: beam(log) and beam(ravine); braid(hairstyle) and braid(strip of sushi).
One way to distinguish between polysemy and homonymy can be the compatibility of words. For example: shaft 1 ( embankment), val 2 (wave).
1. city, fortress rampart; pour, strengthen the shaft.
2. high, foaming, ninth, rolling, running. The words val 1 and val 2 have different combinability, therefore, these are homonyms.
battle 1 - sea, deadly, long; fight;
fight 2 - fist, deadly, long; fight;
fight 3 - fist, deadly, long; fight
The words fight 1, fight 2, fight 3 have similar combinability, therefore, these are ambiguous words.
Lexical homonyms arise as a result of various processes occurring in the language.
1) as a result of the coincidence in form of the original word and the borrowed word:
club(smoke) - primordial, related to the words swirl, tangle;
club(institution) – borrowed from English;
marriage(marriage) - primordial, related to the verb to take;
marriage(defect) - borrowed from German.
2) as a result of the coincidence in form of words borrowed from different sources or from one, but with different meanings: tap(plumbing) - from Dutch - tap(construction) - from German; note(musical) and note(diplomatic document) - from Latin.
3) as a result of the collapse of polysemy and the separation of the word from its original meaning: garden(fruity) and garden(children's) - go back to a common source - the verb plant. These words diverged in meaning and became homonyms in modern Russian.
4) as a result of phonetic processes occurring in the language, or changes in the spelling of a word: never(once upon a time) and once(no time) - originally differed in sounds Ђ And e, which later coincided in one sound e.
5) as a result of word-formation processes, in particular, by adding affixes with different meanings to the same stem
cover (re-cover) - cover (block)
Paronyms
Paronyms- these are words that are similar in sound and structure, but have different meanings. Typically, paronyms are words formed from the same root using different affixes. For example: diplomat - dimlomancer- noun common root diploma, distinguished by the suffixes - at and -ant.
Diplomat- an official in the diplomatic service.
Diploma holder- a person awarded an award - a diploma - or writing a diploma.
In speech, paronyms are sometimes mixed, although they mean different things. For example: they say “put on a coat” instead of “put on a coat.” Verbs dress And put on differ in meaning: put on (what) - dress (whom)
Paronyms are distinguished by the synonymous correspondences that each member of the paronymic pair (series) has. For example:
Synonyms
Synonyms- words that sound different, but are semantically identical, denoting the same concept and differing in the sphere of use, shades of meaning, stylistic or emotional coloring. Synonyms belong to the same lexical-grammatical category of words (parts of speech).
For example: synonyms elk, elk, elk- identical in meaning, but belong to different lexical layers: elk- literary word; elk- conversational; Sokhach- dialectal. Several words usually enter into synonymous relationships. They form synonymous series. The word that most fully expresses the meaning common to words of the synonymous series is called dominant(Latin djminans - “dominant”). Dominant is a stylistically neutral, commonly used word; all other members of the synonymous series are often words with additional semantic and stylistic shades of meaning. So, in a synonymous series red, scarlet, crimson the dominant will be the adjective red. The dominant is at the head of the synonymous row and is given in dictionaries at the beginning
Depending on the functions there are semantic And stylistic synonyms.
Semantic or ideographic synonyms differ from each other by elements of lexical meaning: red- ‘the color of blood’; scarlet- ‘bright red’, scarlet- ‘red of a dark shade’.
Stylistic synonyms differ from each other in their expressive and stylistic load and are used in different styles of speech. In a synonymous row: face - face - muzzle - physiognomy - mug word face- the word is stylistically neutral; face(high, book style); muzzle - face - mug- colloquial.
Synonyms arise as a result of various processes occurring in language.
1. As a result of the “splitting” of one lexical meaning into two or more. For example, verb reforge acquired a figurative meaning ‘to change one’s way of thinking and behavior as a result of upbringing’ and became close in meaning to such verbs as re-educate, transform.
2. As a result of borrowing foreign words: breg - shore, city - city. cruise - journey, And hobby - enthusiasm.
3. Due to the use of dialectal, professional words next to literary ones: hut - hut, hayfield - kosovitsa.
4. As a result of word formation processes in the language: digging - digging, piloting - aerobatics
5. As a result of the addition of a negative particle Not to one of the members of the antonymic pair: low - (high) low, rarely - (often) infrequently, enemy - (friend) foe.
ANTONYMS
Antonyms – These are words belonging to the same part of speech and having opposite meanings: young - old, stupid - smart, meet - see off, above - below.
In its own way structure Antonyms are divided into three groups:
1. Antonyms with different roots: good - evil, long - short;
2. Single-root antonyms: faith - unbelief, sunrise - sunset, work - idleness;
3. Intraword antonyms are pairs that are obtained as a result of the development of the meaning of a word to the complete opposite (a process called enantiosemy). N.: borrow(lend) – (borrow), maybe(presumably) – (certainly ): I'll probably come. They probably told me that the commission would arrive soon. Priceless(having a high price).
Antonyms are one of the expressive means of language. They have long been used in CNT, for example, in proverbs: A sweet lie is better than a bitter truth; There is an angel in people, and a devil in houses; The poor do not understand the rich; Learning is light and ignorance is darkness.
Antonyms are also widely used in journalism, especially in headlines: Friends and enemies of tourism; The luck and bad luck of famous people.
Antonyms can serve as a means of creating oxymoron– a figure of speech, which is a combination of two opposing concepts (two words that contradict each other in meaning): bitter joy, ringing silence, sweet pain, a living corpse, adult children.
Typically, an oxymoron is created using the “adjective + noun” model, but other models are also found: “adverb + verb”: Oh how fun it is for her to be sad. So elegantly naked (Ahm.).
Antonymy is used in fiction to express antitheses– a figure of speech in which opposite concepts are contrasted to enhance expressiveness: I won’t better or worse, All That I will, no other, From happiness blaze on cold, From the grief gets cold in summer heat(N. Gribachev). Revolted and old and young (P.); I stupid, And you smart, lively, and I dumbfounded (Color).
In an ironic context, one antonym can be used instead of another: Where, smart, your head is delirious. Using a word in the opposite meaning is called antiphrase. Antiphrases is often resorted to in everyday conversation; Thus, an absent-minded person is jokingly told: how attentive you are! evil: how kind you are!
Antonyms are characterized primarily by contact use in certain contexts. The deliberate collision of antonyms makes it possible to realize their most important functions:
1) opposition: You are rich, I am very poor(P.);
2) mutual exclusion: He had only one opinion about people - good or bad(Sim.);
3) alternation: He either put out the candle or lit it(Ch.);
4) coverage of the entire class of objects, the entire phenomenon, action: From young to old, from morning to evening, both enemies and friends - everyone is tired.
Antonyms can be linguistic And contextual(individual). Unlike linguistic antonyms, the semantic opposite of which appears regularly and does not depend on use (white – black, soft – hard), contextual antonyms are an occasional (random) phenomenon limited by the context: Wolves and Sheep(N. Ostrovsky), Already and Falcon(M. Gorky), boxes - galleries(E. Yevtushenko); daily work - nightly dream(M. Tsvetaeva). What is allowed to Jupiter is not allowed to the bull. Jupiter (god) and bull (livestock) are contrasted in the Latin proverb as antonyms, although they are not.
Meaning GRAMMARICAL MEANING in the Dictionary of Linguistic Terms
GRAMMATIC MEANING
(formal) meaning. A meaning that acts as an addition to the lexical meaning of a word and expresses various relationships (the relationship to other words in a phrase or sentence, the relationship to the person performing the action or other persons, the relationship of the reported fact to reality and time, the attitude of the speaker to the communicated, etc. .). Usually a word has several grammatical meanings. Thus, the word country has the meaning of feminine, nominative case, singular; the word wrote contains the grammatical meanings of the past tense, singular, masculine, perfective. Grammatical meanings find their morphological or syntactic expression in the language. They are expressed mainly by the form of the word, which is formed:
a) affixation. Book, books, book, etc. (case meanings);
b) internal inflection. Collect - collect (imperfect and perfect meanings);
c) accent. At home. (gen. fallen. singular) - at home (named. fallen. plural);
d) suppletivism. Take - take (meanings of the form). Good - better (values of the degree of comparison);
f) mixed (synthetic and analytical methods). To the house (the meaning of the dative case is expressed by a preposition and a case form).
The grammatical meaning of a word can also be expressed using other words with which the word is associated in a sentence. The tram left for the depot.— The tram left the depot (the meanings of the accusative case of the indeclinable word depot in the first sentence and the genitive case in the second are created in both cases by different connections of this word with other words). see also ways of expressing grammatical meanings.
Dictionary of linguistic terms. 2012
See also interpretations, synonyms, meanings of words and what GRAMMATICAL MEANING is in Russian in dictionaries, encyclopedias and reference books:
- GRAMMATIC MEANING in the Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary:
- a generalized, abstract linguistic meaning inherent in a number of words, word forms, syntactic structures and finding its regular (standard) expression in the language. IN … - GRAMMAR
INTERPRETATION - interpretation of a rule of law, which consists in analyzing the structural connection of words to clarify its meaning and content. Gt. suggests that... - MEANING in the Big Encyclopedic Dictionary:
- MEANING
content associated with one or another expression (word, sentence, sign, etc.) of a certain language. The history of linguistic expressions is studied in linguistics, ... - MEANING in the Modern Encyclopedic Dictionary:
- MEANING in the Encyclopedic Dictionary:
content associated with one or another expression (word, sentence, sign, etc.) of a certain language. The meaning of linguistic expressions is studied in linguistics, ... - MEANING in the Encyclopedic Dictionary:
, -I, Wed. 1. Meaning, what a given phenomenon, concept, object means, designates. 3. glance, gesture. Determine h. words. Lexical... - MEANING
LEXICAL MEANING, the semantic content of a word, reflecting and consolidating in the mind the idea of an object, property, process, phenomenon and... - MEANING in the Big Russian Encyclopedic Dictionary:
VALUE, importance, significance, role of an object, phenomenon, action in human activity. Content associated with a particular expression (word, sentence, sign... - MEANING in the Complete Accented Paradigm according to Zaliznyak:
meaning, meanings, meanings, meanings, meaning, meanings, meaning, meanings, meaning, meanings, meanings, … - MEANING in the Popular Explanatory Encyclopedic Dictionary of the Russian Language:
-I'm with. 1) The meaning, content of something. The meaning of the gesture. Meaning of the word. She is troubled by a dream. Not knowing how to understand it, a terrible dream... - MEANING in the Thesaurus of Russian Business Vocabulary:
- MEANING in the Russian Language Thesaurus:
1. Syn: importance, importance, importance, role Ant: insignificance, unimportance, secondary importance 2. Syn: ... - MEANING in Abramov's Dictionary of Synonyms:
meaning, reason; weight, importance, authority, dignity, strength, value. Real, figurative, direct, proper, strict, figurative, literal, broad sense of the word. "This girl... - MEANING in the Russian Synonyms dictionary:
Syn: significance, importance, importance, role Ant: insignificance, unimportance, secondary Syn: ... - MEANING in the New Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language by Efremova:
Wed 1) What does someone mean? or something; meaning. 2) Importance, significance, purpose. 3) Influence, ... - MEANING in Lopatin’s Dictionary of the Russian Language:
meaning... - MEANING in the Complete Spelling Dictionary of the Russian Language:
meaning, … - MEANING in the Spelling Dictionary:
meaning... - MEANING in Ozhegov’s Dictionary of the Russian Language:
meaning, what a given phenomenon, concept, object means, denotes by gaze, gesture. Determine h. words. Lexical z. words (meant by... - MEANING in the Modern Explanatory Dictionary, TSB:
1) importance, significance, role of an object, phenomenon, action in human activity. 2) Content associated with a particular expression (words, sentences, ... - MEANING in Ushakov’s Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language:
values, cf. (book). 1. Meaning, what a given object (Word, gesture, sign) means. The word "knowledge" has several meanings. The word "sick"... - MEANING in Ephraim's Explanatory Dictionary:
value avg. 1) What does someone mean? or something; meaning. 2) Importance, significance, purpose. 3) Influence, ... - MEANING in the New Dictionary of the Russian Language by Efremova:
Wed 1. What someone or something means; meaning. 2. Importance, significance, purpose. 3. Influence,... - MEANING in the Large Modern Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language:
I Wed. Having the ability to express, mean something, have some meaning. II Wed. 1. Importance, significance. 2. Influence,... - GRAMMARICAL INTERPRETATION
-interpretation of legal norms, which consists in analyzing the structural connection of words to clarify its meaning and content. this year suggests that in words... - GRAMMATICAL INTERPRETATION in the One-Volume Large Legal Dictionary:
- see grammatical interpretation... - GRAMMARICAL INTERPRETATION
-interpretation of legal norms, which consists in analyzing the structural connection of words to clarify its meaning and content. T.g. suggests that in words... - GRAMMATICAL INTERPRETATION in the Big Legal Dictionary:
- see grammatical interpretation... - TENSE GRAMMAR in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
grammatical, a grammatical category that serves to localize in time the event that is indicated by the verb or predicate of a sentence: tense forms express the relation ... - JACOBSON ROMAN in the Dictionary of Postmodernism:
(1896-1982) - Russian linguist, semiotician, literary critic, who contributed to the establishment of a productive dialogue between European and American cultural traditions, French, Czech and Russian... - INTERPRETATION OF LAW in the One-Volume Large Legal Dictionary:
- INTERPRETATION OF LAW in the Big Legal Dictionary:
- activities of government bodies, various organizations and individual citizens, aimed at understanding and explaining the meaning and content of the generally binding will of the legislator, ... - JAPANESE in the Encyclopedia Japan from A to Z:
For a long time it was believed that the Japanese language is not included in any of the known language families, occupying the genealogical classification of languages ... - VAK in the Yoga Dictionary:
, Vakh (Vak or Vach) Oral speech; utterance, pronunciation. "Vakya" means grammatical sentence, and "Mahavakya" means "great speech", ... - INTERPRETATION in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
NORMS OF LAW - the activities of government bodies, various organizations and individual citizens, aimed at understanding and explaining the meaning and content of generally mandatory ... - INTERPRETATION in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENT - understanding the true intention of the parties to the agreement and the actual meaning of its provisions. The purpose of interpretation is to be as complete as possible... - INTERPRETATION in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
GRAMMARICAL - see GRAMMARICAL INTERPRETATION; INTERPRETATION OF STANDARDS... - OFFER in the Literary Encyclopedia:
the basic unit of coherent speech, characterized by certain semantic (the presence of so-called predication - see below) and structural (choice, arrangement and connection... - INVERSION in the Literary Encyclopedia:
violation of the word order accepted in colloquial speech and, thereby, normal intonation; the latter with I. is characterized by a larger than usual number ... - DIALECTOLOGY in the Literary Encyclopedia:
department of linguistics, the subject of study of which is dialect as a whole. So. arr. unlike other departments of linguistics, which distinguish... - GRAMMAR in the Literary Encyclopedia:
[from Greek grammata - “writings”, “scriptures”]. In the original understanding of the word, G. coincides with the science of linguistic forms in general, including ... - ENGLISH LANGUAGE in the Literary Encyclopedia:
language mixed. By its origin, it is associated with the western branch of the Germanic group of languages. (cm.). It is customary to share the history of A. Yaz. on the … - FORTUNATOV in the Pedagogical Encyclopedic Dictionary:
Philip Fedorovich (1848-1914), linguist, academician of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences (1898). The founder of the Moscow, so-called. Fortunatovsky, linguistic school. Since 1876, professor at Moscow University. IN … - FRANCE in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB.
- WORD FORM in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
words, 1) a set of morphological and phonological characteristics of a word that determine its grammatical meaning. Thus, the composition of the morphemes of the word “teacher” (uchitel-nits-a) indicates ...
Words are the building materials for any language. Sentences and phrases are built from them, with their help we convey thoughts and communicate. The ability of this unit to name or designate objects, actions, etc. called a function. The suitability of a word for communication and transmission of thoughts is called its
Thus, the word is the basic, main structural unit of language.
Every word in Russian has a lexical and grammatical meaning.
Lexical is the relationship between the sound (phonetic) design of a word, its sound, and phenomena of reality, images, objects, actions, etc. It can be said more simply: this is the meaning. From a lexical point of view, the words “barrel”, “bump”, “point” are different units because they denote different objects.
The grammatical meaning of a word is the meaning of its forms: gender or number, case or conjugation. If the words “barrel” and “dot” are considered grammatically, then they will be absolutely the same: creatures. feminine, standing in the nominative case and singular. number.
If you compare the lexical and grammatical meaning of a word, you can see that they are not the same, but are interconnected. The lexical meaning of each of them is universal, but the main one is fixed at the root. (For example: “son”, “sonny”, “sonny”, “sonny”).
The grammatical meaning of a word is conveyed using word-forming morphemes: endings and formative suffixes. So, “forest”, “forester”, “forester” will be quite close: their meaning is determined by the root “forest”. From a grammatical point of view, they are completely different: two nouns and an adjective.
On the contrary, the words “came”, “arrived”, “ran up”, “ran up”, “flew off”, “shot down” will be similar in grammatical orientation. These are verbs in the past tense form, which are formed using the suffix “l”.
The following conclusion follows from the examples: the grammatical meaning of a word is its belonging to a part of speech, the general meaning of a number of similar units, not tied to their specific material (semantic) content. “Mom”, “Dad”, “Motherland” - creatures. 1 declension, in the form I.p., singular. numbers. "Owl", "mice", "youth" are feminine nouns. gender, 3 declensions, standing in R.p. The grammatical meaning of the words “red”, “huge”, “wooden” indicates that these are adjectives in the form husband. kind, singular numbers, I.p. It is clear that the lexical meaning of these words is different.
The grammatical meaning of a word is expressed in a certain form, corresponding to the position of words in a sentence (or phrase), and is expressed using grammatical means. Most often these are affixes, but often the grammatical form is formed using function words, stress, word order or intonation.
Its appearance (name) directly depends on how the form is formed.
Simple (they are also called synthetic) grammatical forms are formed within a unit (with the help of endings or formative suffixes). The case forms (not) of mother, daughter, son, Motherland are formed using endings. the verbs “wrote”, “jumped” - using the suffix and the verb “jumped” - using the suffix “l” and the ending “a”.
Some forms are formed outside the lexeme, and not inside it. In this case, there is a need for function words. For example, the verbs “I will sing” and “let us sing” are formed using function words (verbs). The words “will” and “let’s” in this case have no lexical meaning. They are needed to create, in the first case, the future tense, and in the second, the incentive mood. Such forms are called complex or analytical.
Grammatical meanings are defined into systems or clusters of gender, number, etc.
Grammatical meaning.
Ways of expressing grammatical meanings.
Grammatical categories of words
Grammar as a science.
Word forms are constructed by means of inflectional morphemes. Thus, a morpheme can be considered a separate unit of the grammatical structure of a language. Grammar is the science that studies the regular and general features of the structure of linguistic signs and their behavior. The object of grammar is 1) the patterns of changing words and 2) the principles of their combination when constructing a statement. According to the duality of the object, traditional sections of grammar are distinguished - morphology and syntax. Everything related to the abstract grammatical meanings of a word and its form refers to morphology. All phenomena related to the syntagmatics of a word, as well as the construction and syntagmatics of a sentence, belong to the syntactic sphere of language. These subsystems (morphology and syntax) are in the closest interaction and intertwining, so that the attribution of certain grammatical phenomena to morphology or syntax often turns out to be conditional (for example, the categories of case, voice).
The generalizing nature of grammar allows it to reveal the most essential features of the structure of a language, therefore grammar is rightly considered the central part of linguistics. In the process of development of grammar as a science, the understanding of its object changed. From the study of word forms, scientists moved on to the connection between grammar and the vocabulary of a language, as well as to the study of speech functioning.
Vladimir Aleksandrovich Plungyan: Cognition is always asymmetrical: just fragments
in reality, a person tends to perceive as if through a magnifying glass
glass, while others - as if through inverted binoculars. “Cognitive
“deformation” of reality is one of the main properties of human cognition.
Grammatical meanings are exactly those meanings that fall into the field
magnifying glass vision; this is the most important for the user
given linguistic system of meaning.
2.Grammatical meaning.
The focus of grammar is on grammatical meanings and ways of expressing them. Grammatical meaning is 1) a generalized meaning inherent in 2) a series of words or syntactic structures, which finds its regular and typified 3) expression in the language. For example, in the sentence Petrov - student The following grammatical meanings can be distinguished:
the meaning of a statement of some fact (the meaning inherent in a number of syntactic constructions is regularly expressed by falling intonation)
the meaning of the fact being related to the present tense (expressed by the absence of a verb; cf.: Petrov was a student, Petrov will be a student)
singular meaning (the meaning inherent in a series of words is expressed by the absence of an ending ( Petrovs, students),
as well as a number of others (the meaning of identification, the meaning of the unconditional reality of a fact, the masculine gender).
The grammatical meaning of a word includes the following types of information:
information about the part of speech to which the word belongs
information about the syntagmatic connections of the word
information about the paradigmatic connections of the word.
Let us recall the famous experimental phrase of L.V. Shcherby: The glokka kuzdra shteko budlanula bokr and curls the bokrenka. It includes words with artificial roots and real affixes that express the entire complex of grammatical meanings. For example, it is clear to the listener which parts of speech all the words of this phrase belong to, what between budlanula And bokra there is a relationship between object and action, that one action has already taken place in the past, and the other actually continues in the present.
The grammatical meaning is characterized by the following main features:
generality
obligatory: if nouns, for example, have the meaning of number, then it is consistently expressed in each word in one way or another, regardless of the goals and intentions of the speaker.
Prevalence over a whole class of words: for example, all verbs in the Russian language express the meanings of aspect, mood, person and number.
Closedness of the list: if the lexical system of each language is open in nature and is constantly replenished with new units and new meanings, then grammar is characterized by a strictly defined, relatively small number of grammatical meanings: for example, for Russian nouns these are the meanings of gender, number and case.
Typical expression: grammatical meanings are conveyed in languages in strictly defined ways - using specially assigned means: affixes, function words, etc.
Languages differ from each other in what meanings they choose as grammatical meanings. Thus, the meaning of a number is, for example, grammatical in Russian and English, but ungrammatical in Chinese and Japanese, since in these languages a name can serve as the name of one or several objects. The meaning of definiteness/indeterminacy is grammatical in English, German, French and many other languages and ungrammatical in Russian, where there are no articles.
3. Ways of expressing grammatical meaning
The ways of expressing grammatical meanings are varied. There are two leading methods: synthetic and analytical, and each method includes a number of particular varieties.
The synthetic way of expressing grammatical meanings assumes the possibility of combining several morphemes (root, derivational and inflectional) within one word. The grammatical meaning in this case is always expressed within the word. The synthetic way of expressing grammatical meanings includes:
affixation (use of various types of affixes: going - going);
reduplication (full or partial repetition of the stem: fari - white, farfaru - white in the Hausa language in Africa);
internal inflection (grammatically significant change in the phonemic composition of the root: foot-feet in English);
suppletivism (combining words of different roots into one grammatical pair to express grammatical meanings (Idu - Shel)
The analytical way of expressing grammatical meanings involves separate expression of the lexical and grammatical meanings of a word. Grammatical forms are a combination of fully significant morphologically unchangeable lexical units and service elements (function words, intonation and word order): I will read, more important, let him go). The lexical meaning is expressed by an unchangeable full-valued word, and the grammatical meaning is expressed by a auxiliary element.
Depending on whether synthetic or analytical ways of expressing grammatical meanings predominate in a language, two main morphological types of languages are distinguished: a synthetic type of language (in which the synthetic way of expressing grammatical meanings dominates) and an analytical type (in which the tendency towards analytism predominates). The nature of the word in it depends on the predominance of a tendency towards analyticism or synthetism in a language. In synthetic languages, a word retains its grammatical characteristics outside of a sentence. In analytical languages, a word acquires grammatical characteristics only in a sentence.
Grammatical meaning is revealed as a result of contrasting one linguistic unit with another. Thus, the meaning of the present tense is revealed by contrasting several forms of the verb: knew - knows - will know. Grammatical oppositions or oppositions form systems called grammatical categories. A grammatical category can be defined as a series of homogeneous grammatical meanings opposed to each other, expressed by formal indicators (affixes, function words, intonation, etc.) In the above definition, the word “homogeneous” is very important. In order for meanings to be contrasted on some basis, they must also have some common attribute. Thus, the present tense can be contrasted with the past and future, since they all relate to the sequence of events being described. In this regard, we can give another definition of a grammatical category: it is a unity of a certain grammatical meaning and the formal means of its expression that actually exists in a language. These definitions do not contradict each other. If we compare them, it becomes clear that the grammatical category includes a generalized grammatical meaning (for example, the meaning of time), particular grammatical meanings (for example, present tense, past tense, future tense), they are called grammemes, and means of expressing these meanings (for example , suffix, function word, etc.)
Classification of grammatical categories
by the number of opposing members. There are two-term categories (number in modern Russian: singular-plural), three-term (person: first-second-third), polynomial (case). The more grammemes in a given grammatical category, the more complex the relationships between them, the more features there are in the content of each grammeme.
Formative and classifying. In formative categories, grammatical meanings belong to different forms of the same word. For example, the category of case. Every noun has a nominative, genitive, etc. form. case: table, table, table, table, table, about the table. In classifying categories, grammatical meanings belong to different words. The word cannot be changed according to the classifying criterion. For example, the category of gender for nouns. A noun cannot change by gender, all its forms belong to the same gender: table, table, table - masculine gender; but bed, beds, bed is feminine. However, the gender of a noun is important from a grammatical point of view, since the forms of agreeing adjectives, pronouns, verbs, etc. depend on it: the big table, this table, the table stood; but: there was a bed, a large bed.
By the nature of the transmitted values
Objective (reflect real connections and relationships that exist in reality, for example, the number of a noun)
Subjective-objective (reflect the angle from which reality is viewed, for example, the voice of a verb: workers are building a house - a house is being built by workers)
Formal (do not reflect objective reality, indicate the connection between words, for example, the gender of adjectives or inanimate nouns)
5. Grammatical categories of words
It is necessary to distinguish grammatical categories of words from grammatical categories. A grammatical category necessarily has a system of grammatical forms opposed to each other with a homogeneous meaning. In the lexico-grammatical category such a system of forms is not traced. Lexico-grammatical categories are divided into semantic-grammatical and formal.
A semantic-grammatical category has semantic features that distinguish it from other categories and influence the grammatical features of words in this category. The largest of these categories are parts of speech. Thus, a noun has the meaning of objectivity and is combined with an adjective. The verb has the meaning of action and is combined with an adverb. Within parts of speech, smaller groups are distinguished, for example, among nouns - animate and inanimate, countable and uncountable, concrete and abstract.
Formal categories differ in the way the grammatical forms of the words included in them are formed. These are groupings of words by type of conjugation (conjugative classes), by type of declension (declination classes). In principle, there are no relations of semantic opposition between formal categories: these are parallel ways of expressing the same grammatical meanings. The assignment of a word to one of the categories is determined by tradition.
The word is one of the basic units of grammar. A word combines its sound matter and its meaning – lexical and grammatical.
Grammatical meaning -generalized, abstract linguistic meaning inherent in a number of words, word forms and syntactic structures, finding its regular (standard) expression in the language, for example, the meaning of the case of nouns, verb tense, etc.
The grammatical meaning is contrasted with the lexical meaning, which is devoid of regular (standard) expression and does not necessarily have an abstract character.
Criteria for distinguishing lexical and grammatical meanings:
2. LZ is individual for each word (is this always true?), and GZ is typical for a whole group of words with different LZ, for example, noun units.
3. LZ remains the same in all forms of the word, GZ changes in different forms of the word.
4. When the LZ changes, new words are formed, and when the GZ changes, new forms of words are formed.
A characteristic feature of grammatical meaning is also recognized standardity, regularity of way of expression. In most cases, meanings traditionally classified as grammatical are actually directly expressed using fairly regular and standard means of expression.
Grammatical forms and grammatical categories. Grammatical form– this is a form of a word in which the grammatical meaning finds its regular (standard) expression. Within the grammatical form, the means of expressing grammatical meanings are special grammatical indicators (formal indicators).
Grammatical category– a system of opposed series of grammatical forms with homogeneous meanings. A necessary feature of a grammatical category is the unity of meaning and its expression in the system of grammatical forms as two-way linguistic units.
The concept of a grammatical category is closely related to the concept of grammatical meaning. In this regard, any grammatical category is a combination of two or more grammatical meanings. On the other hand, it is known that each grammatical meaning has its own way of expression or grammatical form (or a series of forms).
a) inflectional – manifest themselves in the process of forming the forms of a given word (for example, case and number of Russian nouns, gender and number of French adjectives, mood and tense of the verb);
b) classification categories are inherent in a given word in all its forms and relate it to a class of similar words.
Members of classification categories are represented by different words, for example, the category of gender of nouns in Russian ‘table’ – masculine gender, ‘desk’ feminine gender, ‘window’ – neuter. genus.
33. Means of expressing grammatical meanings.
I. Synthetic products
1. Affixation consists of using affixes to express grammatical meaning: books; read-l-i; mәktәp-lәr. Affixes are service morphemes.
2. Suppletivism. By suppletivism we mean the expression of grammatical meaning by a word with a different stem: I go - walked (GZ past tense), person - people (GZ plural), we - us (GZ R. or V.p), I - me, good - best.
Words with different roots are combined into one grammatical pair. Their LZ is one and the same, and the difference serves to express the GZ.
3. Reduplication(repetition) consists of complete or partial repetition of parts of a word to express grammatical meaning. Yes, in Malay orang – ‘ Human' , orang-orang –'People' .
4. Alternation(internal inflection) is a use. changes in sounds. root composition to express grammatical meaning: ‘avoid – avoid’; ‘collect – collect’; ‘sing – sang’.
II. Analytical tools –
GZs receive their expression outside the main word, often in other words.
1. Function words can be used for express.GZ: I will read (weekend time), I would read (conventional mood).
We went to the cafe (V.p.). – We were leaving the cafe (R.p.).
2. Word order.The house (I.p.) obscured the forest (V.p.). – The forest (I.p.) obscured the house (V.p.).
Particularly important, for example, for isolating languages.
The material means of expressing grammatical meaning is not always segmental, i.e. consisting of a chain (linear sequence) of phonemes. It can be supersegmental, i.e. can be superimposed on the segment chain.
3. Accent: hands (I. and V. p. plural) – hands (R. p. singular).
4. Intonation:You will go! - You will go?
Thus, in Russian adjectives we distinguish three forms: ‘ big-big-big’. They express masculine, feminine and neuter meanings. This gives us reason to assert that the adjectives of the Russian language are characterized by the grammatical category of gender.
The grammatical meaning (plan of content) and the formal indicator of this meaning (plan of expression) form a grammatical sign - a grammatical form, a gramme. Grammema– a component of a grammatical category, which in its meaning represents a specific concept in relation to the grammatical category as a generic concept.
A grammeme can have multiple meanings.
The plural gramme of nouns in Russian has the meaning: set ‘ tables’, ‘trees’; varieties ‘ oils’, ‘wine’; a large number of ' snow', 'sand'.
The languages of the world differ in the number and composition of grammatical categories. Each language is characterized by its own set of grammatical categories, grammes and grammatical ways of expressing grammatical meaning. When comparing the grammatical structure of languages, one should take into account
the following criteria:
Presence/absence of a corresponding grammatical category;
Number of grammes of a grammatical category;
Ways of expressing grammatical meanings of a given grammatical category;
Word categories with which this grammatical category is associated
34. Methods of linguistics
General scientific methods.
Humanity is accumulating research techniques that help identify the hidden specifics of an object. Methods of scientific research are being formed.
Method– the path and method of cognition of an object, depending on the properties of the object, aspect and purpose of the study.
In linguistics there are:
general methods– generalized sets of theoretical principles, language research methods associated with a specific linguistic theory and methodology,
private– individual techniques, techniques, operations – technical means of studying a certain aspect of language.
Each method is based on the knowledge of objects and phenomena of objective reality, based on the properties of realities, but nevertheless it is a mental formation, one of the most important categories of subjective dialectics.
General scientific methods include observation, experiment, induction, analysis, synthesis.
Observation carried out in natural conditions on the basis of sensory perception of the objects of study. Observation concerns only the external side of phenomena; its results may be random and not reliable enough.
Experiment makes it possible to repeatedly reproduce observations in the process of deliberate and strictly controlled influences of the researcher on the object being studied.
Induction and deduction refer to intellectual ways of knowing. Induction is a generalization of the results of individual private observations. The data obtained as a result of experience is systematized, and a certain empirical law is derived.
Under analysis refers to the mental or experimental division of an object into its component parts or the isolation of the properties of an object for studying them separately. This is the basis for understanding the general through the individual. Synthesis- mental or experimental connection of the component parts of an object and its properties and the study of it as a whole. Analysis and synthesis are connected and mutually determined.
Particular methods of linguistics.
Comparative historical method– a scientific method, with the help of which, through comparison, the general and special in historical phenomena are revealed, knowledge of the various historical stages of development of the same phenomenon or two different coexisting phenomena is achieved;
The comparative historical method is a set of techniques that allows one to prove the kinship of certain languages and restore the most ancient facts of their history. The method was created in the 19th century, its founders were F. Bopp, J. Grimm, R. Rask, A. Kh. Vostokov.
Descriptive method– a system of research techniques used to characterize language phenomena at a given stage of its development; This is a synchronous analysis method.
Comparative method– research and description of a language through its systematic comparison with another language in order to clarify its specificity. The method is aimed primarily at identifying differences between the two languages being compared and is therefore also called contrastive. Underlies contrastive linguistics.
In modern linguistics, considerable attention is given to the study of linguistic phenomena statistical methods of mathematics.
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