Alexander 1 ruled from 1801 to 1825. “The days of Alexandrov are a wonderful beginning...” - these words of Pushkin give an idea of the aspirations of the young tsar. Having come to power through a palace coup, he justified himself by saying that he was giving Russia a constitution and free peasants. Such were his aspirations. In the first years of his reign, he relied on the help of a “secret committee” - a small circle of friends: Stroganov, Novosiltsev, Kochubey, Czartoryski and others. The first reforms gave hope for the future, the policy of “enlightened absolutism” was revived.
An education system has been created
1st stage - primary school
2nd stage - secondary schools, gymnasiums
Level 3 – higher – universities
Under the Internal Policy of Alexander 1, 5 universities and several institutes were opened.
Laws on peasants
1) The ban on selling peasants without land (essentially boiled down to a ban on advertising the sale of peasants)
2) Law on free cultivators of 1803; The landowner, if he wished, could free the peasants by allocating them land and receiving a ransom, but the landowners were in no hurry.
Serfdom was abolished in the Baltic states.
Ministerial reform of 1802
Instead of 12 boards, there are 8 ministries: military, naval, foreign affairs, internal affairs, commerce, finance, public education, justice. Unity of command, but also old: bribery. But the struggle was not actively waged.
The task was to create a management system that would actively contribute to the development of the country. This task has been entrusted to Speransky.
Speransky - as an achievement of the internal policy of Alexander I
1809 the project was presented. It was based on the principle of separation of powers, preservation of an absolute monarchy and taking into account the opinions of the people, i.e. the approach itself was very controversial.
All power belonged to the emperor; under it, an advisory body is created - the state council (from persons appointed by the emperor). The emperor conducts all business through him. Next, a body was created - the State Duma. It was an elected representative body. The highest executive power belonged to the ministries. The highest judicial power belonged to the Senate (from persons appointed by the emperor).
Accordingly, the central management system was designed by local authorities. - this was a great achievement of the internal policy of Alexander 1.
But the project remained a project. From it they took only the State Council, which did not have the authority that Speransky expected and was of a legislative nature.
Before the war, Speransky fell into disgrace and was exiled. This is the result of the activities of the noble opposition.
After the Patriotic War, Alexander 1 tries to continue his reform activities. He instructs Novosiltsev to create a draft constitution. By 1820, the project was created, but the growth of the revolutionary movement in Europe and Russia forced Alexander I to abandon further work in this direction.
In parallel with Novosiltsev’s activities, projects for the abolition of serfdom were being prepared. They were distinguished by moderation, for example, according to Arakcheev’s project, a gradual purchase of peasants by the state from landowners without land was proposed.
The beginning of the 20s of Alexander's reform aspirations encountered resistance from most of the nobility, the bureaucracy, part of the merchant class, and the church. Consequence: Alexander 1 curtails the reform course. At the same time it intensifies
political reaction. It is connected with the name Arakcheev. His policies were in response to nobles who wanted firm power rather than reform.
Features of Arakcheevism: centralization and bureaucratization of public administration. Military settlements since 1815 Volosts were selected where state peasants lived - this population became a military settlement
Soldier regiments were settled in these same volosts. Wives were moved in with the soldiers, and singles were married. Wives became military peasants.
Military settlements were required to perform military service and at the same time engage in agriculture in order to provide themselves with everything they needed. The entire life of the villagers is subject to military discipline. As a result: military settlements collapsed. Economically, they did not justify themselves, were unprofitable, and cost the treasury a lot of money. Social tensions led to uprisings by military villagers.
Persecution of the love of freedom in public education
- Revision of programs towards religion
- Elimination of university autonomy
- Tightening censorship
This was the Domestic Policy of Alexander 1, which introduced many innovations and progressive models into the life of Russia.
1. Reforms at the beginning of the century. Alexander I came to power as a result of a palace coup in March 1801 G., when his father the emperor was overthrown and killed Pavel 1. Soon, to prepare reforms, a Secret Committee was created from friends and closest associates of Alexander I - V.P. Kochubeya, N.N. Novosiltsev, A. Czartoryski.
In 1803, the “Decree on Free Plowmen” was issued. Landowners received the right to set their peasants free, providing them with land for a ransom. However, the decree on free cultivators did not have any great practical consequences: during the entire reign of Alexander I, only a little more than 47 thousand souls of serfs were freed, i.e. less than 0.5% of their total.
Reforms of the public administration system were carried out. In order to strengthen the state apparatus, in 1802, instead of collegiums, 8 ministries were established: military, naval, foreign affairs, internal affairs, commerce, finance, public education and justice. The Senate was also reformed.
In 1809, Alexander I ordered MM. Speransky develop a reform project. The basis was the principle of separation of powers - legislative, executive and judicial. It was planned to create a representative body - the State Duma, which was supposed to give opinions on the submitted bills and hear reports from ministers. Representatives of all branches of government were united in the State Council, whose members were appointed by the tsar. The decision of the State Council, approved by the tsar, became law.
The entire population of Russia was supposed to be divided into three classes: the nobility, the middle class (merchants, petty bourgeois, state peasants) and the working people (serfs and wage earners: workers, servants, etc.). Only the first two estates were to receive voting rights, and on the basis of property qualifications. However, civil rights, according to the project, were granted to all subjects of the empire, including serfs. However, in the aristocratic environment, Speransky was considered an outsider and an upstart.
His projects seemed dangerous, too radical. In March 1812 he was exiled to Nizhny Novgorod.
2. Domestic policy in 1814-1825. In 1814-1825 Reactionary tendencies intensified in the domestic policy of Alexander 1. However, at the same time, attempts were made to return to the course of liberal reforms: the peasant reform in the Baltic states (started in 1804-1805) was completed, as a result of which peasants received personal freedom, but without land; in 1815, Poland was granted a constitution that was liberal in nature and provided for internal self-government of Poland as part of Russia. In 1818, work began on preparing a draft Constitution, headed by N. N. Novosiltsev. It was planned to introduce a constitutional monarchy in Russia and establish a parliament. However, this work was not completed. In domestic politics, conservatism is beginning to increasingly prevail: cane discipline was restored in the army, one of the results of which was the unrest of 1820 in the Semenovsky regiment; in 1821, Kazan and St. Petersburg universities were purged. The censorship that persecuted free thought intensified. To supply the army with self-sufficiency in peacetime, military settlements were created, where soldiers, under conditions of severe discipline, were obliged to engage in agriculture in addition to service. The turn to reaction after the War of 1812 is associated with the name of the Tsar’s favorite A.A. Arakcheeva and received the name “Arakcheevshchina”.
3. Results of the internal policy of the era of Alexander I. In the first decade of his reign, Alexander I promised profound changes and, to a certain extent, improved the system of public administration and contributed to the spread of education in the country. For the first time in Russian history, although very timid, the process of limiting and even partially abolishing serfdom began. The last decade of Alexander's reign was a time of growing conservative tendencies in domestic politics. The main issues were not resolved: the abolition of serfdom and the adoption of a constitution. The refusal of the promised liberal reforms led to the radicalization of part of the noble intelligentsia and gave rise to noble revolutionism (Decembrist uprising on December 14, 1825 on Senate Square in St. Petersburg).
On March 12, 1801, as a result of a conspiracy, Emperor Abel I was killed. The heir to the throne, Grand Duke Alexander Pavlovich, was also initiated into the palace coup plan. The accession of the new monarch was associated with hopes for carrying out liberal reforms in Russia and abandoning the despotic methods of government characteristic of the policies of Emperor Paul I.
The first years of the reign of Alexander I were characterized by a number of liberal initiatives. In 1801, under the emperor, a Secret Committee was formed, which included Raf P.A. Stroganov, Count V.P. Kochubey, N.N. Novosiltsev, Prince A.A. Czartoryski. The committee discussed pressing issues of Russian life - serfdom. Problems of government reforms, the issue of spreading education.
In 1803, a decree on free cultivators was issued, according to which landowners received the right to free peasants with land for a ransom. In 1804 - 1805 Peasant reform was launched in the Baltic lands. However, its results were insignificant, since its implementation was entrusted to the goodwill of the landowners.
In 1803, a new regulation on the organization of educational institutions was approved. Continuity was introduced between schools of various levels - parish, district schools, gymnasiums, universities. In addition to Moscow University, five more were founded: Dorpat, Vilna, Kharkov, Kazan, St. Petersburg.
According to the charter of 1804, universities received significant autonomy: the right to choose a rector and professors, and independently decide their affairs. In 1804, a censorship statute that was liberal in nature was issued.
In 1802, the collegiums created by Peter I were replaced by ministries, in which strict autocracy of the minister was introduced. A Committee of Ministers was established.
In his project for a radical state reform - “Leading to the Code of State Laws” - Speransky proposed introducing a strict separation of powers and involving society in public administration.
Speransky's proposals aroused sharp opposition at the top of society. The emperor himself was not ready for Speransky’s ideas. In March 1812, Speransky was removed from his posts and exiled.
In 1815, the Kingdom of Poland was granted a constitution.
At the direction of the tsar, projects for the abolition of serfdom were also developed. However, in reality, a measure of the opposite nature was implemented. In 1816, Alexander, wanting to reduce the cost of maintaining the army, began introducing military settlements. Military settlements were supposed to engage in both agriculture and military service. Military settlements were created on state lands of St. Petersburg, Novgorod, Mogilev, and Kharkov provinces. A.A. became the head of military settlements. Arakcheev.
Since the 1820s The government is increasingly beginning to move toward reaction. By 1821, Moscow and Kazan universities were destroyed: a number of professors were fired and put on trial. Back in 1817, the Ministry of Spiritual Affairs and Public Education was created, concentrating control over education and upbringing in its hands.
Realizing the actual collapse of his policy, Alexander I retreated to a greater extent from government affairs. The king spent a lot of time traveling. During one of these travels, he died in the city of Taganrog at the age of 48.
On the night of March 11-12, 1801, the last palace coup took place in Russia. Conspirators from the highest St. Petersburg nobility killed Emperor Paul I. His eldest son Alexander ascended to the Russian throne. Having ascended the throne, Alexander did not dare to directly pursue a policy of absolutism. His first domestic political activities were related to the correction of the most odious orders of Paul I, which caused indignation not only of the St. Petersburg aristocracy, but also of the general Russian public. He spoke out against the despotism and tyranny of his father, and promised to pursue policies “according to the laws and heart” of his grandmother Catherine II. This combined both his liberal views and the desire to gain popularity in society. Alexander restored the “Charter of Complaints” canceled by Paul to the nobility and cities, and declared a broad amnesty for people who had been persecuted under Paul. Free entry and exit abroad, the import of foreign books were again allowed, restrictions on trade with England and regulations in everyday life, clothing, social behavior, etc. that irritated people were lifted. These measures gave Alexander the reputation of a liberal.
In 1802, the outdated collegiums were replaced by ministries. This measure completed the process of delimiting the functions of government bodies. It led to the establishment of a system of sectoral management, a change from collegiality to unity of command, to the direct responsibility of ministers to the emperor, increased centralization and strengthening of autocracy. In Russia, a layer of bureaucracy began to quickly take shape, entirely dependent on the mercy of the tsar and the salary received for service. For the joint discussion of certain issues by ministers, a Committee of Ministers was established (in 1857 it was transformed into the Council of Ministers, which existed until 1917).
In 1802, the Senate was reformed, becoming the highest judicial and supervisory body in the public administration system. His participation in legislative activities was expressed in the fact that he received the right to make “representations” to the emperor regarding outdated laws.
The most active supporter of the idea of reforming the public administration system was the State Secretary of the Permanent Council M.M. Speransky. Implementation of the project M.M. Speransky could contribute to the beginning of the constitutional process in Russia. In his project - “Introduction to the Code of State Laws” - outlined the principle of separation of the legislative, executive and judicial branches of power by convening a representative State Duma and introducing elected courts. At the same time, he considered it necessary to create a State Council, which would become a link between the emperor and the central and local authorities. All newly proposed organs are cautious M.M. Speransky granted only advisory rights and did not at all encroach on the fullness of autocratic power.
Against the liberal project M.M. Speransky was opposed by a conservative-minded part of the nobles, who saw in him a danger to the autocratic-serf system and to their privileged position. The struggle between liberals and conservatives ended in victory for the latter. M.M. Speransky was removed from business and sent into exile
The only result was the establishment of the State Council in 1810, which consisted of ministers and other high dignitaries appointed by the emperor. It was given advisory functions in the development of the most important laws (in this form the State Council existed until 1906). Reforms 1802-1811 did not change the autocratic essence of the Russian political system. They only increased the centralization and bureaucratization of the state apparatus. As before, the emperor had supreme legislative and executive power.
In subsequent years, the reformist sentiments of Alexander I were reflected in the introduction of a constitution in the Kingdom of Poland (1815), the preservation of the Sejm and the constitutional structure in Finland, annexed to Russia in 1809, as well as in the creation by N.N. Novosiltsev of on behalf of the tsar “Charter of the Russian Empire” (1819-1820). The project provided for the separation of branches of government, the introduction of representative bodies, the equality of all citizens before the law and the federal principle of government. However, all these proposals remained on paper.
In the last decade of the reign of Alexander I, a conservative tendency was increasingly felt in domestic politics. After the name of her guide, she received the name “Arakcheevshchina”. This was a policy aimed at strengthening absolutism and serfdom. It was expressed in further centralization and petty regulation of public administration, in police and repressive measures aimed at destroying free thought, in the “cleansing” of universities, in the imposition of cane discipline in the army. The most striking manifestation of Arakcheevism was military settlements - a special form of recruiting and maintaining the army. The purpose of creating military settlements is to achieve self-sufficiency and self-reproduction of the army, to ease the burden of maintaining a huge army in peaceful conditions for the country's budget. The settlers had to earn their own food with their labor, performing ordinary agricultural work, and at the same time carry out military service. The whole life of a peasant family was strictly regulated. The slightest violation of the rules resulted in corporal punishment. Trade, trade, and contacts with the outside world were strictly prohibited. The arbitrariness of the local authorities reigned in the settlements. By 1825, about a third of the soldiers had been transferred to settlement. However, the idea of self-sufficiency for the army failed. The government spent huge amounts of money on organizing settlements. The military villagers did not become a special class that expanded the social support of the autocracy; on the contrary, they were worried and rebelled. The government abandoned this practice in subsequent years.
Alexander I died in Taganrog in November 1825.
At the very beginning of the 19th century. Russia adhered to neutrality in European affairs. However, the aggressive plans of Napoleon, the French emperor since 1804, forced Alexander I to oppose him. In 1805, the 3rd coalition against France was formed: Russia, Austria and England. The outbreak of the war turned out to be extremely unsuccessful for the Allies. In November 1805, their troops were defeated at Austerlitz. Austria withdrew from the war, the coalition collapsed.
Russia, continuing to fight alone, tried to create a new alliance against France. In 1806, the 4th coalition was formed: Russia, Prussia, England and Sweden. However, the French army forced Prussia to capitulate within just a few weeks. Once again Russia found itself alone in front of a formidable and powerful enemy. In June 1807, she lost the battle of Friedland (territory of East Prussia, now the Kaliningrad region of Russia). This forced Alexander I to enter into peace negotiations with Napoleon.
In the summer of 1807, in Tilsit, Russia and France signed a peace treaty, and then an alliance treaty. The Treaty of Tilsit obliged Russia to join the continental blockade of Great Britain and break off political relations with it. The severance of traditional trade ties with England caused significant damage to the Russian economy, undermining its finances. The nobles, whose material well-being largely depended on the sale of Russian agricultural products to England, showed particular dissatisfaction with this condition and Alexander I personally. The Tilsit Peace was unprofitable for Russia. At the same time, he gave her a temporary respite in Europe, allowing her to intensify her policy in the eastern and northwestern directions.
Russian-Turkish War 1806-1812 was caused by Russia's desire to strengthen its position in the Middle East, disrupt Turkey's revanchist plans and support the Serbs who rebelled against the Sultan. It passed with varying degrees of success and was protracted.
In May 1812, the Treaty of Bucharest was signed. Bessarabia and a significant section of the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus with the city of Sukhum went to Russia. Moldova and Wallachia, which remained within the Ottoman Empire, received autonomy. Türkiye granted greater autonomy to Serbia. Russia became the guarantor of the Porte’s fulfillment of this condition of the agreement. The Treaty of Bucharest was of great importance. He was imprisoned a month before Napoleon's attack on Russia and frustrated his hopes for help from the Turkish army. The treaty allowed the Russian command to concentrate all its forces on repelling Napoleonic aggression. The successes of Russian weapons and the conclusion of the Treaty of Bucharest led to the weakening of the political, economic and religious yoke of the Ottoman Empire over the Christian peoples of the Balkan Peninsula.
At the beginning of the 19th century. Russia's contradictions with Iran and its successes in the Caucasus led to the Russian-Iranian War of 1804-1813. Iran's attempt to prevent Russian penetration into the Transcaucasus was unsuccessful. During the war, he was defeated, and Russia conquered the territories of Northern Azerbaijan, inhabited by peoples of the Muslim faith. The war ended with the Gulistan Peace Treaty of 1813, according to which Iran recognized Russian rule over the greater territory of Transcaucasia, Dagestan and the western coast of the Caspian Sea. This completed the first stage of the annexation of the Caucasus to the Russian Empire.
In northern Europe as a result of the Russian-Swedish war of 1808-1809. Finland was conquered, which significantly strengthened the northwestern borders of Russia. The Grand Duchy of Finland was created, the head of which was the Russian Emperor. Finland became part of Russia as an autonomous state, governed by its own internal laws, with its own treasury and Sejm (parliament). (Finland seceded from Russia in December 1917)
Thus, at the beginning of the 19th century. Russia, having failed to achieve success in the fight against Napoleonic France, strengthened its position in other foreign policy areas and significantly expanded its territory.
The Patriotic War of 1812 is the largest event in Russian history. Its emergence was caused by Napoleon's desire to achieve world domination. In Europe, only Russia and England maintained their independence. Despite the Treaty of Tilsit, Russia continued to oppose the expansion of Napoleonic aggression. Napoleon was especially irritated by her systematic violation of the continental blockade. In the military conflict between the two sides, Napoleon became the aggressor. He began military operations and invaded Russian territory. In this regard, for the Russian people the war became a liberation war, a Patriotic War. Not only the regular army, but also the broad masses of the people took part in it.
The expulsion of the French from Russia did not mean the end of the fight against Napoleon. He still kept almost all of Europe in subjection and cherished hegemonic plans. To ensure its security, Russia continued military operations and led the movement for the liberation of European peoples from French domination.
In January 1813, Russian troops entered the territory of Poland and
Prussia. She entered into an alliance with Russia. They were joined by Austria, England and Sweden. In October 1813, the battle of Leipzig took place. Napoleon was defeated. This led to the liberation of all German states. In March 1814 Paris fell. Napoleon was exiled to Fr. Elbe.
In September 1814 - June 1815, the victorious powers decided on the issue of the post-war structure of Europe. It was difficult for the allies to come to an agreement among themselves, as sharp contradictions arose, mainly over territorial issues. The resolutions of the Congress of Vienna led to the return of old dynasties in France, Italy, Spain and other countries. The resolution of territorial disputes made it possible to redraw the map of Europe. The Kingdom of Poland was created from most of the Polish lands as part of the Russian Empire. The so-called “Viennese system” was created, which implied a change in the territorial and political map of Europe, the preservation of noble-monarchical regimes and European balance. Russian foreign policy was oriented towards this system after the Congress of Vienna.
In March 1815, Russia, England, Austria and Prussia signed an agreement on the formation of the Quadruple Alliance. He was aimed at implementing the decisions of the Congress of Vienna, especially as it related to France. Its territory was occupied by the troops of the victorious powers, and it had to pay a huge indemnity.
In September 1815, Russian Emperor Alexander I, Austrian Emperor Franz and Prussian King Frederick William III signed the Act of Formation of the Holy Alliance. Its author was Alexander I himself. The text had a religious and mystical character and contained obligations of Christian monarchs to provide each other with all possible assistance. Under the religious veneer were hidden political goals: support for the old monarchical dynasties on the basis of the principle of legitimism (recognition of the legitimacy of maintaining their power), the fight against revolutionary movements in Europe and the containment of many peoples within artificial state borders created by the decisions of the Congress of Vienna. At the congresses of the Holy Alliance in Aachen (1818) and Troppau (1820), the principle of legitimism was supplemented by a new political principle, which gave the right of armed intervention of members of the alliance in the internal affairs of other states to suppress revolutionary uprisings in them (the principle of intervention). England, which was not formally included in the Holy Alliance, in fact supported its conservative international policy. France became a member of the Holy Alliance in 1818 after the decision was made at its congress in Aachen, at the insistence of Tsar Alexander I, to withdraw occupation forces from its territory.
The Quadruple and Holy Alliances were created due to the fact that all European governments understood the need to achieve concerted action to resolve controversial issues. However, the alliances only muted, but did not remove the severity of the contradictions between the great powers. On the contrary, they deepened, as England and Austria sought to weaken the international authority and political influence of Russia, which had increased significantly after the victory over Napoleon.
In the 20s of the XIX century. The European policy of the tsarist government was associated with the desire to counteract the development of revolutionary movements and the desire to shield Russia from them. Revolutions in Spain, Portugal and a number of Italian states forced members of the Holy Alliance to consolidate their forces in the fight against them. Alexander I's attitude towards revolutionary events in Europe gradually changed from restrained wait-and-see to openly hostile. He supported the idea of collective intervention of European monarchs in the internal affairs of Italy and Spain.
8 Literature
1. Introduction
2 Birth and name
3 Childhood, education and upbringing
4 Accession to the throne
5 Personality
6 The last years of the reign of Alexander I
Introduction
By chance, I came across a work on the topic of the personality of Alexander I. In this work I will give the main biographical events from the life of the emperor, a brief description of his political influence, and dwell in detail on the personality of Alexander Pavlovich.
Alexander I Pavlovich Blessed(December 12 (23), 1777, St. Petersburg - November 19 (December 1), 1825, Taganrog) - Emperor and Autocrat of All Russia (from March 12 (24), 1801), Protector of the Order of Malta (from 1801), Grand Duke of Finland (from 1809) , Tsar of Poland (since 1815), eldest son of Emperor Paul I and Maria Feodorovna.
At the beginning of his reign, he carried out moderately liberal reforms developed by the Secret Committee and M. M. Speransky. In foreign policy he maneuvered between Great Britain and France. In 1805-1807 participated in anti-French coalitions. In 1807-1812. temporarily became closer to France. He waged successful wars with Turkey (1806-1812), Persia (1804-1813) and Sweden (1808-1809). Under Alexander I, the territories of Eastern Georgia (1801), Finland (1809), Bessarabia (1812), and the former Duchy of Warsaw (1815) were annexed to Russia. After the Patriotic War of 1812, he headed in 1813-1814. anti-French coalition of European powers. He was one of the leaders of the Congress of Vienna in 1814-1815 and the organizers of the Holy Alliance.
Alexander I was a complex and contradictory personality. With all the variety of reviews from contemporaries about Alexander, they all agree on one thing - the recognition of insincerity and secrecy as the main character traits of the emperor. In the last years of his life, he often spoke about his intention to abdicate the throne and “remove himself from the world,” which, after his unexpected death from typhoid fever in Taganrog, gave birth to the legend of “elder Fyodor Kuzmich.”
Birth and name
Catherine II named one of her grandchildren Konstantin in honor of Constantine the Great, the other - Alexander in honor of Alexander Nevsky. This choice of names expressed the hope that Constantine would liberate Constantinople from the Turks, and the newly-minted Alexander the Great would become the sovereign of the new empire. She wanted to see Constantine on the throne of the Greek Empire that was supposed to be recreated.
“By this very choice of name, Catherine predicted a great future for her grandson and prepared him for a royal vocation, which, in her opinion, should have been facilitated, first of all, by a militarized upbringing oriented towards ancient models.” The name “Alexander” was not typical for the Romanovs; before that, the early deceased son of Peter the Great had been baptized this way only once. However, after Alexander I, it became firmly established in the Romanov nomenclature.
Childhood, education and upbringing
Grew up in the intellectual court of Catherine the Great; teacher - Swiss Jacobin Frederic Cesar Laharpe. In accordance with his convictions, he preached the power of reason, the equality of people, the absurdity of despotism, and the vileness of slavery. His influence on Alexander I was enormous. Military teacher Nikolai Saltykov - with the traditions of the Russian aristocracy, his father passed on to him his passion for military parade and taught him to combine spiritual love for humanity with practical concern for his neighbor. Catherine II adored her grandson and predicted, bypassing Paul, to be the heir to the throne. From her, the future emperor inherited flexibility of mind, the ability to seduce his interlocutor, and a passion for acting bordering on duplicity. In this, Alexander almost surpassed Catherine II. “A real seducer,” M.M. wrote about him. Speransky.
The need to maneuver between the “big court” of Catherine II in St. Petersburg and the “small” court of Father Pavel Petrovich in Gatchina taught Alexander to “live on two minds” and developed distrust and caution in him. Possessing an extraordinary mind, refined manners, and, according to his contemporaries, “an innate gift of courtesy,” he was distinguished by his masterly ability to win over people of different views and beliefs.
In 1793, Alexander married Louise Maria Augusta of Baden (who took the name Elizaveta Alekseevna in Orthodoxy) (1779–1826).
For some time he served in the Gatchina troops formed by his father; here he developed deafness in his left ear “from the strong roar of cannons.” On November 7, 1796, he was promoted to colonel of the guard.
In 1797, Alexander was the St. Petersburg military governor, chief of the Semenovsky Guards Regiment, commander of the capital division, chairman of the food supply commission and performed a number of other duties. Since 1798, he, in addition, presided over the military parliament, and starting the next year, sat in the Senate.
Accession to the throne
At half past two on the night of March 12, 1801, Count P. A. Palen informed Alexander about the murder of his father. According to legend, Alexander I, who demanded that Paul’s life be spared, fell into frustration, to which Count Palen told him: “Stop being childish, go reign!”
Already in the manifesto of March 12, 1801, the new emperor committed himself to governing the people " according to the laws and according to the heart of the late august grandmother of our Empress Catherine the Great" In decrees, as well as in private conversations, the emperor expressed the basic rule that would guide him: to actively introduce strict legality in place of personal arbitrariness. The Emperor more than once pointed out the main drawback that plagued the Russian state order. He called this shortcoming " the arbitrariness of our rule" To eliminate it, it was necessary to develop fundamental laws, which almost did not exist in Russia. It was in this direction that the transformative experiments of the first years were carried out.
Within a month, Alexander returned to the service all those previously dismissed by Paul, lifted the ban on the import of various goods and products into Russia (including books and musical notes), declared an amnesty for fugitives, restored noble elections, etc. On April 2, he restored the validity of the Charter nobility and cities, liquidated the secret chancellery.
On June 5 (17), 1801, a Russian-English convention was signed in St. Petersburg, ending the interstate crisis, and on May 10, the Russian mission in Vienna was restored. On September 29 (October 11), 1801, a peace treaty was signed with France, and a secret convention was concluded on September 29 (October 11).
On September 15, 1801, in the Assumption Cathedral of Moscow, he was crowned Metropolitan of Moscow Platon (Levshin); The same coronation sequence was used as under Paul I, but the difference was that Empress Elizaveta Alekseevna “during her coronation she did not kneel before her husband, but stood up and accepted the crown on her head.”
Personality
The unusual character of Alexander I is especially interesting because he is one of the most important characters in the history of the 19th century. His entire policy was quite clear and thoughtful. An aristocrat and a liberal, at the same time mysterious and famous, he seemed to his contemporaries a mystery that everyone solves in his own way. Napoleon considered him an “inventive Byzantine”, a northern Talma, an actor who is capable of playing any significant role. It is even known that Alexander I was called the “Mysterious Sphinx” at court.
A tall, slender, handsome young man with blond hair and blue eyes. Fluent in three European languages. He had an excellent upbringing and brilliant education.
Another element of the character of Alexander I was formed on March 23, 1801, when he ascended the throne after the murder of his father: a mysterious melancholy, ready at any moment to turn into extravagant behavior. At the beginning, this character trait did not manifest itself in any way - young, emotional, impressionable, at the same time benevolent and selfish, Alexander from the very beginning decided to play a great role on the world stage and with youthful zeal set about realizing his political ideals. Temporarily leaving in office the old ministers who had overthrown Emperor Paul I, one of his first decrees appointed a so-called secret committee with the ironic name “Comité du salut public” (referring to the French revolutionary “Committee of Public Safety”), consisting of young and enthusiastic friends : Viktor Kochubey, Nikolay Novosiltsev, Pavel Stroganov and Adam Czartoryski. This committee was to develop a scheme for internal reforms. It is important to note that the liberal Mikhail Speransky became one of the closest advisers to the tsar and drew up many reform projects. Their goals, based on their admiration for English institutions, far exceeded the capabilities of the time and even after they were elevated to the ranks of ministers, only a small proportion of their programs were realized. Russia was not ready for freedom, and Alexander, a follower of the revolutionary-minded Laharpe, considered himself a “happy accident” on the throne of the kings. He spoke with regret about “the state of barbarity in which the country was found due to the serfdom.”
According to Metternich, Alexander I was an intelligent and insightful man, but “devoid of depth.” He quickly and passionately became interested in various ideas, but he also easily changed his hobbies. The researchers also note that since childhood, Alexander was accustomed to doing “what his grandmother Ekaterina and father Pavel liked.” “Alexander lived with two minds, had two ceremonial appearances, double manners, feelings and thoughts. He learned to please everyone - it was his innate talent, which ran like a red thread through his entire future life.”
Family
In 1793, Alexander married Louise Maria Augusta of Baden (who took the name Elizaveta Alekseevna in Orthodoxy) (1779-1826, daughter of Karl Ludwig of Baden). Both of their daughters died in early childhood:
Maria (1799-1800)
Elizabeth (1806-1808)
The paternity of both girls in the imperial family was considered doubtful - the first was considered born from Czartoryski; the father of the second was the cavalry guard headquarters captain Alexei Okhotnikov.
For 15 years, Alexander practically had a second family with Maria Naryshkina (nee Chetvertinskaya). She bore him two daughters and, according to some reports, even insisted that Alexander dissolve his marriage to Elizaveta Alekseevna and marry her. Researchers also note that from his youth Alexander had a close and very personal relationship with his sister Ekaterina Pavlovna. Historians with the most playful imagination count 11 of his illegitimate children.
Alexander was also the godfather of the future Queen Victoria (baptized Alexandrina Victoria in honor of the Tsar) and the architect Vitberg (baptized Alexander Lavrentievich), who created the unrealized project of the Cathedral of Christ the Savior.
The last years of the reign of Alexander I
Alexander claimed that under Paul “three thousand peasants were distributed like a bag of diamonds. If civilization were more developed, I would end serfdom, even if it cost me my head.” While addressing the issue of widespread corruption, he was left without people loyal to him, and filling government positions with Germans and other foreigners only led to greater resistance to his reforms from the “old Russians.” Thus, the reign of Alexander, begun with a great opportunity for improvement, ended with the heavier chains on the necks of the Russian people. This happened to a lesser extent due to the corruption and conservatism of Russian life and to a greater extent due to the personal qualities of the tsar. His love of freedom, despite its warmth, was not based in reality. He flattered himself, presenting himself to the world as a benefactor, but his theoretical liberalism was associated with an aristocratic willfulness that did not tolerate objections. “You always want to teach me! - he objected to Derzhavin, the Minister of Justice, “but I am an emperor, and I want this and nothing else!” “He was ready to agree,” wrote Prince Czartoryski, “that everyone could be free if they freely did what he wanted.”
Moreover, this patronizing temperament was combined with the habit of weak characters of seizing every opportunity to delay the application of the principles which he publicly supported. Under Alexander I, Freemasonry became almost a state organization (at that time the largest Masonic lodge of the Russian Empire, “Pont Euxine,” which the emperor himself visited in 1820, was located in Odessa), but was prohibited by a special imperial decree in 1822. The Tsar himself, before his passion for Orthodoxy, patronized the Freemasons and in his views was more of a republican than the radical liberals of Western Europe.
In the last years of the reign of Alexander I, A. A. Arakcheev acquired special influence in the country. A manifestation of conservatism in Alexander's policy was the establishment of military settlements in 1815. At one time, mystically minded persons, in particular Baroness Kridener, had a great influence on him.
On August 16, 1823, Alexander ordered the drawing up of a secret manifesto, in which he accepted the abdication of his brother Constantine from the throne and recognized his younger brother, Nicholas, as the legal heir. The last year of Alexander's life was overshadowed by the death of his only undisputed child, his 16-year-old illegitimate daughter Sophia.
Death
Emperor Alexander died on December 1, 1825 in Taganrog, in the house of Papkov, of a fever with inflammation of the brain at the age of 47. A. Pushkin wrote an epitaph: “ He spent his entire life on the road, caught a cold and died in Taganrog" In the house where the sovereign died, the first memorial museum in Russia named after him was organized, which existed until 1925.
The sudden death of the emperor gave rise to a lot of rumors among the people (N.K. Schilder, in his biography of the emperor, cites 51 opinions that arose within a few weeks after Alexander’s death). One of the rumors reported that " the sovereign fled in hiding to Kiev, there he will live in Christ with his soul and begin to give advice that the current sovereign Nikolai Pavlovich needs for better governance of the state».
Later, in the 30-40s of the 19th century, a legend appeared that Alexander, allegedly tormented by remorse (as an accomplice in the murder of his father), staged his death far from the capital and began a wandering, hermit’s life under the name of Elder Fyodor Kuzmich (died January 20 (February 1) 1864 in Tomsk ). This legend appeared already during the life of the Siberian elder and became widespread in the second half of the 19th century.
In the 20th century, unreliable evidence appeared that during the opening of the tomb of Alexander I in the Peter and Paul Cathedral, carried out in 1921, it was discovered that it was empty. Also in the Russian emigrant press in the 1920s, a story by I. I. Balinsky appeared about the story of the opening of the tomb of Alexander I in 1864, which turned out to be empty. The body of a long-bearded old man was allegedly placed in it in the presence of Emperor Alexander II and the Minister of the Court Adlerberg.
The question of the identity of Fyodor Kuzmich and Emperor Alexander has not been clearly defined by historians. Only a genetic examination could definitively answer the question of whether Elder Theodore had any relation to Emperor Alexander, the possibility of which is not ruled out by specialists from the Russian Center for Forensic Expertise. Archbishop Rostislav of Tomsk spoke about the possibility of conducting such an examination (the relics of the Siberian elder are kept in his diocese).
In the middle of the 19th century, similar legends appeared regarding Alexander’s wife, Empress Elizaveta Alekseevna, who died after her husband in 1826. She began to be identified with the recluse of the Syrkov Monastery, Vera the Silent, who first appeared in 1834 in the vicinity of Tikhvin.
Conclusion
The life and death of Alexander I is truly a dramatic page in Russian history; to an even greater extent, this is the drama of a living human personality, forced to combine, it seems, such incompatible principles as “power” and “humanity.”
He was one of the first to talk about the importance of limiting autocratic power, introducing a Duma and a constitution. With him, voices calling for the abolition of serfdom began to sound louder, and a lot of work was done in this regard. During the reign of Alexander I, Russia was able to successfully defend itself against an external enemy that conquered all of Europe. The Patriotic War of 1812 became the personification of the unity of the Russian people in the face of external danger.
None of the major state undertakings of Alexander I can be considered, on the one hand, outside of his desire to justify his accession to the throne, “to bring happiness to people,” and on the other, without a constant feeling of fear for his life, which he could pay if his policies would come into conflict with the powerful conservative nobility.
Literature
Alexander I//Russian biographical dictionary: in 25 volumes. - St. Petersburg-M., 1896-1918.
Grand Duke Nikolai Mikhailovich."Emperor Alexander I: Experience of historical research." - Pg., 1915.
N. K. Schilder. Emperor Alexander the First. His life and reign. - In 4 volumes: volume 1 - before accession to the throne. v.2 - 1801-1810. vol.3 - 1810-1816. v.4 - 1816-1825. - St. Petersburg: “New Time” by A. S. Suvorin, 1897.
Valishevsky K.. Alexander I. History of the reign. In 3 volumes - St. Petersburg: “Vita Nova”, 2011. - vol. 1 - p. 480. -ISBN 978-5-93898-318-2- vol. 2 - p. 480. -ISBN 978-5-93898-320-5- vol. 3 - p. 496 -ISBN 978-5-93898-321-2- Series: Biography
http://www.seaofhistory.ru/shists-331-1.html
https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%80_I
https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%91%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80_%D0%9A%D1%83%D0%B7%D1%8C%D0 %BC%D0%B8%D1%87
https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BF,_%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B5 %D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BA_%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%80
https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC
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