Franz Liszt (1811-1886) - Hungarian musician, great virtuoso pianist of the 19th century, conductor and composer, teacher and publicist, considered one of the most prominent representatives of romanticism in music. He founded the Weimar School of Music. He wrote 647 musical works, as well as works on literature - books about the musical heritage of the Hungarian gypsies and about the great composer Chopin.
Childhood
Ferenc was born on October 22, 1811 in the Hungarian city of Doborjan.
The mother of the future musician, Anna-Maria (maiden name Lagger), was born in Krems an der Donau. Her father was engaged in bakery production; he died very early, when his daughter was only 9 years old. The orphaned girl moved to Vienna, where she began working as a maid. Closer to 20 years old, Anna-Maria went to her brother in the city of Mattersburg. In 1810, Adam List also found himself in this city, who came to visit his father. The young people met, and already at the beginning of 1811 they became husband and wife.
The musician's father, Georg Adam List, was in the service of Prince Esterhazy as a sheep overseer. This work was considered responsible and honorable, because in the princely family, sheep herds were the main wealth. The Esterhazy family had a great respect for art. Adam also studied in the princely orchestra, led by Joseph Haydn, until he was 14 years old; he was a cellist. His father lived a short life, only 50 years, but he always retained his love of music, which was inherited by his only son Ferenc. Wherever the fate of Adam Liszt took him (to Eisenstadt or Riding), in his free hours from work he always participated in local orchestras, thanks to which he met many visiting famous musicians, for example, Beethoven.
The formation of Franz Liszt in musical direction belongs exclusively to his father. He himself began teaching his child music from an early age.
Ferenc studied singing in a church choir, and the local organist gave the boy lessons in playing a musical instrument.
When Franz Liszt was 8 years old, he made his first public performance. His father often organized concerts for him in noble noble houses, where the child played music on the piano, which evoked positive emotions among the audience.
Music training
Seeing that his son’s performances were a success, the father realized that he needed to seriously study music and decided to take the child to Vienna.
They left for Austria in 1821. There, the Austrian composer of Czech origin, Karl Czerny, undertook to teach Ferenc the piano free of charge. Antonio Salieri also taught him music theory free of charge.
Among Viennese listeners, the concert performances of the young talent created a sensation. Once, after such a phenomenal concert, the boy was kissed by Beethoven himself, which Franz Liszt remembered for the rest of his life.
In 1823, his father took Ferenc to Paris with the goal of sending him to study at the conservatory. However, the boy was not accepted because only the French were accepted to study at this educational institution. Despite the fact that there was no money, my father decided to stay in Paris.
Paris
To earn money for living in France and food, Ferenc had to constantly perform concerts. So at such a young age, instead of studying, the boy had to engage in professional activities.
Liszt's first musical compositions date back to this period; to a large extent these were studies for his concert repertoire. Already at the age of 14, he wrote his first opera, “Don Sancho, or the Castle of Love,” which was even staged at the Grand Opera in 1825.
In 1827, the composer's father died. Liszt experienced this loss extremely hard; for about three years he could not get out of a depressed state; the young man often began to manifest a mystical mood, which had previously been observed very rarely. In connection with these events, Ferenc disappeared from Parisian life, so much so that one of the newspapers even wrote an obituary for him.
He came back to life during the French uprising in 1830. Events were seething around, everyone was calling for justice, Liszt even had the idea to write a “Revolutionary Symphony.” Ferenc began actively giving concerts, became friends with other musicians (Berlioz and Paganini) and writers (Hugo, Georges Sand, Dumas, Musset), and again began to hone his performing perfection.
In 1835, Ferenc began teaching and literary activities. His publications were published on Schumann and on the social status of French artists.
Euro-trip
In 1835, Liszt went to Switzerland, where he began teaching at the Geneva Conservatory. He rarely went to Paris with concerts, but other virtuoso geniuses had already appeared there, and Ferenc’s performances did not enjoy the same popularity.
In Geneva, the composer continued to write music (his plays appeared there, which were later included in the collection “Years of Wandering”) and literary and journalistic articles.
In 1837, Ferenc went to travel to Italy, he traveled to cities, wrote essays about local music, and then sent them for publication in Paris magazines. Here his first solo performance took place, which took place without the participation of other musicians.
For ten years, Franz Liszt toured almost all European countries with concerts, visited his homeland in Hungary, and from 1842 to 1848 performed in Austria, Spain, Portugal, Russia, and Turkey. This was the pinnacle of his concert and educational activities.
Weimar
In 1848, the musician finally decided to settle down in one place and settled in the German city of Weimar.
Here he devoted himself entirely to composing, stopped performing, and put his numerous musical sketches in order. In Weimar, Ferenc completed many previously begun works - rhapsodies and piano concertos, etudes and romances, sonatas and symphonic poems.
He continued to write articles and essays and started writing a book about Chopin. Here in Weimar he received students from all over the world.
But in this German town, not everyone understood Liszt’s musical activity; he was extremely disappointed by this. Added to this was the failed wedding with his beloved woman Caroline and the death of his son from his first marriage. Again, Ferenc became absorbed in himself, and mystical thoughts began to visit him more and more often.
last years of life
In the 60s of the 19th century, Liszt went to Rome, where he took minor vows as a clergyman of the Roman Catholic Church; he performed a number of liturgical services as an acolyte. From now on, he became interested only in sacred music, this was reflected in his work, during this period he wrote:
- oratorio “The Legend of Saint Elizabeth”;
- requiem;
- oratorio “Christ”;
- four psalms;
- Hungarian coronation mass.
In 1875, the Higher School of Music was created in Hungary, Liszt was elected its president, and he began teaching again.
His middle daughter Kazima by that time was already the wife of the famous composer Wagner. When her husband died in 1883, Kazima began to organize Bayreuth festivals in his memory, where operas written by her husband were staged in full accordance with the composer's intention. She always invited her father to these events. In 1886, during the next festival in Bayreuth, Ferenc caught a cold. Later the cold progressed to pneumonia. My health became worse every day, pain appeared in my heart, and my legs became swollen. The composer could no longer move without outside help.
On July 19, 1886, his last performance took place; less than two weeks later, on July 31, the musician passed away.
The Hungarian National Academy of Music in Budapest and the main international airport in Hungary bear his name.
His famous “Hungarian Rhapsodies” were heard a hundred years later in world cinema - in the Oscar-winning series of the famous cartoons “Tom and Jerry” and “Bugs Baths”, as well as in the Soviet musical comedy “Jolly Fellows”.
Personal life
In the early 30s of the 19th century, George Sand introduced Ferenc to her friend Marie d'Agoux.
The woman adored modern art, tried herself in literature, wrote novels and published them under the name Daniel Stern. She loved the work of George Sand and was constantly in a state of romantic love. A love relationship began between Ferenc and Marie; in 1835, she left her husband and went with Liszt to Switzerland.
There they lived in hotels in Geneva, sometimes renting a house in some picturesque place. Ferenc and Marie had three children:
- in 1835, Blandina's daughter, she married the French politician Emile Olivier, died at the age of 27;
- in 1837, Kazin’s daughter, she was married to the German pianist Hans Bülow, in her second marriage Richard Wagner became her husband, she lived for 93 years;
- In 1839, the son Daniel, a young man, showed very great hopes in music, unfortunately, they were not destined to come true; he died at the age of 20 from tuberculosis.
Soon after the birth of their son, Marie and Ferenc separated.
In 1847, during a concert at the Kiev University of St. Vladimir, Ferenc met Princess Caroline Wittgenstein.
Her marriage to the prince was unsuccessful; the couple did not live together. Caroline invited Liszt to stay at the Voronintsy estate in Podolsk, from where a year later they left for Europe together. Caroline and Ferenc were unable to unite into a legal family because her legal husband would not grant a divorce. The woman turned to the Pope and the Russian Emperor for help.
For 14 years they lived in a civil marriage in Weimar. The hassle of divorce took so much effort and time that when it was finally formalized and it was possible to legitimize her relationship with Liszt, the princess flatly refused to do so. She considered her sinful relationship with Liszt unworthy of legal marriage; from that moment on, only platonic love remained between them, which was expressed in constant correspondence.
On October 22, 1811, a boy was born into the List family. His father Adam began teaching his son music early, giving him piano lessons himself. In the church the child was taught to sing and play the organ.
After three years of training, an 8-year-old Franz Liszt At the age of eight he performed for the first time in a public concert. His father took him to the houses of noble nobles, where the boy played the piano, and managed to evoke a favorable attitude among them.
Realizing that his son needs a serious school, his father takes him to Vienna. There the dizzying career of a talented musician began, who grew into an outstanding composer, pianist, teacher, conductor, and publicist.
Hungarian composer Franz Ritter von List died of pneumonia on July 31, 1886.
1) Franz Liszt is rightfully considered a paramount figure in the history of music. As a composer and transcriptionist, he created more than 1,300 works.
2) Liszt became the creator of a new genre - the symphonic poem. This is how he brought to life his idea of retelling works of literature and fine arts through musical means. Among Liszt's orchestral works, the most interesting are the symphonic poems, features of Preludes, Orpheus and Ideals.
3) The great composer composed several masses, psalms and oratorio The Legend of Saint Elizabeth.
4) The only opera is one act Don Sancho– written Franz Liszt at the age of 14 and was diagnosed at the same time. The opera's score, long considered lost, was found in 1903.
5) Breaking with old tradition, Liszt turned the piano so that concertgoers could better see the impressive profile of the musician and his hands. Sometimes Liszt would place several instruments on stage and travel between them, playing each with equal brilliance.
6) The emotional pressure and force of hitting the keys were such that during the tour, the brilliant musician left torn strings and broken hammers all over Europe. All this was an integral part of the performance.
7) Franz Liszt he could masterfully reproduce the sonority of a full orchestra on the piano, and he had no equal in reading notes from sight. The influence of the famous musician is still felt in the pianism of various schools.
8) Most the romantic work of Franz Liszt “Dreams of Love” was dedicated Caroline Wittgenstein, with which he was associated with ardent feelings. Everything was complicated by the fact that Caroline had a husband, Prince Nikolai Sayn-Wittgenstein, and a little daughter, Manechka. The passionate love of the great musician and the beautiful princess ended tragically. When the lovers managed to overcome all obstacles, Liszt, who was at the zenith of his fame at that time, unexpectedly took monastic vows and became an abbot.
Franz Liszt was born on October 22, 1811 in the village of Doborjan(Hungary).As a child, he was fascinated by gypsy music and the cheerful dances of Hungarian peasants. The father was the manager of the estate of Count Esterhazy. He was an amateur musician and encouraged his son's interest in music; He taught Ference the basics of pianogames. At the age of 9, Ferenc gave his first concert in the neighboring town of Sopron. Soon he was invited to the magnificent Esterhazy Palace. Ferenc's performance amazed the count's guests, and several Hungarian nobles decided to pay for Ferenc's further education. He was sent to Vienna, where he studied composition with Salieri and piano with Czerny. Liszt's Viennese debut took place on December 1, 1822. Critics were delighted, and from then on Liszt was assured of fame and full houses.
From the famous publisher A. Diabelli he received an invitation to compose variations on a waltz theme, invented by Diabelli himself; Thus, the young musician found himself in the company of the great Beethoven and Schubert, to whom the publisher made the same request. Despite this, Liszt (as a foreigner) was not accepted into the Paris Conservatory; he had to continue his education privately. After the death of his father (1827), Liszt began giving lessons. Then he met the young Berlioz and Chopin, whose art had a strong influence on him:
Liszt managed to “translate into the language of the piano” the coloristic richness of Berlioz’s scores and combine Chopin’s soft lyricism with his own stormy temperament.
In the early 1830s, Liszt's idol became the Italian virtuoso violinist Paganini; Liszt set out to create an equally brilliant piano style, and even adopted from Paganini some of the features of his behavior on the concert stage. Liszt had virtually no rivals as a virtuoso pianist.FerencSheetwas handsome, his concert trips of those years were invariably accompanied by loud and publicly discussed affaires de coeur, “novels.” In 1834, Liszt began life together with Countess Marie d'Agu (she later acted as a writer under the pseudonym Daniel Stern). From their union three children were born - a son and two daughters, the youngest of whom, Cosima, married the great pianist and conductor G von Bülow, and then became the wife of Richard Wagner.
(At the piano is F. Liszt. At his feet is Marie d’Agoux. In the center sits J. Sand, with his hand on Dumas. Hugo and Rossini are standing behind, with his arm around Paganini’s shoulders.)
Liszt performed in Austria, Belgium, England, France, Hungary, Scotland, Russia and in 1849 gave a series of concerts, the proceeds of which went towards the construction of a monument to Beethoven in Bonn. In 1844 Liszt became bandmaster at the ducal court in Weimar. This small German city was once a thriving cultural center, and Liszt dreamed of returning Weimar to the glory of the capital of the arts. In 1847, having decided to devote himself to Weimar, Liszt undertook a farewell concert tour. While in Russia, he met Princess Caroline Sein-Wittgenstein, and returned with her to Weimar. In his role as conductor, Liszt supported everything new, radical, and sometimes rejected by others. With equal zeal, he performed the works of old masters and the experiments of beginning composers. He organized a week of Berlioz's music at a time when the romantic style of this composer was not understood in France. Liszt even managed to organize the premiere of Wagner's opera Tannhäuser in Weimar during the years when its author was a political exile and threatened with arrest.
Richard Wagner in the center, Franz Liszt, his daughter Cosima
Liszt is considered a seminal figure in the history of music. As a composer and transcriptionist, he created more than 1,300 works. Like Chopin and Schumann, Liszt gave primacy to the solo piano in his compositional activities. Probably Liszt's most popular work is Dreams of Love (Liebestraum).
Among Francis Liszt's other works for piano, one can highlight the 19 Hungarian Rhapsodies (which are based on Gypsy rather than Magyar tunes). Some of themwere later orchestrated.Liszt also wrote more than 60 songs and romances for voice and piano and several organ works, including a fantasy and a fugue on the theme BACH. Liszt's transcriptions include piano transcriptions of Beethoven's symphonies and fragments from works by Bach, Bellini, Berlioz, Wagner, Verdi, Glinka, Gounod, Meyerbeer, Mendelssohn, Mozart, Paganini, Rossini, Saint-Saëns, Chopin, Schubert, Schumann and others.
Liszt became the creator of the genre of one-movement semi-programmed symphonic form, which he called the symphonic poem. This genre was intended to express extra-musical ideas or retell works of literature and fine arts through musical means. The unity of the composition was achieved by introducing leitmotifs or leitthemes running through the entire poem. Among Liszt's orchestral works (or plays with an orchestra), the most interesting are the symphonic poems, especially the Preludes, Orpheus and Ideals. For different compositions with the participation of soloists, choir and orchestra, Liszt composed several masses, psalms, an oratorio, and the legend of St. Elizabeth.
Assessments of Liszt's creative legacy as a composer and pianist in the period after his death were ambiguous. Perhaps the immortality of his compositions was ensured by his bold innovation in the field of harmony, which in many ways anticipated the development of modern musical language. The chromatisms used by Liszt not only enriched the romantic style of the last century, but also, more importantly, anticipated the crisis of traditional tonality in the 20th century. Leaf andWagnerwere adherents of the idea of a synthesis of all arts as the highest form of artistic expression.
Like a pianistSheetHe performed in concerts literally until the last days of his life. Some believe that he is the inventor of the genre of pianist recitals and the special pathetic concert style that made virtuosity a self-sufficient and exciting form. Breaking with old tradition, Liszt turned the piano around so that concertgoers could better see the musician's impressive profile and his hands. Sometimes Liszt would place several instruments on stage and travel between them, playing each with equal brilliance. The emotional pressure and force of hitting the keys was such that during the tour he left broken strings and broken hammers all over Europe. All this was an integral part of the performance. Liszt masterfully reproduced the sonority of a full orchestra on the piano; he had no equal in reading notes from sight; he was also famous for his brilliant improvisations. But Liszt's authorship in the field of musical form and harmony, the new sound of the piano and symphony orchestra instruments was supported by the leading composers of his time. Having absorbed the culture of Germany and France, a classic of Hungarian musicSheet, made a great contribution to the development of European musical culture.
Life of Franz Liszt endedat the age of 75. He died while visiting the Bayreuth festivals and was buried on July 31, 1886. at the Bayreuth City Cemetery.
Liszt became the greatest pianist of the 19th century. His era was the heyday of concert pianism, Liszt was at the forefront of this process, with limitless technical capabilities. To this day, his virtuosity remains a reference point for modern pianists, and his works remain the pinnacle of piano virtuosity. Active concert activity as a whole ended in 1848, after which Liszt performed rarely.
As a composer, Liszt made a lot of discoveries in the field of harmony, melody, and form. He created new instrumental genres (rhapsody, symphonic poem). He formed the structure of a one-part cyclic form, which was outlined by Schumann and Chopin, but was not developed so boldly.
Liszt actively promoted the idea of a synthesis of arts (Wagner was his like-minded person in this). He said that the time of “pure arts” was over (this thesis was put forward by the 1850s). If Wagner saw this synthesis in the connection between music and words, then for Liszt it was more connected with painting and architecture, although literature also played a big role. Hence the abundance of program works: “The Betrothal” (based on a painting by Raphael), “The Thinker” (a sculpture by Rodin) and many others. Subsequently, the ideas of the synthesis of arts found wide application, right up to the present day.
Liszt believed in the power of art, which can influence huge masses of people and fight evil. His educational activities are connected with this.
Conducted teaching activities. Pianists from all over Europe came to see him in Weimar. In his house, where there was a hall, he gave them open lessons, and never took money for it. Among others, Borodin and Ziloti visited him.
Liszt began his conducting career in Weimar. There he staged operas (including Wagner's) and performed symphonies.
Literary works include a book about Chopin, a book about the music of the Hungarian gypsies, as well as many articles devoted to current and global issues.
Franz Liszt was born on October 22, 1811 in Hungary, in the town of Doborjan (Austrian name Riding) (Sopron county). comitat - region.
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Parents
Franz Liszt's father, Adam Liszt (1776-1826), served as a "sheep overseer" for Prince Esterhazy. This was an honorable and responsible position, since the flocks of sheep were the main wealth of the Esterhazy family. The princes encouraged art. Until the age of 14, Adam played cello in the prince's orchestra, led by Joseph Haydn. After graduating from the Catholic gymnasium in Pressburg (now Bratislava), Adam List entered the Franciscan order as a novice, but two years later he decided to leave it. He maintained a lifelong friendship with one of the Franciscans, which, as some researchers suggest, inspired him to name his son Franz, and Liszt himself, also maintaining connections with the Franciscans, joined the order in his later years. Adam Liszt composed dedicating his works to Esterhazy. In 1805 he achieved his appointment to Eisenstadt, where the residence of the princes was located. There, in 1805-1809, in his free time from his main job, he continued to play in the orchestra, having the opportunity to work with many musicians who came there, including Cherubini and Beethoven. In 1809 Adam was sent to the Riding. In his house there hung a portrait of Beethoven, who was his father’s idol and later became his son’s idol.
Franz Liszt's mother, née Anna Lager (1788-1866), was born in Krems (Austria). Orphaned at the age of 9, she was forced to move to Vienna, where she worked as a maid, and at the age of 20 she moved to Mattersburg to live with her brother. In 1810, Adam List, having arrived in Mattersburg to visit his father, met her, and in January 1811 they got married.
In October 1811, a son was born, who became their only child. The name given at baptism was written in Latin as Franciscus, and in German it was pronounced Franz. The Hungarian name Ferenc is more often used, although Liszt himself, having a poor command of Hungarian, never used it.
Childhood
The father's participation in his son's musical formation was exceptional. Adam Liszt began teaching his son music early, giving him lessons himself. In the church the boy was taught to sing, and the local organist taught him how to play the organ. After three years of study, Ferenc performed in a public concert for the first time at the age of eight. His father took him to the houses of noble nobles, where the boy played the piano, and managed to evoke a favorable attitude among them. Realizing that his son needs a serious school, his father takes him to Vienna.
Since 1821, Liszt studied piano in Vienna with Karl Czerny, who agreed to teach the boy free of charge. The great teacher did not like the boy at first, as he was physically weak. Czerny's school gave Liszt the universality of his piano art. Liszt studied theory with Antonio Salieri. Speaking at concerts, Liszt created a sensation among the Viennese public. During one of them, Beethoven, after Franz’s brilliant improvisation in the cadenza of one of his concerts, kissed him. Liszt remembered this all his life.
Paris
After Vienna, Liszt goes to Paris (in 1823). The goal was the Paris Conservatory, but Liszt was not accepted there, since only Frenchmen were accepted. However, the father decided to stay in Paris, despite the difficult financial situation. Because of this, we had to constantly organize performances. This is how Liszt’s professional activity began at an early age. Teachers from the same Paris Conservatory studied with Liszt (among them were such outstanding musicians as Ferdinando Paer and Antonin Reich), but no one else taught him to play the piano. Czerny was his last piano teacher.
During this period, Liszt began to compose - mainly the repertoire for his performances - etudes. At the age of 14 he began the opera “Don Sancho, or the Castle of Love,” which was even staged at the Grand-Opera (in 1825).
Adam List died in 1827. Ferenc took this event seriously and was depressed for about 3 years. In addition, he was irritated by his role as a “clown,” a curiosity in secular salons. Because of these reasons, Liszt was excluded from the life of Paris for several years; his obituary was even published. The mystical mood, previously noticed in Liszt, increases.
Liszt appeared in the world only in 1830. This is the year of the July Revolution. Liszt was fascinated by the turbulent life around him and calls for justice. The idea of a “Revolutionary Symphony” arose, in which revolutionary songs were to be used. Liszt returned to active work and gives concerts with success. A circle of musicians close to him is outlined: Berlioz (who created the Symphony Fantastique at that time), Paganini (who came to Paris in 1831). The performance of the brilliant violinist prompted Liszt to achieve even greater perfection in his performance. For some time he gave up giving concerts, worked hard on his technique and transcribed Paganini's caprices for piano, published under the title of six etudes. This was the first and extremely brilliant experiment in piano arrangement, which Liszt subsequently brought to such a high degree. Liszt, as a virtuoso, was also greatly influenced by Chopin (who was skeptical of Liszt, not having seen the flowering of his work after 1848 and seeing in him only a virtuoso). Among Liszt's acquaintances are also the writers Dumas, Hugo, Musset, and Georges Sand.
Around 1835, Liszt's articles on the social status of artists in France, about Schumann, etc. were published. At the same time, Liszt began his teaching career, which he never abandoned.
In the early 30s. Liszt meets Countess Marie d'Agoux, a friend of Georges Sand. She was interested in modern art. The Countess had some literary abilities and published under the pseudonym Henri Style. The work of George Sand was a standard for her. Countess d'Agoux and Liszt were in a state of romantic love. In 1835, the Countess left her husband and broke all ties with her circle. Together with Liszt, she leaves for Switzerland - this is how the next period of Liszt’s life begins.
"Years of Wandering"
From 1835 to 1848, the next period of Liszt’s life lasted, for which the name “Years of Wandering” (after the name of the collection of plays) was assigned.
In Switzerland, Liszt and Marie d'Agoux lived in Geneva and from time to time in some picturesque village. Liszt makes the first sketches of plays for the collection “The Traveler’s Album,” which later became “The Years of Wanderings” (French “Années de pèlerinage”), teaches at the Geneva Conservatory, and sometimes travels to Paris with concerts. However, Paris is already captivated by another virtuoso - Thalberg, and Liszt does not have his former popularity. At this time, Liszt was already beginning to give his concerts an educational theme - he played symphonies (in his arrangement for piano) and Beethoven concertos, paraphrases on themes from operas, etc. Together with d'Agu, Liszt wrote the article “On the role of art and the position of the artist in modern times.” society" (see above). In Geneva, Liszt did not drop out of active European life. Friends from Paris came to see him, including Georges Sand.
In 1837, already having one child, Liszt and d'Agoux went to Italy. Here they visit Rome, Naples, Venice, Florence - centers of art and culture. From Italy, Liszt wrote essays about local musical life, which he sent to Paris for publication. The writing genre was chosen for them. The addressee of most of the letters was George Sand, who also responded to Liszt with essays in the magazine.
In Italy, Liszt played a solo concert for the first time in history, without the participation of other musicians. It was a bold and daring decision that completely separated concert performances from salon performances.
The same time includes fantasies and paraphrases on themes from operas (including Donizetti’s “Lucia”), transcriptions of Beethoven’s Pastoral Symphony and many of Berlioz’s works. After giving several concerts in Paris and Vienna, Liszt returned to Italy (1839), where he completed transcriptions of Beethoven's symphonies on piano.
Liszt had long dreamed of going to Hungary, but his friend Marie d'Agoux was against this trip. At the same time, a large flood occurred in Hungary, and Liszt, already possessing enormous popularity and fame, considered it his duty to help his compatriots. Thus, there was a break with d’Agu, and he left for Hungary alone.
Austria and Hungary greeted Liszt triumphantly. In Vienna, after one of the concerts, Thalberg, his longtime competitor, approached him, recognizing Liszt’s superiority. In Hungary, Liszt became the spokesman for the patriotic uplift of the nation. Nobles came to his concerts in national costumes and presented him with gifts. Liszt donated the proceeds from the concerts to the benefit of flood victims.
Between 1842 and 1848 Liszt traveled all over Europe several times, including Russia, Spain, Portugal, and was in Turkey. This was the peak of his concert activity. Liszt was in Russia in 1842 and 1848. In St. Petersburg, Liszt was listened to by outstanding figures of Russian music - Stasov, Serov, Glinka. At the same time, Stasov and Serov recalled their shock at his performance, but Glinka did not like Liszt, he ranked Field higher.
Liszt was interested in Russian music. He highly appreciated the music of “Ruslan and Lyudmila”, made a piano transcription of “Chernomor’s March”, and corresponded with the composers of the “Mighty Handful”. In subsequent years, ties with Russia were not interrupted; in particular, Liszt published a collection of selected excerpts from Russian operas.
At the same time, Liszt's educational activities reached their peak. In his concert programs he includes many piano works by classics (Beethoven, Bach), his own transcriptions of the symphonies of Beethoven and Berlioz, songs by Schubert, and organ works by Bach. On Liszt’s initiative, celebrations were organized in honor of Beethoven in Bonn in 1845, and he also contributed the missing amount for the installation of a monument to the brilliant composer there.
However, after some time, Liszt becomes disillusioned with his educational activities. He realized that it did not achieve its goal, and the average person would rather listen to a medley from a fashionable opera than a Beethoven sonata. Liszt's active concert activities ceased.
At this time, Liszt met Caroline Wittgenstein, the wife of a Russian general. In 1847, they decided to unite, but Caroline was married, and, moreover, devoutly professed Catholicism. Therefore, it was necessary to seek a divorce and a new wedding, which the Russian Emperor and the Pope had to allow.
Weimar
In 1848, Liszt and Caroline settled in Weimar. This choice was due to the fact that Liszt was given the right to direct the musical life of the city; moreover, Weimar was the residence of the duchess, the sister of Emperor Nicholas I. Apparently, Liszt hoped through her to influence the emperor in the matter of divorce.
Liszt took over the opera house and updated the repertoire. Obviously, after disappointment in concert activities, he decided to shift the educational emphasis to the activities of the director. Therefore, the repertoire includes operas by Gluck, Mozart, Beethoven, as well as contemporaries - Schumann (Genoveva), Wagner (Lohengrin) and others. The symphony programs included performances of works by Bach, Beethoven, Mendelssohn, Berlioz, as well as his own. However, in this area too, Liszt met with failure. The public was dissatisfied with the theater's repertoire, the troupe and musicians complained.
The main result of the Weimar period was Liszt's intense work as a composer. He puts his sketches in order, finishes and revises many of his compositions. “The Traveler’s Album” after a lot of work became “Years of Wanderings”. Piano concertos, rhapsodies (in which melodies recorded in Hungary were used), Sonata in B minor, etudes, romances, and the first symphonic poems also appeared here.
Young musicians from all over the world come to Liszt in Weimar to take lessons from him.
Together with Caroline List he writes articles and essays. Begins a book about Chopin.
Liszt's rapprochement with Wagner on the basis of common ideas dates back to this time. In the early 50s. The Union of German Musicians, the so-called “Weimarians”, is created, as opposed to the “Leipzigians” (to which Schumann, Mendelssohn, Brahms belonged, who professed more academic views than Wagner and Liszt). Fierce conflicts often arose between these groups in the press.
At the end of the 50s, the hope of a wedding with Caroline finally melted away, in addition, Liszt was disappointed by the lack of understanding of his musical activities in Weimar. At the same time, Liszt's son dies. Again, as after the death of his father, mystical and religious feelings intensify in Liszt. Together with Carolina, they decide to go to Rome to atone for their sins.
Later years
In the early 60s, Liszt and Caroline moved to Rome, but lived in different houses. She insisted that Liszt become a monk, and in 1865 he took minor monastic vows and the title of abbot. Liszt's creative interests now lie primarily in the field of church music: these are the oratorios “St. Elizabeth”, “Christ”, four psalms, a requiem and the Hungarian Coronation Mass (German: Kronungsmesse). In addition, the third volume of “Years of Wanderings” appears, rich in philosophical motives. Liszt played in Rome, but extremely rarely.
In 1866, Liszt travels to Weimar, the so-called second Weimar period begins. He lived in the modest house of his former gardener. As before, young musicians come to him - among them Grieg, Borodin, Ziloti.
In 1875, Liszt's activities concentrated mainly in Hungary (in Pest), where he was elected president of the newly founded Higher School of Music. Liszt teaches, writes “Forgotten Waltzes” and new rhapsodies for piano, the cycle “Hungarian Historical Portraits” (about the figures of the Hungarian liberation movement).
Liszt's daughter Cosima at this time became Wagner's wife (their son is the famous conductor Siegfried Wagner). After Wagner's death she continued to organize Wagner festivals in Bayreuth. At one of the festivals in 1886, Liszt caught a cold, and soon the cold turned into pneumonia. His health began to deteriorate and his heart was bothering him. Due to swelling in his legs, he could only move with assistance.
Works
There are 647 of Liszt's works: 63 of them for orchestra, about 300 arrangements for piano. In everything that Liszt wrote, one can see originality, a desire for new paths, a wealth of imagination, courage and novelty of techniques, a unique view of art. His instrumental compositions represent a remarkable step forward in musical architecture. 14 symphonic poems, the Faust and Divina comedia symphonies, and piano concertos provide a wealth of new material for the researcher of musical form. Liszt's musical and literary works include brochures about Chopin (translated into Russian by P. A. Zinoviev, in 1887), about Berlioz's "Benvenuto Cellini", Schubert, articles in the "Neue Zeitschrift für Musik" and a large essay on Hungarian music (“Des Bohémiens et de leur musique en Hongrie”).
Laboratory work No. 62
Task #3.
Study of X-ray absorption.
§1. Interaction of X-rays with matter.
When an X-ray beam passes through a substance, its intensity decreases. This decrease is explained by the following reasons:
1. Thomson or coherent scattering;
2. Compton or incoherent scattering;
3.absorption of X-rays in the substance.
Thomson scattering occurs without changing the energy and scattered quanta. After scattering, they only change the direction of their movement, thus leaving the primary X-ray beam.
During Compton scattering, so-called recoil electrons are knocked out of atoms, which consumes part of the quantum energy and, consequently, increases its wavelength.
Finally, in the act of absorption of X-rays, the quantum disappears completely. Its energy is spent on ionizing the atom and imparting kinetic energy to the electron ejected from the atom.
For monochromatic radiation, we can assume that the decrease in the intensity of the x-ray beam /dI/ caused by the three listed reasons when passing through a thin layer /dx/ of the substance is proportional to the intensity of the beam and the thickness of the attenuating layer.
dI = − Iμ dx
The proportionality factor μ is called the linear attenuation coefficient.
Laboratory work No. 62
on the weakening layer. The coefficient μ has a dimension of L− 1 and is usually measured in cm− 1. It can be represented as the sum of two quantities:
Let us transform formula (1) to a form more convenient for practical use. Let the cross section of the X ray beam be S and the density of the attenuating substance ρ. Let us rewrite the exponent in (1) as follows:
The value r is called the mass attenuation coefficient. She has
It has dimension L2 M − 1 and is usually measured in cm 2 ã . As before we can write:
mass scattering coefficient, |
Mass coefficient |
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true |
absorption. |
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The introduction of mass coefficients turns out to be convenient because it eliminates the need to determine the attenuation coefficients for
of the entire infinite number of chemical compounds, because r for complex
Laboratory work No. 62
substances is very simply determined through ρ for their constituent elements.
This is possible because the absorption and scattering of X-rays is carried out mainly by the internal electrons of the atom, the state of which does not depend on whether the atom is included in a chemical compound or not.
If we denote by pi the weight fraction that the i-th element composes
e from the total weight of the connection (and Σ pi = 1), then the surface density
for each element separately will be equal to pi m and the weakening, given
The overall weakening will be determined by the product of the sum of inhabitants for individual elements.
F m I |
F m I |
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J × p i |
M×SG J×pi |
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Πe |
H r K |
i H r K |
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Obviously, the sum in the exponent is the mass attenuation coefficient for the complex substance
μI |
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= ΣG |
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ρ K i |
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Let us now transform formula (6) once again, multiplying and dividing to each term in the exponent by Ai - the mass of one atom of the i-th type. Because
element per 1 cm2 of soil.
μI |
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ρ K i |
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F m I |
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G J A i |
I 0 e |
S b m g n |
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H r K i |
à i i |
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Quantity b μ à g |
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has dimension |
and is called the effective cross-section |
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nim. It denotes the area that we must assign to the atom in order to explain its absorbing and scattering nature. Of course she doesn't
Laboratory work No. 62
has nothing to do with the actual cross-sectional area of the atom.
We see, therefore, that the attenuation of x-rays determines its
is the sum of the effective cross sections of all atoms located per 1 cm2 of the weakening layer. This sum can be obtained by summing the effective cross sections of the atoms of one molecule, and then multiplying by the total number m of molecules, applying
per 1cm2. Thus,
ãäå σ à è σ m are the atomic and molecular scattering cross sections, respectively, τ à à è τ m are the atomic and molecular cross-sections of true absorption.
The relative roles of scattering and absorption in the attenuation of x-rays are different at different wavelengths. If the wavelength is sufficient
is exactly large (λ = 1 A), σ is negligible compared to τ, and we can assume that all the attenuation of X-rays is caused by true absorption. In this work, taking this circumstance into account, we study the laws of absorption of X rays in matter.
§2. Absorption of X-rays in matter.
Let us consider in more detail the laws of absorption of X-rays by matter. We have already mentioned in the introduction that electrons occupy various energy levels in the atom K, L, M, etc., corresponding to the values of the main quantum number n = 1, 2, 3. Each of these levels is divided into sublevels, the number of which is equal to 2 and -1. An X-ray quantum can remove an electron from any sublevel only if its energy exceeds the ionization potential of this sublevel. For greater clarity, let us depict in the same figure the dependence of the quantum energy on the wavelength and the system of atomic energy levels (see Fig. 1). As is known, energy
It is depicted as a descending curve. Let us denote by the symbol λ k the wavelength at which the quantum energy is equal to the energy of the K-level. At λ< λ k , энергия
Laboratory work No. 62
quantum exceeds the ionization potential of any sublevel in the volume, so absorption will be carried out by electrons of all sublevels. The mass absorption coefficient in this region will be represented by the sum of coefficients that take into account absorption by individual sublevels.
τI |
τI |
τI |
τI |
τI |
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J+K |
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ρ K |
ρ K K |
ρ K L |
ρ K L |
ρ K L |
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Experience shows that change in this area occurs gradually. |
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according to the law |
C 1 λS 1 |
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with S1 ≈ 3.
However, if the wavelength of the quantum even slightly exceeds λ k, then its energy is no longer sufficient to ionize the K-level. Therefore, at λ > λ k, K electrons are excluded from absorption, which leads to a sharp decrease in the absorption coefficient. At λ k there will be, as they say, a K-absorption jump. The wavelength λ k is called the K absorption edge.
At the same time, the absorption of X-rays by the remaining levels
Laboratory work No. 62
they do not experience a jump and continue to increase. It is obvious that in the wavelength region λ k< λ < λ L I массовый коэффициент поглощения по-прежнему мо-
can be represented by the sum of coefficients related to different sublevels, however, the term associated with the K-level will be absent from this sum.
τI |
τI |
τI |
τI |
τI |
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ρ K |
ρ K L |
ρ K L |
ρ K L |
ρ K M |
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After the K-jump, as the wavelength increases, there is also an increase according to a power law, but the constants C and S have different values.
With a further decrease in the quantum energy, i.e. as the wavelength increases, LI, LII, LIII, MI, etc. will be successively switched off from absorption. sublevels and LI, LII, LIII, K-absorption jumps will appear.
By choosing a certain wavelength, it is possible to determine the dependence of ρ on the atomic number of the absorbing element.
At small z, the binding energy of K-electrons with an atom is small, but it increases with increasing z. Finally, at some z it becomes greater than the energy of the quantum at a given wavelength. In this case, the absorption coefficient z will drop sharply, because The K-shell will switch out of absorption. Therefore, it depends on him
the dependence of ρ τ on z will have the same jumps as the dependence of ρ τ on λ , a
in the intervals between jumps it will also be expressed by a power function:
C b λ g z k |
Where k 3. Formulas (13) and (15) can be combined into one, |
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C c λ S z k h |
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§3.Monochromatization of X-ray radiation.
An X-ray tube produces non-monochromatic radiation e, which includes the characteristic lines K α I, K α II, K β I, as well as bremsstrahlung
Laboratory work No. 62
range. Since under the conditions of our work the doublet Kα I ,II is unresolvable, we can consider it one line. Monochromatic radiation can be obtained by highlighting the K α I or K β I line with a crystal. The setup diagram for monochromatization is shown in Fig. 2.
The source of X-ray radiation is a PT X-ray tube. Using the slit S1 and the diaphragm S2, a narrow beam of X-rays is isolated, incident on the crystal K. A special goniometric device makes it possible to rotate the crystal around the O axis and set the desired angle θ. By rotating the crystal, we can select the angle θ such that the Bragg-Wulf condition is satisfied. In this case, the reflected X-ray beam will propagate in the direction of the specular reflection. However, it may not be monochromatic. Indeed, if the Bragg-Wulf condition is satisfied for a certain wavelength λ 1 when n = 1, then
will also be fulfilled for λ 2 1 π n = 2, λ 3 1 π n = 3, etc. That is, in the reflected
So-called higher orders of reflection may be present in this beam. The wavelengths of these higher orders are an integer number of times smaller than the wavelength of the radiation that we want to isolate. Higher orders will be present in the reflected beam, of course, if the primary beam contains radiation with the corresponding wavelengths. They can arise, in particular, due to a continuous, inhibitory spectrum.
Let us remember, however, that the braking spectrum has a short-wave boundary, the position of which depends on the voltage. If we apply a voltage to the tube such that the short-wave boundary is greater than the wavelengths of all higher orders, then they will be absent in the reflected beam. And the reflected beam will be monochromatic.
Let's say that we have a tube with a copper anode and want to separate
its emission line CuKα with a wavelength of 1.54A. Second order reflection
Laboratory work No. 62
has a wavelength of 0.77A. The bremsstrahlung spectrum will have a short wavelength
a new limit exactly equal to 0.77A at voltage
U0 = 12.4 |
16.1êâ |
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If the voltage is somewhat lower, then the short-wave boundary will shift towards longer wavelengths and the second order of reflection (and even more so the other higher orders) will be absent in the reflected beam.
Therefore, the voltage on the tube with a copper anode should not exceed 16 kV.
§4.Registration of X-ray intensity.
In order to determine the absorption coefficients of the substance under study, it is necessary to first measure the intensity of the primary beam I0 reflected from the crystal, then introduce a layer of the substance under study into this beam and measure the intensity of the beam I. The X-ray intensity in this work is measured using a proportional counter. The meter is a metal cylinder, along the axis of which a thin metal wire is stretched across insulators. A positive potential relative to the body ≈ (2 kV) is applied to the wire. On the side of the cylinder there is a beryllium window through which the recorded radiation penetrates into the counter.
Absorbed in the gas filling the counter, the radiation quantum creates the so-called primary ionization - positive ions and free electrons. Moving under the influence of an electric field towards the wire, electrons cause the so-called. an avalanche (i.e. a process of gas amplification occurs). As a result, an electrical pulse appears at the resistance connected in series with the wire, which is recorded by a special electronic circuit. After some time, all the electrons released during the discharge are collected on the wire, and the positive ions are collected on the cylinder body. The counter returns to its original state and is ready for a new discharge.
It is clear that the number of discharges, and hence the number of pulses appearing on the resistance per unit time, is proportional to the intensity of the recorded radiation, and the amplitude of the pulses is proportional to the energy of the quanta.
Therefore, the counting rate N′ can serve as a measure of the intensity of X-ray radiation, i.e. number of counter pulses per unit
Laboratory work No. 62
time: N′ = n′, where T is the measurement time, n′ is the total number of pulses per
accumulated for T.
However, measuring the counting rate is complicated by two circumstances. Firstly, during the passage of the discharge and the subsequent restoration of the mode, the counter is turned off and cannot register the quanta absorbed at this time. This time τ is called dead time and is equal to approximately 10 μ s. Therefore, a correction must be made to the found count rate.
If N′ pulses are recorded per unit time, then the total non-working time is equal to τ N ′. Therefore, to find the true count rate
N requires observed number N′ |
attributed to the working time of the counter |
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T − τN ′ . |
N′ |
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− τN ′ |
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The formula we obtained is correct only to a first approximation and, because at large N′ the dead time, in turn, begins to change. Typically, the product τ N ′ is required to be less than 0.1. It follows that N′ should not exceed 10,000 pulses/sec.
Secondly, each act of absorption of a quantum is a random and fundamentally unpredictable event. Therefore, the total number of pulses n accumulated during time T is also a random number, distributed according to some law around the average value n. Theoretical consideration
shows that the standard deviation from the average value b n − n g 2 is equal to the square root of the total number of accumulated impulses, regardless of how long they were accumulated.
b n − n g 2 = n |
It can be shown that for each specific measurement, with a 95% probability, the deviation n − n in absolute value will not exceed twice the standard deviation. Those. determined quantityn with probability
Formula (21) shows that the relative measurement error decreases
Laboratory work No. 62
increases with the number of accumulated impulses, i.e. with increasing measurement time. If the error we considered, which is called the statistical error, was the only one, then by increasing the measurement time, it would be possible to increase the measurement accuracy as much as desired. However, there are always other sources of errors, which we will not consider here. Therefore, it is reasonable to reduce the statistical error by increasing the measurement time only until it becomes the determining error.
Under the conditions of our work, we can require that the statistical error does not exceed 95 cases out of 100%.
Thus, the time of each measurement must be chosen so as to accumulate about 4,0000 pulses. Under the restrictions imposed on the speed
account growth e N< 10000 èìïñåê j , измерение займет, очевидно, несколько секунд.
When working with a proportional counter, they should also keep in mind that in addition to the pulses created by X-ray radiation, other pulses may appear in the counter, forming the so-called. background. The background source can be cosmic radiation, as well as radioactive elements, which are included in negligible quantities in the materials from which the counter and surrounding instruments are made.
§5. Determination of the dependence of the mass absorption coefficient on the atomic number of the absorber and the wavelength of X-ray radiation.
Before starting work, you must familiarize yourself with the installation on which it is being performed, using the description given to the student.
The first part of the work is to determine ρ for C, O, Al, Cu and mica at a fixed wavelength. As mentioned earlier, scattering at
λ > 1 A can be neglected, which allows us to reduce the problem to a simpler op-
Work begins with determining ρ for carbon. Because get thin and
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