The specificity of the Renaissance is by no means exhausted by the restoration of the ideals of antiquity and the denial of the dull atmosphere of the Middle Ages. During the Renaissance, a person begins to realize his not only spiritual, but also physical individuality and uniqueness. To realize and develop the individualistic manifestations of human nature, appropriate means were also needed. These, starting from the 14th century, were the disciplines dealing with human knowledge, that is, history, literature, philosophy and rhetoric. The concepts of “studia humanitais” and “studia humaniora”, dating back to Cicero, were updated, denoting humanitarian (i.e., studying the actual person) disciplines, and their teachers began to be called humanists (humanista). Subsequently, almost all figures of the Renaissance were called this; the concept of humanism also designated a new direction in the cultural development of the era, the core of which was the anthropocentric worldview.

The language of the humanistic movement became Latin (the classical language of Cicero, Horace, Seneca). One of the first researchers of the culture of Renaissance Italy, the Swiss philosopher Jacob Burckhardt, noted that the Latin language was so popular during this period that even children knew Latin perfectly. Seven-year-old children wrote Latin letters, and among four-year-old children there were speakers who amazed the audience with pure Latin speech.

Humanists have done a lot not only to revive the ancient language, but also to restore its authentic texts. They began to restore the forgotten works of Greek and Roman authors, recreating original texts instead of those distorted in the Middle Ages. Many texts of ancient authors that modern science has at its disposal were collected and recreated by humanists.

Renaissance humanism placed the natural beauty of man and his spiritual self-affirmation in the world on a pedestal. A fundamentally new model of the world is emerging, in which man becomes the main event. The personality is declared the center of the Universe and the goal of progress. The Renaissance man begins to feel like a true subject of his own life and a subject of history.

Humanism is rapidly developing as an ideological movement, it captures merchant circles, finds like-minded people in the courts of tyrants, penetrates into the highest religious spheres, becomes a powerful weapon of politicians, establishes itself among the masses, leaves a deep mark in folk poetry, architecture, and provides rich material for the search for artists and sculptors . Under the influence of humanism, a new secular intelligentsia is emerging. Its representatives organize circles, give lectures at universities, and act as the closest advisers to sovereigns. Humanists bring freedom of judgment, independence in relation to authorities, and a bold critical spirit to spiritual culture. They are full of faith in the limitless possibilities of man and affirm them in numerous speeches and treatises. For humanists, there is no longer a hierarchical society in which a person is only a representative of the interests of the class. Humanists express the requirement of the historical situation - they form an enterprising, active, enterprising person: a person forges his own destiny, and the providence of the Lord has nothing to do with it, a person lives according to his own understanding, he is “set free”*.

Lays the cornerstone of a new worldview Dante Alighieri (1265-1324) - “the last poet of the Middle Ages and the first poet of the New Time.” The great synthesis of poetry, philosophy, theology, and science created by Dante in The Divine Comedy is both the result of the development of medieval culture and the approach to the new culture of the Renaissance. Faith in the earthly destiny of man, in his ability to accomplish his earthly feat on his own, allowed Dante to make the Divine Comedy the first hymn to the dignity of man.

In The Divine Comedy, Dante uses a plot familiar to the Middle Ages - he depicts himself traveling through Hell, Purgatory and Paradise, accompanied by the long-dead Roman poet Virgil. The work is full of pictures of life in contemporary Italy and is full of symbolic images and allegories.

Of all the manifestations of divine wisdom, man for Dante is “the greatest miracle.” This position was also characteristic of creativity Francesco Petrarch (1304-1374), philosopher and brilliant lyric poet, who is often called the founder of the humanist movement in Italy. The ideas of personality, a new vision of man as a free and perfect being are also developed by philosophers, writers and poets Gianozzo Manetti (“On the Dignity and Superiority of Man”), Lorenzo Valla (treatise “On Pleasure”), Pico della Mirandola ( essay “On the Dignity of Man”). Personal freedom became a central concept in the writings Alamanno Rinuccini (a convinced republican, an ardent opponent of the Medici, Rinuccini considered freedom as the most important and indispensable condition for the moral improvement of individuals and societies; equality and justice in his ethics are the norm of social life).

Through the efforts of humanists, the clergy increasingly began to lose their authority and position due to a critical attitude towards the Church, priests, and scholastic education in the works of the great thinkers of the era. Thus, the critical attitude towards the Bible of the Dutch humanist Erasmus of Rotterdam (1469-1536) made a revolutionary contribution to the development of the ideas of the Reformation; Erasmus’s “Praise of Folly” actively influenced changes in attitudes towards the Church and existing mores in society.

The Italian political thinker openly opposed the autocracy of the clergy in his book “The Prince.” Niccolo Machiavelli . He believed that, despite the fact that the republic is the most progressive form of government, in the current political situation of disunity and strife in Europe, it is not applicable. Only a strong sovereign can unite the people into a single state. “With carrots and sticks” he must win the love of the people, force them to respect themselves for their strength and power. In his book, Machiavelli called for the church to deal only with spiritual issues and partly with the education of morality, while state power should become completely secular.

The main stages in the development of humanistic literature of the Renaissance generally coincide with the periods of the early, high and late Renaissance. The literature of the early Renaissance is characterized by the short story, especially the comic ( Boccaccio ), with an anti-feudal orientation, glorifying the enterprising and free from prejudices of the individual.

The High Renaissance was marked by the flowering of the heroic poem: in Italy - L. Pulci,F. Bernie , in Spain - L. Camoens , in the adventure-knightly plot of which the Renaissance idea of ​​a man born for great deeds is poeticized. The original epic of the High Renaissance, a comprehensive picture of society and its heroic ideals in folk fairy-tale and philosophical-comic form, became the work Rabelais "Gargantua and Pantagruel".

Later, the Renaissance developed the pastoral genres of novel and drama. The Highest Rise of the Late Renaissance - Dramas Shakespeare and novels Cervantes , based on tragic or tragicomic conflicts between a heroic personality and a system of social life unworthy of a person.

The progressive humanistic content of Renaissance culture received vivid expression in theatrical art, which was significantly influenced by ancient drama. It is characterized by an interest in the inner world of a person endowed with the features of a powerful individuality. The distinctive features of the theatrical art of the Renaissance were the development of folk art traditions, life-affirming pathos, a bold combination of tragic and comic, poetic and buffoonish elements. This is the theater of Italy, Spain, England. The highest achievement of the Italian theater was the improvisational comedy del arte (16th century). The Renaissance theater reached its greatest flowering in the works of Shakespeare.

Musical culture is not alien to the humanistic ideas of the Renaissance. During the Renaissance, professional music is no longer limited only to church canons, it is influenced by folk music, imbued with a new humanistic worldview. Various genres of secular musical art appeared - frottal and villanelle in Italy, villancico in Spain, ballad in England, madrigal, which originated in Italy but became widespread. Secular humanistic aspirations also penetrate into religious music. New genres of instrumentalism are emerging, and national schools of performing the lute and organ are emerging. The Renaissance ends with the emergence of new musical genres - solo songs, oratorios, opera.

Despite the lofty ideas of humanism and the exaltation of the perfect human personality, Renaissance society in many ways still lives by old medieval views and ideals. Problems of social relations are still solved with dagger and poison, conspiracies and wars. The Borgia family, led by Pope Alexander VII himself - a murderer, robber and libertine, who, however, was endowed with the brilliant talent of a statesman, became famous for their cunning, resourcefulness, and “double standards.” The famous historian, poet and diplomat Machiavelli in his treatise “On the Prince” finds a justification for this: the ideal sovereign, he notes, must be able to combine the techniques of a fox and a lion, to be not only a man, but also a beast.

Researchers have repeatedly noted that good and evil were intertwined in the most bizarre way during the Renaissance. People came out of the Middle Ages, the high ideal of humanism illuminated their spiritual life, but they are still new to freethinking. Harmony in the social order was not achieved, and uncontrollable passions possessed individuals, prompting them to act without stopping at anything and without thinking about the consequences.

The problem is that the emphasis on individuality, realized so powerfully and magnificently in the realm of art, turned out to be destructive to the social and political fabric of life in Renaissance society. Here individuality turns into clearly expressed individualism, the assertion of only one’s needs and desires, the degradation of humanistic morality. The spontaneous self-affirmation of individuality often turned out to be very far from the noble Renaissance humanism*.

In general, with all the diversity and, at times, contradictory nature of humanistic ideas and concepts, the main core of humanism remained anthropocentrism, according to which man is the center and highest goal of the universe.

Bibliographic description:

Nesterov A.K. Humanism of the Renaissance [Electronic resource] // Educational encyclopedia website

Humanism became a powerful ideological basis for the development of Renaissance culture as a whole.

Humanism of the Renaissance is divided into 3 periods:

1. Early humanism (from the end of the 14th century to the middle of the 15th century) is also called civil humanism or ethical-philological. Rhetoric, grammar, poetry, history, and moral philosophy were studied and taught on the basis of classical education, setting the stage for the emergence of early humanism in place of the themes and methods of medieval scholasticism.
2. The development of traditional spheres of culture (from the middle of the 15th century) during the Renaissance in Italy contributed to the development of humanism in other areas: theology, natural philosophy, natural science. The Florentine Neoplatonism of Ficino, the Neo-Aristotelianism of Pomponazzi and other directions appeared.
3. Humanism of the late Renaissance experienced a new rise against the background of the conflicts of the Reformation of the 16th century and the problems of cultural self-determination of European peoples. At the same time, northern humanism appeared, whose representatives were Erasmus of Rotterdam, Thomas More and others.

In the early period of humanism, ethical issues were studied in the same context with socio-political aspects in the works of Leonardo Bruni, Matteo Palmieri and others.

Principles of Renaissance Humanism:

• The primacy of public interests over personal interests
• Working for the benefit of society
• Political freedom

If early humanism, through the efforts of Petrarch, Boccaccio, and Salutati, put forward a program for building a new culture addressed to man and the problems of his existence, then the further development of humanistic thought brought to public discussion a number of problems significant for society.

In particular, humanists of the 15th–16th centuries. strive to show in practice the possibility and prospects of practical implementation of reforms in society.

Since that time, in the writings of many humanists, the central theme of reflection has been the imperfection of the society in which they live, and in connection with this, the idea of ​​​​creating an “ideal state.”

One of the leading trends in Italian humanism was civic humanism, which was formed in Florence, which, not by chance, became its homeland. In this large center of the economic and cultural life of Italy, already in the 14th–15th centuries, the main role in the rapid development of the economy was played by the populace (burghers), which was legislated by the republican system. However, by the end of the 14th century, the political struggle between the “fat” and “lean” people intensified, which led in 1434 to the establishment of the Medici tyranny. It was this political development of Florence that was reflected in the writings of authors adhering to the positions of civic humanism. One of the representatives of this trend was Leonardo Bruni (1374–1444). Being first the secretary of the papal chancellery from 1405, and then the chancellor of the Florentine Republic from 1427 to 1444, Bruni gave a comprehensive presentation of his ethical and political ideas in the works “In Praise of the City of Florence”, “On the Florentine State”, “History of the Florentine People” .

Bruni's ethical, political and social ideology was based on the principles of freedom, equality and justice, and freedom was understood as the consistent implementation of democratic principles in the political life of the republic and categorical rejection of tyranny. He understood equality as the equality of all full-fledged citizens before the law and the same opportunities for their participation in government. Justice is understood as the compliance of the laws of the republic with the interests of society. Bruni found confirmation of his social views in the works of ancient authors and, moreover, in a letter to Pope Eugene IV, he writes that there are no contradictions between the doctrines of ancient philosophers and Christian teaching on issues of the common good and the ideals of government. Based on this, he proclaims Florence the heir to the Roman Republic. Florence, in his opinion, was the ideal of a city republic, although he noted that power in the city belonged to the noble and wealthy rather than to representatives of the middle, craft stratum of the populace.

An important step in the development of “civic humanism” was the ethical and political concept of Matteo Palmieri (1406–1475). He was not only the author of a number of works, but also proved himself to be an active political figure in the Florentine Republic. In the essay “On Civil Life” Palmieri, based on ancient traditions, sets out the idea of ​​a perfect society. The work has a clear didactic focus - to teach their fellow citizens how to create a “perfect society.” He considered fair laws to be the main condition for the “correct structure of society and the state.” Palmieri's political ideal is a Popolanian republic, in which power would belong not only to the top, but also to the middle layer of citizens. At the same time, Palmieri, unlike Bruni, who was distrustful of the lower strata of the populace, assigned a fairly large role in the political life of the republic to the poor trade and craft strata.

Raphael's fresco "The School of Athens".

The next stage in the development of humanistic thought of the Florentine school was the work of the outstanding humanistic figure Niccolo Machiavelli (1469–1527). Machiavelli was distinguished by the independence of his civic sympathies and political views, while he was active politically in Florence, holding positions in the chancellery, the Council of Ten, was engaged in diplomatic activities, corresponded, compiled reports and reports on issues of current politics, on the state of affairs in Italy and Europe . The experience of a statesman and the observations of a diplomat, as well as the study of ancient writers, gave Machiavelli rich material in developing his political and social concepts.

Using the teachings of the most prominent representatives of the Florentine school (Bruni, Palmieri, Machiavelli) as an example, one can trace the evolution of approaches to the problem of the ideal state. This was the path from awareness of the non-ideality of the real world to the formation of ideas about a decisive reconstruction of society and the achievement of the common good. If in the 14th century the question of freedom in the state was understood only in a political aspect (democratic freedoms), then by the 16th century freedom was interpreted in a broader sense (freedom of the nation, freedom of society).

Literature

1. Temnov, E.I. Machiavelli. – M.: KNORUS, 2010
2. Kruzhinin V.A. History of political doctrines - M.: Knorus, 2009
3. Bragina, L. M. Italian humanism. Ethical teachings of the XIV–XV centuries. – M: Enlightenment, 2008

§ 2. Humanism of the Renaissance

The realization of humanity presupposes the development of the achievements of the cultural wealth of the past. The humanism of the Renaissance was manifested in revolutionary ideas addressed to the inner, earthly “divinity” of man, in the rejection of the dogmatism of church truths.

Humanism (Latin humanus - human) represents the first period of philosophical thought of the Renaissance, the ideology of humanism was a revolution in all philosophy: the nature of philosophizing, the sources of philosophy, the style of thinking, the very appearance of philosophers, their place in society became different.

Humanism does not originate in the departments of European universities, nor in monasteries and monastic orders. New philosophers - politicians, poets, philologists, rhetoricians, diplomats, teachers. Circles of learned interlocutors in commune cities, in the villas of rich patricians, at the courts of patrons of the arts, become the focus of spiritual life, centers of a new culture. Their tireless search for forgotten ancient texts, translation and philological activities gave European culture new ideals, a new look at human nature, a new worldview. A secular culture was created, with which all subsequent European culture is inextricably linked.

The difference between the views of humanists on human nature and the scholastic ones was expressed quite clearly by the humanist Pico della Mirandola in his famous “Speech on the Dignity of Man.” Having created man and placed him at the center of the world, God, according to this philosopher, addressed him with the following words: “We do not give you, O Adam, neither a specific place, nor your own image, nor a special duty, so that both a place and a person, and you had the duty of your own free will, according to your will and your decision. The image of other creations is determined within the limits of the laws we have established. You, not constrained by any limits, will determine your image according to your decision, into whose power I leave you” (History of Aesthetics. Monuments of World Aesthetic Thought. M., 1982. Vol. 1. P. 507.).

A person to whom God gave free will must determine his place in the world himself; he is not just a natural being, but the creator of himself and his destiny. Majestic figures stand at the origins of Renaissance humanism Dante Alighieri(1255-1321) And Francesco Petrarch(1304-1374).

F. Engels defined Dante as “the last poet of the Middle Ages and the first poet of modern times.” His “Divine Comedy” - a poem in 3 parts (“Hell”, “Purgatory”, “Paradise”) and 100 songs - a kind of encyclopedia of the Middle Ages - a monumental synthesis of poetry, philosophy, theology, science - had a great influence on the development of European culture .

Dante accepts Christian dogma as the truth, but gives a new interpretation of the relationship between the divine and the human. He does not oppose these principles, but sees them in mutual unity. God cannot be opposed to the creative powers of man. The dual – mortal and immortal – nature of man also determines his dual purpose: the manifestation of his own virtue in earthly life and the “bliss of eternal life” – after death and with the assistance of the divine will. Man's earthly destiny is fulfilled in civil society according to the instructions of philosophers and under the leadership of a secular sovereign; The church leads to eternal life. (Dante Alighieri. Small works. M., 1968. P. 361.) Dante’s humanism is full of faith in the strength of man, his personal qualities are responsible for his good, and not wealth or inheritance, position in the social hierarchy. At the heart of Dante's political idea is the demand that the church renounce its claims to secular power. The Church must deal with issues of “eternity”; earthly affairs are the lot of people striving to create a social order based on happiness, bliss and eternal peace. Dante belonged to those ideologists who combined humanism with the theory of “dual truth.”

Dante opened the way to humanistic anthropology, within the framework of which creativity took place Francesco Petrarch(1304-1374) , who was considered the “first humanist”, “father of humanism”. Unlike Dante, who still accepted “eternity” in the understanding of the scholastics, Petrarch completely rejects it. In his treatise “On His Own Ignorance and the Ignorance of the Ancients,” he criticizes scholasticism, its methods, the cult of authority, and advocates the independence of his own thinking from church scholarship. The primary interest of Petrarch and his followers is directed to ethical issues. In the philosophical dialogue “My Secret,” he reveals the deepest internal conflicts of a person and ways to overcome them. The inner world of a person, moreover a “new” person, breaking ties with medieval traditions, constitutes the main content of his poems, letters, and philosophical treatises. A great propagandist of ancient culture, he had a unique library of Latin texts, and through his activities had a great influence on his followers.

These include Giovanni Boccaccio(1313-1375), Lorenzo Valla(1407-1457) and others.

In the XV-XVI centuries. Humanistic thinking is also spreading in other countries - in the Netherlands, England, Germany, Switzerland, and unlike Italian, which was more of a literary nature, the “northern” type of humanism was distinguished by a more rigorous construction using methodology, logic, theory of state and law.

The main representative of this type of humanism is Erasmus of Rotterdam (1469-1536)- Dutch thinker, philologist, philosopher, theologian. He is best known for his work entitled “The Praise of Folly” (1509). This is a kind of “sum”, a set of the author’s views on all the problems of man and his existence in the world. In a sarcastic and humorous manner, he criticizes all the vices of the Catholic Church and scholastic dogma. The main pathos of the work is expressed in two theses: the paradoxical duality of all phenomena of existence and the destructiveness of dogmatism, obsession, and intellectual blindness. In his criticism of the church, he was the forerunner of the religious revolution (Reformation), but he himself did not go over to its side.

In his treatises, he demanded a return to genuine Christian morality. Asceticism, the renunciation of earthly life, is, in his opinion, immoral; the meaning of life is to use the benefits of life; in this, Christianity should learn from classical antiquity, and the business of philosophy is to deal with questions of the natural life of man.

The impact of the Christian humanism of Erasmus of Rotterdam was extremely great: his like-minded people and followers are found throughout Catholic and Protestant Europe from England to Italy, from Spain to Poland.

The decline of the powerful current of humanism found its expression in France, a prominent representative of which was Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592). The radical optimism of the emerging culture brought with it a series of superficial ideas; the overthrow and denial of church authorities was often accompanied by the promotion of new ones, which was the subject of Montaigne’s criticism. All his work is dedicated to man and his dignity. A characteristic feature of his works is skepticism, with the help of which he sought to avoid fanaticism, blind submission to any authority.

Montaigne's main work, Essays, was written in French, which in itself challenged the church, according to the established canon of which all works were written in Latin. In the “Essays,” Montaigne, in an aphoristic form, through introspection and by turning to ancient wisdom, builds a practical-philosophical view of man in general. Experience serves as a teacher for him; he demands that reason be placed above authority, custom and “immutable” truths. In his opinion, the main ability that should be developed in a person is the ability to judge, which arises in the experience of comparing reason with reality.

His views had a significant influence on the formation of the experimental methodology of the New Age; on creativity - F. Bacon, B. Pascal, J.-J. Russo and others.

§ 3. Philosophy of the Reformation

The new system of values ​​could not but influence the foundation of medieval culture: Christian (religious) dogma. The gap between the excessive demands of asceticism, purity, and morality in Christian ideology and the existing church shortcomings, hypocrisy, excessive enrichment and the general decline in the morals of priests became too obvious. The Holy Scriptures began to contradict the system of dogma created by the Catholic Church.

In the XVI-XVII centuries. there is an attempt to revise church ideology and the relationship between man and the church. The Reformation movement arises, which is associated with the names of Martin Luther, John Calvin, Thomas Münzer, Zwingli, etc. Within the framework of religion, the rationalistic tendency with elements of the ancient perception of the world and the role of man in it is intensifying. And although religion is separated from science, politics, and morality, in religion itself its basic tenets are being revised.

The Reformation, which began in Germany, covered a number of European countries and led to the falling away from the Catholic system in England, Scotland, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Switzerland and other countries, marking the beginning Protestantism. As a result, the church enjoyed less power in these countries, which facilitated the development of science and secular culture in them.

The ideologist of the Reformation in Germany was Martin Luther (1483-1546). He publicly defended his teachings, protesting against the sale of papal indulgences. In 1517, he posted 95 theses on the doors of the church in Wittenberg against the abuses of the church and the Catholic clergy, which had an effect similar to “a lightning strike in a powder keg” (F. Engels). These theses were perceived as a signal of action by all opposition forces against the church for the national and religious independence of Germany. The main thesis of his teaching was to remove intermediaries between man and God - intermediaries in the form of the church and the clergy.

Luther's teachings grew out of his interpretation of sacred texts, dogmas, and the teachings of Christian mystics. From this interpretation it followed that a person’s salvation does not depend on the fulfillment of external rituals (as the church demanded), but on the sincerity of faith, which is given to him directly by God. Therefore, every person possesses the fullness of divine grace, there is no fundamental difference between the laity and the clergy and, therefore, the church is not a necessary link between man and God, everyone can independently exercise piety without restrictions or regulations. Luther sought to replace the authority of the church with the authority of the Bible. To do this, he translated the Bible into German so that it would become accessible to everyone (in the Middle Ages, all sacred texts were written in Latin and were accessible only to clergy). Luther rejected the exclusive right of the Pope to interpret the Holy Scriptures, and rejected monasticism as an ideal form of religious service. Socially, these ideas were associated with the demand for the elimination of monasticism and church land ownership, the simplification of worship, and the democratization of worship.

The Reformation movement was heterogeneous in its social aspirations. Calvinism, Zwinglianism and other branches of Protestantism were more radical, but what they had in common was the affirmation of a person’s internal religious freedom, the value of personal effort, and a change in the role of man in the general system of the universe.

§ 4. Neoplatonism and natural philosophy

The new worldview of the Renaissance also manifests itself in man's relationship to nature. Although the philosophy of nature is still associated with medieval philosophy, and the interpretation of the question of the relationship between God and the world remains central, a characteristic feature of this period is its anti-scholastic orientation. Since medieval philosophy was based on the philosophy of Aristotle, the natural philosophy of the Renaissance turns to the ideas of Platonism and Neoplatonism. However, in the understanding of nature, as well as in the interpretation of man, the philosophy of the Renaissance has its own specifics. “The birth of a new science coincides with a change in philosophical attitude, with a reversal of the value attached to theoretical knowledge in comparison with sensory experience, coincides with the discovery positive nature of the concept of infinity"(Koyre A. Essays on the history of philosophical thought. M., 1985. P. 19.) It is known that the Greeks had an aversion to infinity. According to their ideas, the cosmos is harmoniously closed, it, like everything perfect, is spherical, a kind of work of art, universal harmony, the general order of things, unshakable order, justice. “Lies and envy are inherent in the nature of the infinite,” said Pythagoras (Quoted from: Cassidy F.H. From myth to logos. P. 162.). It is clear what kind of “revolution” had to occur in the worldview of the era in order to establish a new attitude towards the finite and infinite, possibility and reality, material and ideal, absolute and relative. This "revolution" began during the Renaissance. Associated with this is pantheism (“pan” - everything, “theos” - God) of Renaissance philosophy - a teaching that identifies God with the world whole (“God is in everything”). The Christian God loses his transcendental supernatural character; he, as it were, merges with nature, and nature, in turn, becomes deified.

One of the most profound thinkers and representative of Neoplatonism of the Renaissance was Nicholas of Cusa (1401-1464). His most significant work is “On Learned Ignorance.” Cusansky brings God closer to nature, ascribes divine attributes to nature, and above all, infinity in space. As you know, the central concept of Neoplatonism is the concept of “One”. In Plato and the Neoplatonists, the One is characterized through the opposition to the “other,” the many, the non-united. Cusansky rejects ancient dualism and concludes that nothing is opposite to the One, the One is everything. This philosophical position is also unacceptable for Christian theism, which fundamentally distinguishes the Creator (the One) from creation (the whole), and is different from the concept of Neoplatonism, which never identified the One with “everything.”

From the statement that the One has no opposite, Cusansky concludes that the One is identical to the boundless, infinite. The Infinite is that than which nothing can be greater, it is the “maximum”, while the One is the “minimum”. Nikolai Kuzansky thus discovered the principle of the coincidence of opposites. To make this principle more clear, he turns to mathematics: when the radius of a circle increases to infinity, the circle turns into an infinite straight line. For such a maximal circle, the diameter becomes identical to the circle, moreover, not only the diameter, but also the center coincides with the circle, and thus the point (minimum) and the infinite straight line (maximum) are one and the same. The idea of ​​the absence of a center of the world prepares the Copernican revolution in astronomy, and the methodological principle of the coincidence of opposites makes Cusanus one of the founders of modern European dialectics.

The identification of the One with the infinite carried out by N. Kuzansky subsequently entailed a restructuring of the principles of not only ancient philosophy and medieval theology, but also ancient and medieval science - astronomy and mathematics. He is undoubtedly the predecessor of the doctrine of the infinitesimal and the limit of mathematical analysis in the 17th century. His teaching is imbued with faith in the limitless possibilities of human knowledge and in his creative abilities.

The idea of ​​an infinite world developed Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543), who made a revolutionary revolution in astronomy and laid the foundation for the heliocentric system. His main idea is the rejection of the idea of ​​the Earth as the center of the Universe, reducing it to the category of other planets. At the same time, in astronomy, anthropocentrism in views on the essence of the world, which has now opened up to us in all its rich diversity, began to gradually disappear, a world governed by objective laws, independent of human consciousness and not subordinate to human goals. It should be noted that Copernicus’s theory preceded the new natural science, destroying the medieval idea of ​​the world, based on Aristotle’s cosmology. Aristotle bases his views, first of all, on the opposition of Earth and Heaven. The laws governing the celestial bodies were supposed to be different from the laws ruling on Earth, and the motionless Earth was the center of the Universe. Therefore, Copernicus’s revolutionary ideas greatly undermined the authority of the church; it was not without reason that his main work, “On the Circulation of the Heavenly Circles,” was included in the “Index of Prohibited Books” of the church.

Pantheistic philosophy Giordano Bruno (1548-1600) was the apogee of the development of philosophical thought of the Renaissance. It embodies humanism, spontaneous dialectics and the greatness of nature. For J. Bruno, “God is the infinite in the finite, he is in everything and everywhere, not outside us, but as the most present.” The One, the central category of his philosophy, is both the cause of being and the very existence of things; essence and existence are identified in it. The One is infinite and limitless, in it matter coincides with form, the spiritual with the physical, reality with possibility. By removing the boundary between creator and creation, Bruno destroys the traditional opposition between form (the creative principle) and matter (the passive principle) and thus transfers to nature itself what was attributed to God in the Middle Ages, namely, the active, creative impulse. Bruno's pantheism paves the way for a materialistic understanding of nature. Since movement as self-motion is identical to life, Bruno expresses the idea of ​​the existence of life on other planets, of the existence of many worlds. For Bruno, man is part of nature. His love of knowledge and the power of his mind elevate him above the world. Bruno's work represented the most radical and consistent anti-scholastic philosophy. The irreconcilable conflict with the church ended tragically for him: in 1600, Giordano Bruno was burned at the stake in Rome by the Inquisition. He did not renounce his views, and in the history of culture his feat serves as an example of the dignity and greatness of the human Spirit.

The ideas of Renaissance philosophers laid the foundations for the development of philosophy and natural science in modern times.

The Renaissance, as noted, appeared in the history of Western culture as an era of exaltation of the human personality, as a period of faith in man, in his endless possibilities and in his mastery of nature. But Copernicus and Bruno turned the Earth into an insignificant grain of sand of the universe, and at the same time man turned out to be incommensurate with the infinite space, dark and cold, feeling his powerlessness and insignificance, horror of the emptiness of the Universe. It was the natural philosophy of the 16th century, which, having destroyed the Renaissance picture of existence, laid the foundation for a different picture of the world, a different culture and a different philosophy.

§ 5. Philosophy of state and law. Social utopianism

The dream of the Renaissance humanists about a radical reform of the church, about the universal unity of peoples, cleansed of the abuses of Christianity, also manifested itself in the social sphere, in socio-political philosophy.

At the end of the 15th and beginning of the 16th centuries. Italy was shaken by constant wars, it was fragmented into separate republics, princes competed with each other for power. The need for a strong state that would fulfill this task was best expressed in his theory by the Florentine Niccolo Machiavelli(sometimes Italian Machiavelli is transcribed and written as Machiavelli ) (1469-1527) - friend of Michelangelo, statesman, historian, poet, military writer.

In the field of government, according to medieval theology, events were presented as the product of divine will. Machiavelli's position is consonant with his time: to derive the necessary state structure without resorting to a theological idea. For him, a social fact became a fact amenable to social explanation. He derived the necessity of the state from the egoistic nature of man, from his desire for personal interest and self-preservation. This requires the power to curb selfishness and establish order. This task is performed by the state. His views are characterized by a conviction in the limitless capabilities of sovereigns and commanders: he attributed to the statesman an exclusive role in governing the state, the well-being of which depends on his will, wisdom, institutions and laws, which he can establish if he has the necessary talent and energy for this.

During a meeting with Caesar Borgia, the son of Pope Alexander VI, Machiavelli first had the idea of ​​​​creating a state science, completely independent of any morality. In such dissociation, he saw a means to clearly understand the true art of government and build it on a new (objective) foundation: politics is determined not by God or morality, but by practice itself, the natural laws of life and human psychology. Machiavelli, in his work “The Prince,” made a detailed analysis of the successes and failures of various politicians and commanders of Rome, Turkey, France, and Persia, paying attention not only to military actions, but also to the morals of a particular people, to the psychology of the individual. In his opinion, the ideal ruler should not be bound by any preconceived schemes, religion or his word, but should be guided by real facts. In this case, morality is not important; he can be cunning, cruel, sinful, merciless (as exemplified by Caesar Borgia), only in this way will he master the spontaneous movement of human behavior arising from the thirst for wealth and instincts. As a result, Machiavelli’s socio-philosophical views are often defined as an example of cynicism and immorality in politics, and the term “Machiavellianism” over time has become synonymous with politics, which is guided by the principle “the end justifies the means”, when power is not subject to higher moral criteria and its goal is to achieve success at any cost.

However, the work of this thinker must be understood in the context of the historical conditions of that time. His initial guidelines, which could have been nothing more than speculation, are not so important, since there was no science about man and, especially, about society at that time. But Machiavelli’s merit is that he pursued the idea of ​​​​the existence of an objective pattern, which he called “fortune,” which must be known, and having learned it, directed for the benefit of humanity. The controversial philosophy of the Florentine has its source in the exorbitant expansion of the capabilities of the human mind, which is characteristic of thinkers of this time, but its significance is great as the first attempt to free oneself from religious dogmas in the field of political life.

The most radical form of opposition to both the feudal order and the deepening social differentiation of society was the emergence of the utopian theories of Thomas More and Tommaso Campanella, which were the predecessors of the subsequent utopian socialism of Saint-Simon, Fourier, and Owen.

Thomas More (1478-1535)- English thinker and politician. He combines his scientific studies with legal activities, holds a number of government posts, and in 1529 becomes Chancellor of England. He had a negative attitude towards the Lutheran Reformation. More's refusal to recognize the "Act of the King's Supremacy" over the reformed church and his courageous behavior aroused the anger of Henry VIII, and More was executed in 1535. T. More's heroic behavior was the embodiment of the humanistic moral ideal of human dignity and freedom.

More's worldwide fame was brought to him by his treatise “A truly golden little book, both useful and amusing, on the best structure of the state on the island of Utopia” (1516), containing a description of the ideal, fair, classless structure of the fantastic island of Utopia (from Greek, utopia is a place , which does not exist). This word he invented later became a household word. More sees the cause of the suffering of the people in the existence of private property and the dominance of private interest. The ideal state is based on community of property. Labor in it is the responsibility of all citizens, distribution occurs according to need, the working day is reduced to 6 hours, the most difficult work is performed by criminals. The goal of the communist society of the Utopians is not only material wealth, but above all, the free development of the human personality. Free time after work is provided at the personal discretion of each person for spiritual development, pursuit of science or other activities useful to society. More did not see a way to realize this ideal, since he was an opponent of popular movements, seeing in them a destructive principle and anarchy.

Another representative of Renaissance utopianism - Tommaso Campanella (1568-1639). In his treatise “The City of the Sun” (1602), he puts forward the ideal and program of general social transformation based on the abolition of private property and exploitation, on the realization of the kingdom of God on earth. Unlike More, he is completely convinced of the possibility of implementing this coup through the force of a mass uprising. In 1598, Campanella became the head of a conspiracy in Calabria against the Spaniards. After the defeat of the plot, he was captured and sentenced to life imprisonment. During his almost 27-year stay in prison, he created dozens of works, including his utopia. In the ideal communist community, which the City of the Sun represents, governance is entrusted to a spiritual person - the priest. He is a metaphysician, marked with the solar symbol. His assistants - Power, Wisdom and Love - deal with issues of war and peace, martial arts, liberal arts, sciences, education, and birth control issues. Medicine, agriculture and cattle breeding. Thus, as in Plato’s “Republic,” in the ideal state of the Sun, philosophers and sages are at the head, regulating all aspects of the life of solariums. Political, secular power is intertwined with church, spiritual power. Religion merges with the philosophy of nature, the task is to unite them. An essential point of his program is the global unification of people, in which he sees the guarantee of delivering humanity from wars, famines, and epidemics.

Despite all the historical limitations of the communist (“barracks” type) ideal of the utopians of the Renaissance, the heritage of subsequent centuries was the thought of humanists about a fair social order, the abolition of private property as a source of oppression of the people, about the important role of science and education in the life of the people, about ending wars and establishing peace.

The Renaissance occupies a significant place in the history of philosophical thought. There has been no other era in the history of philosophy that would have affirmed the human personality in its beauty and power with such force. The Renaissance is a period of self-affirmation of the individual – the creator, the artist. However, the individual isolated personality on which revivalist thinking relied was not a solid foundation for a comprehensive worldview. This was the dawn of a new bourgeois-capitalist formation, based on the hypertrophy of entrepreneurship, and in the field of spirit - on the hypertrophy of subjectivism and naturalism, rationalism. In all areas of Renaissance culture, old ideas, traditions, and concepts collided with new ones. The main feature of Renaissance philosophy is its secular, earthly orientation. If the subject of medieval philosophy was God, now nature comes first. The mutual influence of developing experimental science and philosophy is extremely important for the further development of philosophy.

In general, the philosophy of the Renaissance created the basis of modern philosophy and represents a natural transition from medieval philosophical traditions to modern philosophy.

Control questions

Why did the philosophy of the 14th - 16th centuries receive the name Renaissance?

Formulate the main ideas of Renaissance philosophy.

Identify the main directions of Renaissance philosophy.

How was the humanism of Italian writers Dante, Petrarch, Boccaccio and others expressed?

What explains and how is the apotheosis of art and the cult of the artist-creator expressed at this time?

What new did natural science of the Renaissance bring to the development of philosophical thought?

How is the problem of the relationship between the finite and the infinite solved in the philosophy of N. Cusansky and G. Bruno?

What is the “Copernican revolution” in views on the structure of the Universe after the discoveries of N. Copernicus?

What is the essence of M. Montaigne's ethics?

Is there any basis in the thesis that Machiavellianism is identical to immoralism?

Give an analysis of the religious revolution started by Martin Luther and called the Reformation.

What is common and what is the difference between the views of the Renaissance utopians Thomas More and Tommaso Campanella on the ideal structure of the state from the similar views of Plato?

What is common and what is different in the understanding of human nature in Antiquity, the Middle Ages and the Renaissance?

What explains the fact that the social utopias of More, Campanella, and the works of Machiavelli attract the interest of contemporaries?

The philosophy of the Renaissance is considered as a transition from the Middle Ages to the Modern Age. Does it have its own content and specificity?

additional literature

Introduction to Philosophy. In 2 parts. Part 1. M., 1989.

History of philosophy in brief. M., 1991.

Gorfunkel A. Kh. Philosophy of the Renaissance. M., 1980.

Losev A. F. Aesthetics of the Renaissance. M., 1978.

Dante Alighieri. The Divine Comedy. M., 1992.

Machiavelli N. Sovereign. SPb., 1869 and any other publications.

Montaigne M. Experiments. M., 1992.

More T. Utopia. M., 1978.

Pascal B. Thoughts. St. Petersburg, 1994.

Campanella T. City of the Sun. M., 1954.

Erasmus of Rotterdam. Praise for stupidity. M., 1983.

Luther M. The time of silence has passed. Kharkov, 1992.

Porshnev B.F. Calvin and Calvinism // Questions of the history of religion and atheism. 1958. No. 6.

Kuzansky N. Op. in 2 volumes. M., 1978.

Ortega y Gasset H. Gioconda // Philosophical Sciences. 1990. No. 5.

Fish E. Nicolaus Copernicus. Warsaw, 1967.

Vernadsky V.I. Selected works on the history of science. M., 1981.

directions philosophy science of the twentieth century - neopositivism and postpositivism - in philosophical categories historical and logical, material and formal. Historical ...

The Renaissance is an era in the history of European culture of the 13th-16th centuries, which marked the advent of the New Age. The Renaissance is one of the most striking phenomena in the history of European culture. The ideological roots of the Renaissance went back to antiquity, but also to the secular traditions of medieval culture. Here the work of Dante Alighieri (1265-1321) can be considered a unique starting point. His “Divine Comedy” became the herald of a new era.

Since the XIV-XV centuries. In the countries of Western Europe, a number of changes are taking place, marking the beginning of a new era, which went down in history under the name of the Renaissance. These changes were associated primarily with the process of secularization (liberation from religion and church institutions), which took place in all areas of cultural and social life. Not only economic and political life, but also science, art, and philosophy acquire independence in relation to the church. True, this process occurs very slowly at first and proceeds differently in different European countries.

The new era recognizes itself as a revival of ancient culture, an ancient way of life, a way of thinking and feeling, which is where the name Renaissance comes from, i.e. Revival. In reality, however, the Renaissance man and the Renaissance culture and philosophy differ significantly from the ancient one. Although the Renaissance contrasts itself with medieval Christianity, it arose as a result of the development of medieval culture, and therefore bears features that were not characteristic of antiquity.

It would be wrong to assume that the Middle Ages did not know antiquity at all or rejected it completely. It has already been said what a great influence Platonism, and later Aristotelianism, had on medieval philosophy. In the Middle Ages in Western Europe people read Virgil, quoted Cicero and Pliny the Elder, and loved Seneca. But at the same time there was a strong difference in attitude towards antiquity in the Middle Ages and in the Renaissance. The Middle Ages treated antiquity as an authority, the Renaissance - as an ideal. Authority is taken seriously and followed without distance; the ideal is admired, but admired aesthetically, with a constant sense of distance between it and reality.

The most important distinguishing feature of the Renaissance worldview is its orientation towards art: if the Middle Ages can be called a religious era, then the Renaissance can be called an artistic and aesthetic era par excellence. And if the focus of antiquity was natural-cosmic life, in the Middle Ages - God and the associated idea of ​​salvation, then in the Renaissance the focus is on man. Therefore, the philosophical thinking of this period can be characterized as anthropocentric.

Humanism is a moral position that expresses recognition of the value of a person as an individual, respect for his dignity, and the desire for his good as the goal of the social process.

In medieval society, corporate and class ties between people were very strong, so even outstanding people acted, as a rule, as representatives of the corporation, the system that they headed, like the heads of the feudal state and the church. In the Renaissance, on the contrary, the individual acquires much greater independence; he increasingly represents not this or that union, but himself. From here grow a person’s new self-awareness and his new social position: pride and self-affirmation, awareness of one’s own strength and talent become the distinctive qualities of a person. In contrast to the consciousness of the medieval man, who considered himself entirely indebted to tradition - even when he, as an artist, scientist or philosopher, made a significant contribution to it - the individual of the Renaissance tends to attribute all his merits to himself.

It was the Renaissance that gave the world a number of outstanding individuals who had a bright temperament, comprehensive education, and stood out from the rest with their will, determination, and enormous energy.

Versatility is the ideal of the Renaissance man. The theory of architecture, painting and sculpture, mathematics, mechanics, cartography, philosophy, ethics, aesthetics, pedagogy - this is the range of activities, for example, of the Florentine artist and humanist Leon Battista Alberti (1404-1472). Unlike the medieval master, who belonged to his corporation, workshop, etc. and achieved mastery precisely in this area, the Renaissance master, freed from the corporation and forced to defend his honor and his interests, sees the highest merit precisely in the comprehensiveness of his knowledge and skills.

Here, however, it is necessary to take into account one more point. We now know well how many different practical skills and abilities any peasant must have - both in the Middle Ages and in any other era - in order to properly run his farm, and his knowledge relates not only to agriculture, but also to the masses other areas: after all, he builds his own house, puts simple equipment in order, raises livestock, plows, sews, weaves, etc. and so on. But all this knowledge and skills do not become an end in themselves for the peasant, as well as for the artisan, and therefore do not become the subject of special reflection, much less demonstration. The desire to become an outstanding master - artist, poet, scientist, etc. - the general atmosphere that surrounds gifted people with literally religious worship contributes: they are now a little like heroes in antiquity, and saints in the Middle Ages.

This atmosphere is especially characteristic of circles of so-called humanists. These circles previously arose in Italy - in Florence, Naples, Rome. Their peculiarity was their opposition to both the church and the universities, these traditional centers of medieval learning.

Let us now see how the Renaissance understanding of humanism differs from the ancient one. Let us turn to the reasoning of one of the Italian humanists, Giovanni Pico della Mirandola (1463-1494), in his famous “Speech on the Dignity of Man.” Having created man and “placing him at the center of the world,” God, according to this philosopher, addressed him with the following words: “We do not give you, O Adam, neither a specific place, nor your own image, nor a special duty, so that both a place and you had a person and a duty of your own free will, according to your will and your decision. The image of other creations is determined within the limits of the laws we have established. You, not constrained by any limits, will determine your image according to your decision, into the power of which I leave you.”

This is not at all an ancient idea of ​​​​a person. In antiquity, man was a natural being in the sense that his boundaries were determined by nature and the only thing that depended on him was whether he would follow nature or deviate from it. Hence the intellectualistic, rationalistic character of ancient Greek ethics. Knowledge, according to Socrates, is necessary for moral action; a person must know what goodness consists of, and having known this, he will certainly follow what is good. Figuratively speaking, ancient man recognized nature as his mistress, and not himself as the master of nature.

In Pico we hear echoes of the teaching about a person to whom God has given free will and who must decide his own destiny, determine his place in the world. Man here is not just a natural being, he is the creator of himself and this distinguishes him from other natural beings. He is master over all nature. This biblical motif has now been significantly transformed: in the Renaissance, the characteristic medieval conviction in the sinfulness of man and the depravity of human nature gradually weakens, and as a result, man no longer needs divine grace for his salvation. As a person realizes himself as the creator of his own life and destiny, he also turns out to be an unlimited master over nature.

Man did not feel such strength, such power over everything that exists, including himself, either in antiquity or in the Middle Ages. He no longer needs the mercy of God, without which, due to his sinfulness, he, as was believed in the Middle Ages, could not cope with the shortcomings of his own “damaged” nature. He himself is a creator, and therefore the figure of the artist-creator becomes, as it were, a symbol of the Renaissance.

Any activity - be it the activity of a painter, sculptor, architect or engineer, navigator or poet - is now perceived differently than in antiquity and the Middle Ages. The ancient Greeks placed contemplation above activity (the only exception was government activity). This is understandable: contemplation (in Greek - “theory”) introduces a person to what is eternal, that is, to the very essence of nature, while activity immerses him in the transient, vain world of “opinion”. In the Middle Ages, attitudes towards activity changed somewhat. Christianity views labor as a kind of atonement for sins (“by the sweat of your brow you will eat your bread”) and no longer considers labor, including physical labor, to be a slave occupation. However, the highest form of activity is recognized here as that which leads to the salvation of the soul, and it is in many ways akin to contemplation: this is prayer, liturgical ritual, reading sacred books. And only in the Renaissance did creative activity acquire a kind of sacred (sacred) character. With its help, a person not only satisfies his purely earthly needs, he creates a new world, creates beauty, creates the highest thing that exists in the world - himself.

And it is no coincidence that it was during the Renaissance that for the first time the line that previously existed between science (as the comprehension of existence), practical and technical activity, which was called “art,” and artistic fantasy was blurred. An engineer and artist now is not just an “artist”, a “technician”, as he was in antiquity and the Middle Ages, but a creator. From now on, the artist imitates not just God’s creations, but divine creativity itself. In God's creation, that is, natural things, he strives to see the law of their construction.

It is clear that such an understanding of man is very far from the ancient one, although humanists recognize themselves as reviving antiquity. The watershed between the Renaissance and antiquity was drawn by Christianity, which snatched man from the cosmic element, connecting him with the transcendent Creator of the world. A personal union with the Creator, based on freedom, took the place of the former - pagan - rootedness of man in the cosmos. The human personality (“inner man”) acquired a value never before seen. But all this value of personality in the Middle Ages rested on the union of man with God, i.e. was not autonomous: in itself, in isolation from God, man had no value.

The cult of beauty characteristic of the Renaissance is associated with anthropocentrism, and it is no coincidence that painting, depicting, first of all, the beautiful human face and human body, became the dominant form of art in this era. In the great artists - Botticelli, Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, the worldview of the Renaissance receives its highest expression. humanism renaissance man personality

During the Renaissance, the value of the individual person increased as never before. Neither in antiquity nor in the Middle Ages was there such a burning interest in the human being in all the diversity of its manifestations. The originality and uniqueness of each individual is placed above all else in this era. Refined artistic taste is able to recognize and emphasize this uniqueness everywhere; originality and difference from others becomes the most important sign of a great personality.

Therefore, one can often come across the statement that it was during the Renaissance that the concept of personality as such was first formed. And in fact, if we identify the concept of personality with the concept of individuality, then such a statement will be completely legitimate. However, in reality the concept of personality and individuality should be distinguished. Individuality is an aesthetic category, while personality is a moral and ethical category. If we consider a person from the point of view of how and in what way he differs from all people, then we look at him as if from the outside, with the eye of an artist; In this case, we apply only one criterion to a person’s actions - the criterion of originality. As for personality, the main thing in it is different: the ability to distinguish between good and evil and act in accordance with such a distinction. Along with this, the second most important definition of personality appears - the ability to bear responsibility for one’s actions. And the enrichment of individuality does not always coincide with the development and deepening of personality: the aesthetic and moral and ethical aspects of development can significantly diverge from each other. Thus, the rich development of individuality in the XIV-XVI centuries. often accompanied by extremes of individualism; the intrinsic value of individuality means the absolutization of the aesthetic approach to man.

Humanists of the Renaissance.

During the Renaissance in Italy, a social group of people emerged called humanists. The main goal of their lives was to study philosophy, literature, ancient languages, find and study the works of ancient authors, and philosophical research.

Humanists cannot be considered intellectuals in the modern sense of the word; they represented an elite esoteric group that, through its activities and way of life, affirmed new systems of spiritual values. Characteristic is emergence of an intellectual and artistic elite. Among people of mental work, those who solve human problems and form a national language and national culture have become more valued. This poets, philologists, philosophers. They are the ones who determine the independence of a person’s thinking from state and church institutions. The fascination with antiquity was expressed in an unprecedented interest in Ancient art .

The intellectuals of the Renaissance strive to bridge the medieval gap with Antiquity and carry out multifaceted work to restore the riches of philosophy and art. The restoration of the ancient heritage began with the study of ancient languages. The invention of printing played a major role, which contributed to the spread of humanistic ideas among the masses.

Humanism developed as an ideological movement. He captured merchant circles, found like-minded people at the courts of the titans, penetrating the highest religious schemes, established himself among the masses and left his mark on folk poetry. Folds up new secular intelligentsia . Its representatives organize circles, give lectures at universities, and act as advisers to sovereigns. Humanists brought freedom of judgment and independence in relation to authorities to spiritual culture. For them there is no hierarchy of society, in which a person is only a spokesman for the interests of the class; they oppose all censorship and especially the church. Humanists express the demands of the historical situation, creating an enterprising, active and enterprising person.

The main character of the era becomes an energetic, strong-willed, liberated person who dreams of realizing earthly ideals. This person strives for sovereignty in all areas, challenging established traditions, restoring the ideal of a comprehensively developed, harmoniously developed personality.

“A well-educated, harmonious individual must: be able to ride a horse, fight with swords, wield various kinds of weapons, be a good speaker, dance beautifully, play musical instruments, have knowledge of science and art, know foreign languages, be natural in behavior and carry God in your soul."

IN Christian culture The highest form of existence was recognized as that which led to the salvation of the soul and allowed one to get closer to God: prayer, rituals, reading the Holy Scriptures; during the Renaissance Traditions and higher authorities no longer put pressure on man; man longed for real power over nature and himself. Man was not only an object of admiration, the ban on the scientific study of the human body and psyche was lifted. Artists and doctors study the structure of the body, and writers, thinkers and poets study feelings and emotions. While engaged in creativity, artists entered the field of optics and physics through perspective, and through problems of proportions into anatomy and mathematics. Renaissance artists developed the principles and discovered the laws of direct and linear perspective. The combination of scientist and artist in one person, in one creative personality, became possible only in the Renaissance.